Subject Index

abducere comitem 1055

abigeatus 944

ablatio (theft) 939, 947

abortions, contracts concerning 714

Abschopfungskondiktion 890

abstract character of the condictio 835 sq.

abstraction (in general) 24,31,69 abstraction, doctrine of (agency) 57 sq., 421 abstraction, principle of (cession) 59, 65 sq.

abstraction, principle of (transfer of ownership) 239 sq., 271, 834, 841 sq., 867 acceptance in lieu of fulfilment—see datio in solutum acceptilatio 484, 685, 725, 755, 756 sq., 856, 954

accessio 887 accessoriness (conventional penalties) 100 accessoriness (fidciussio) 121 sqq.

accessoriness (sponsio, fidepromissio) 125 accessoriness (suretyship law in general) 121 sq., 142, 144 accessorius 122

accident age 1130 sq., 1140

accident compensation scheme 1141 accident, inevitable 912, 1006 accidentalia negotii 234,355,618 acquisition through third parties 34 sq. actio ad exemplum institoriae actionis 54 actio ad exhibendum 19 actio ad palinodiam 1072, 1073, 1090 actio aestimatoria 323 actio auctoritatis 274, 294 sq.

actio certae creditae pecuniae—see condictio

actio commodati 189 sq.

actio commodati contraria 200 sqq., 941

actio communi dividundo 355, 465 sq., 476 actio conducti 339, 341, 347, 385, 408, 532 actio de aestimato 535 sq.

actio dc deiectis vel effusis 16 sqq., 915, 1015, 1122, 1126, 1127, 1128. 1129, 1136, 1142 actio dc dolo/actio doli 124, 227 sq., 664, 666 sq., 671, 674, 695, 915, 928, 930, 987, 1037 actio dc in rem verso 52 sq., 56, 878 sqq., 887, 892

actio de iniuriis aestumandis—see edictum de iniuriis aestumandis

actio de modo agri 308

actio de pastu 1107 sqq.

actio de pauperie 1015, 1096 sqq., 1110 sqq., 1129, 1142

actio de pauperie, the right to bring the 1101

actio de peculio 9, 52, 178

actio de pecunia constituta 511 sq.

actio de posito vel suspenso 16 sqq.. 915, 1126, 1127 sq., 1142

actio de recepto 514 sqq.

actio de sepulchro violate 915

actio depensi 133

actio depositi 206 sq., 218, 941 actio deposit! contraria 206 actio (depositi) sequestaria 220 actio empti 242 sq., 271, 277, 296 sqq., 308 sqq., 319 sqq., 328 sqq., 532, 533, 593, 679, 690, 694, 733, 774, 775 sq., 935 actio

empti quanti minoris/redhibitoria 324 actio

empti utilis (datio in solutum) 753

1207

actm ex stipulatu 90, 316, 789

actio exercitoria 52 sq.

actio extraordinaria (mandate) 419

actio funeraria 448 sq.

actio furti 200, 915, 928, 929, 943 sqq., 987

actio furti concept! 940

actio furti manifesti 936 sqq.

actio furti non manifesti 931, 932 sqq.

actio furti oblati 940

actio furti prohibiti 94(1

actio furti, the right to bring the 200, 205 sq., 226, 515. 933 sqq.

actio furti/damni in fact inn ad versus nautas 517, 519

actio in factum (compromissum) 528

actio in factum (delict) 913, 915, 928

actio in factum (innominate real contracts) 533. 844

actio in factum (lease) 355

actio in factum (lex Aquilia) 977, 979 sq., 981 sqq., 985, 986, 987, 988, 991, 993 sq., 995 sqq., 1003, 1005, 1011. 1023, 1104, 1121 sq. actio in

factum (sale of res extra commcrrium) 243 actio in

factum ad redhibendum (pactum redhibendi) 739 actio in

factum civilis 533

actio in factum ex aequitate (bona fide gestor) 877

actio in personam 6 sq., 114. 834

actio iniuriarum 130 sq., 914, 915, 1014. 1016, 1050 sqq., 1061 sq.. 1078 sqq., 1085 sqq. actio iniuriarum acstirmtoria 1063 sqq., 1070 sq., 1073 sq.. 1089. 1090 sqq. actio iniuriarum ex lege Cornelia 1053 actio institoria 52 sq. actio institutona (SC Vellacanum) 150

actio legis Aquiliae 808, 915, 969 sqq., 1064, 1084 sq., 1088, 1099 sq., 1108, 1129

actio legis Aquiliae, the ri^Aht to bring the 994

actio locati 339, 341, 375, 385, 408, 517 sqq., 531 sq., 855, 919, 941, 1009, 1016, 1120 actio mandati 413 sq., 418. 420, 954, 958 actio mandati contraria 133 sq., 139, 414, 420, 424, 430 actio negotiorum gestorum 433, 439, 875, 877 sq.

actio negotiorum gestorum contraria 133 sq., 433, 434, 439, 442, 443 sqq., 445 sqq., 450,

875"sqq„ 880, 883, 885, 887 actio

negotiorum gestorum utilis 876 sq. actio

Octaviana 653 actio oneris aversi 402

actio operarum 387

actio personalis moritur cum persona 5 sq., 909, 1062

actio pigneraticia 221 sqq. actio pigneraticia contraria

227 sq.

actio praescripti verbis (sale with pactum dispheentiae) 740 actio praesenptis verbis (innominate real contracts) 533, 535 sq., 844, 858 actio praescriptis verbis (lease) 354

actio pro socio 454 sqq, 457, 460 sq.. 462 sqq., 468, 470 sq., 475 sq., 789 actio Publiciana 221

actio quanti minoris 318, 319, 320, 322 sqq., 325 sq., 329, 769 sq.

actio quod iussu 52

actio quod metus causa 654 sqq., 657, 661 sq., 915

actio recepticia 514

actio redhibitoria 296, 317 sq., 319,320, 322 sqq., 325 sq., 329, 330 sqq., 578, 739, 769 sq. actio rci uxonae 93 actio rerum amotarum 943 actio restitutona (SC Vellacanum) 150 actio servi corrupti 928 actio spolii 382 sq.

actio subsidiaria in factum Praetoria ad exemplum actionis legis Aquiliae 1023

actio utilis (agency) 53, 55 sq. actio utilis (cession) 62 sqq. actio utilis (contracts in favour of third parties) 3Y sqq. actio utilis (damage done by animals) 1101, 1113, 1114 actio utilis (lex Aquilia) 994 sqq., 1015 sqq., 1023 actio utilis (mandate) 425 actio utilis (negotiorum gestio) 437 actio utilis (suretyship) 124 actio utilis communi di vidundo 476 actio utilis de in rem verso 879 sqq., 887 actio venditi 271, 277, 734 sq„ 738, 822 actio vi bonorum raptorum 915,920 action for pain, suffering and disfigurement—see pain, suffering and disfigurement, compensation for

action on the case 777, 909 sq., 913, 1075

actiones ad rem persequendam 918 sqq., 941, 942 sq., 945. 947 sq., 1020, 1073 actiones adiccticiae qualitatis 52 sq. 468, 878 actiones arbitrariae 655, 664, 825, 941

actiones in factum (in general) 981 sq.; and see actio in factum (...) actiones bonae fidei— see indicia bonae fidei actiones mixtae 919 sqq., 970 sqq., 1020 actiones poenales 657, 699, 770, 909, 915 sqq., 932 sq., 936 sqq., 942 sq., 943 sqq., 973

sqq., 1019 sqq., 1061, 1064, 1070, 1071, 1073, 1088 sq.

actiones rescissoriae 656 actiones stneti iuris 140, 154. 510 sq., 660, 671, 689, 718, 733, 762 sqq., 766, 771, 783 sqq.,

796, 816, 825, 828, 835 sqq., 853, 897 actions and obligations 27 sqq. actions in factum (lex Aquilia) 1005, 1011, 1023 actions, law of 27 sq., 912 sq. actor sequitur forum rei 751 acts of God—sec vis maior actus contrarius 685, 755. 758 actus legitimi 718, 733, 742, 745 actus verus 649 ad hoc extensions (unjustified enrichment actions) 887 addictio 937 adequate causation 990 adprobatio operis 401 sq., 404 sqq. adpromissio 114 adsectan 1055, 1065 adstipulatio 39, 954, 957, 958 adtemptata pudicitia 1053, 1054 sqq. adtrectatio (theft) 929 adulterium 707 advantages, concomitant—sec commodum cius esse debet... advice, giving of 422, 1041 advocacy/advocates 390, 413, 415. 418, 420, 482, 483, 628 sqq., 713 sq., 1068 aediles 289, 311, 322, 1003, 1106 acquiias mercatoria 540 aestimatio corporis 970 sq., 1015 aestimatio vulneris 969, 972, 1015 aestimatum 535 sq. Africanae (bestiae) 1104, 1105 agency 41, 45 sqq., 421, 468 sqq., 752, 878 agency of necessity 449 agency, unauthorized 41, 44 ager vectigalis 358 agere cum compensatione (argentarius) 764 sq. agere cum deductione (bonorum emptor) 765 agere in fraudem legis—see fraus legi facta agreement—5cc consensus agrimensores 413 alea 186, 248 sq., 253, 541

alienation of leased property 378 sqq.

all-or-nothing approach 763, 766, 771, 832, 899 sq., 1010, 1030, 1047 sq., 1049 allocation of a performance to one out of several obligations 750

alteri stipulari nemo potest 34 sqq., 41 sqq., 45 sq., 55, 56 sq., 423, 741 alternative obligation 848; and see stipulatio alternativa

alterum non laedere 824, 1004, 1013, 1032, 1033, 1040 sq., 1086, 1111 altruism 155, 415, 438 sq., 477, 497

ambiguitas contra stipulatorem—see interpretatio contra stipulatorem amende honorable 1072 sqq., 1087, 1090 amende profitable 1073 sq., 1087

amicitia 115, 119, 131, 155, 156, 189 390, 415, 424, 428, 435 sq., 439, 446, 457 analogy 994; and see actiones in factum, actio utilis (...) anatocism 169

Anfechtbarkeit 615, 661, 663, 673 sq., 680 sq.

anger, violent (actio iniuriarum) 1068 sq. animal contests 1104 sq.

animals, attitude adopted towards 1096, 1097 sq., 1114, 1136

animals, harmless/dangerous species of 1137

animals, liability for damage done by 1095 sqq., 1136 sqq.

animus donandi 439, 479, 496, 502, 503

animus furandi—see animus lucri faciendi

animus in general 624 sq., 634

animus miuriandi 130 sq., 1059 sqq., 1067 sqq., 1079 sqq., 1084 sq.

animus lucri faciendi 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 950

animus negotia aliena gerendi 434, 440 sqq.

animus novandi 634 sq.

animus, ut obligatio constituatur (mutuum) 157

annona 406; and see cura annonae

annuity, purchase of 172 anthropomorphism (attitude towards animals) 1098 sq., 1116 antichresis 224

anticipatory breach of contract—see repudiation appellare 1055 appellatio/appeal 1127

apportionment of damages—see contributory negligence apprehension (theft) 924, 939

approval (contract for work)—see adprobatio opens

Aquilian liability—see liability, Aquilian arbiter—see arbitrator arbiter ex bono et aequo 530 arbitration—see compromissum arbitrator 514, 526 sqq.

argentarii 453, 468, 514, 764 sq.

arrha confirmatoria 230 sq.

arrha in general 230 sqq., 738, 855

arrha poenalis 232 sq.

arrha poenitentialis 233 sq.

arrha, argumentum emptionis et venditionis 233 arrha, Greek 231 sq.

artes liberales 388 sq., 391, 415 sq. artifex 335, 367 sq., 398, 752 artificial insemination, agreements relating to 714 as 214,956, 1052

asportation (theft) 923, 924, 927. 929, 946, 949 assault 910, 1084

assent by estoppel, doctrine of—see quasi-mutual assent, doctrine of assignment 58 sq.; and see cession

assumpsit, action of 12, 554, 571, 572, 777 sqq., 892 sq., 910 assumption of risk 1013 astreinte 775,779 atonement tariffs 914

atrophy of classical stipulation 71, 78 sqq., 528

attribution, theory of 692

auction sale 737

auctoritas 294 sq., 300

Auslobung 574 sq.

Authentica si qua mulier 151 sq.

authority (agency) 49, 52

average, general 407 sqq., 411 sq.

baggage brought on board of ships, liability for 518 bailment 204 sq., 523 sq.

ball games 1014

banking, commercial banks 119, 155, 173, 217 sq., 453, 514

baths, Roman 213 sq.

battery 910

baet-trecking 886

beneficium cedendarum actionum 132 sqq., 136 sq., 141, 142 sq., 144. 512 beneficium competentiae 454, 498

beneficium divisionis 131 sq., 136 sq., 137, 140, 142, 144 sq., 470, 512

beneficium excussionis vel ordinis 129 sqq., 142, 144 sq., 512 benefit and reliance 12

benefit, unrecompensed 504

bequests ad pias causas—see dispositions ad pias causas

Bewahrunyspfand 224

bills of exchange 173, 540, 559

bis de eadem re agere non licet 126, 920, 1071

blue-pencil approach 39, 78, 708

bodily integrity of a free man, delictual protection of 1014sqq., 1024 sqq., 1052 sq., 1084, 1101, 1106

bonae fidei gestor (negotiorum gestio and unjustified enrichment) 877 sq. bonae fidei possessor (negotiorum gestio and unjustified enrichment) 878 bonae fidei possessor (right to bring delictual actions) 936, 995 bond, penal 4, 96, 97, 99 boni mores 707 sqq., 711 sq., 845 sqq., 1054, 1055, 1059, 1060; see also transactions contra

bonos mores

bottohiry loan 181 sqq., 183, 186

breach of contract 328 sq., 579, 776 sq., 778, 780, 783 sqq.

breach of warranty 803 bribery of a judge 846 sq., 1057

building contracts 394, 404 buying commission 49 cable cases 1037

calendar, Roman 167

calix diatreta—see diatretion

cannibalism 411

capitis deminutio 456

carriage by air 522

carriage by land 522

carriage by sea 181 sqq., 406 sqq., 517

carrier, common—see common carrier

carrier, public—see public carrier

case, action on the—see action on the case

cash sale, principle of 237 sq., 275, 290, 307, 603, 841; and see sale, executed casuistic nature of Roman law 49, 75, 105, 340, 364, 561, 594 913 sq., 1008, 1121 casum sentit dominus 154, 162, 281, 283, 290, 292, 332, 370

casus a nullo praestantur 430 sq., 794, 1034

casus perplexus 721 sq.

481, 490, 495, 499

Cato (Maior) 185, 628 sq., 704 cattle—see pccus/quadrupcdes pccudcs cattle, sale of—see sale of cattle cattle trespass 1108, 1137 sq. caupo, caupona 516 causa Curiana 628 sqq. causa debendi 555, 835 sq. causa donandi causa in general 549 sqq., 555, 556 sqq., 858 868, 873 causa putativa (transfer of ownership) 867 causa retinendi, absence of 854 sq. causa stipulationis 92, 550 sqq. causa traditionis 240 causa, medieval doctrine of 506, 551 sqq. causation 832, 910, 976 sqq., 985, 988 sqq., 1008, 1012, 1028 sq. causation, concurrent 992 sq.

causation, scholastic doctrine of 551, 1013 cause (as requirement for the validity of a contract) 549, 553, 713 cause of action 912 cautio 61 sq., 90 cautio Muciana 723 cautio stipulat oria 79 cautio vadimonium sisti 103, 106 caveat emptor 303, 306 sqq., 311, 319, 321, 326, 593 censorial supervision of public morals 707 centesimae usurae 168 certa pecunia, certares 36, 89 sq., 99, 771, 783 sqq., 836, 856 certainty of price/of rent 253 sqq., 354 certam rem dare obligations 788, 790 certam rem reddere obligations 788, 825 cessante ratione legis cessat lex ipsa 521 cessio legis 144, 447 cession 58 sqq,, 64 sqq., 134 sqq., 141, 142 sq. chastisement 1016, 1058, 1060, 1068 chastity, protection of 1054 sqq., 1084 cheerful giver 477, 496 sq., 501 children in power, acquisitions made and obligations incurred by 51 sqq. chivalry 1062 sq.

choses in action 67 classicity of classical Roman Law 88 sq. clausula doli 663 clausula rebus sic stantibus 374, 579 sqq., 610, 817 clergy (actio iniuriarum) 1066, 1067, 1071 clientship 350 sq.

coactus volui, tamen volui 652 sq., 660 codex accepti et expensi 32 sq., 836 coprcion—vpp mptns

cognitio extra ordinem 54, 416, 418, 681, 772, 807, 944, 996 cognitor in rem suam 60 sqq.

colonia partiaria 354 sq. colonus 351, 352 sq., 354 sq. commendatio 215 commission for sale 49 committere T3I commodatum 188 sqq., 480, 923, 934, 995 commodatum and donation 481, 488 sq.; and see gratis habitare commodatum and mutuum 188 sqq. commodum eius esse debet, cuius periculum est 201, 288, 290 sq. common carrier 523 sq.

common employment, doctrine of 1124, 1136 communio 212, 465 sq.

community of collective hand 471 sq. compensate 7, 287, 360, 460, 760 sqq. compensatio culpae 1012, 1030, 1047 sq. compensatio doli 670 compensatio lucri cum damno 827 compensation for pain, suffering and disfigurement—see pain, suffering and disfigurement, compensation for

complex liabilities—see concurrence of delictual and contractual liability complicity 916, 926, 930 sq., 938, 973, 1020 composition 3, 295, 777, 914, 916, 1051 compositor, amicabilis 529 sq. compromissum 96, 98 sq., 534, 526 sqq. compromissum sine poena 527 sq. compulsory portion—see forced heirship compurgatkm 779 conceptual thinking 9, 24 sq., 340, 561 sq.

concurrence of actions 920 sq., 942 sq., 970, 1053, 1064, 1071, 1073 sq., 1107 concurrence of dclictua! and contractual liability 202 sq., 674, 904 sqq., 1028; and see contract and delict concurrence

of fault 1030, 1048 concurrence, cumulative/elective (genuine conventional penalties) 100 sqq. concursus causarum 298, 299, 759 condemnatio pecuniaria 3, 35 sq., 90, 96, 97, 378, 380, 762, 767, 771 sqq., 777, 780, 825

sq., 919 condicere 835 condicio casualis/potestativa 722, 739, 744 condicio iuris 719 condicio mixta 722,730, 739, 744 condicio pendet—see pendency, state of condicio resolutiva 717 sq., 731 sqq., 736, 738, 740, 744, 802, 803 condicio suspensiva 717 sq., 718 sqq., 732, 736, 738, 740, 744 condicio tacita 385, 719; and see condition, tacit/implied condictio 16, 20 sq., 89, 153, 155,218 221,347,511, 512,689,749,807, 834 sqq., 838 sqq.,

857 sqq., 881, 885 sq., 897, 899, 941 sq. condictio causa data causa non secuta 533, 578, 838, 843 sq., 845, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857

sqq., 862, 864, 887, 888 condictio certae pecuniae, certae rei 36, 89 sq., 784, 836 condictio certi generalis 877 condictio ex canone 543 condictio ex causa furtiva 836, 838 sq., 839 sqq., 853, 854, 855, 856, 919, 941 sq., 943, 947

sq., 951 sq. condictio ex iniusta causa 840, 845 sq. condictio ex lege 410, 543, 838 condictio ex paenitentia—see ins poenitendi condictio incerti sine causa 856 condictio indebiti 123, 176, 484, 690, 724, 742 sq., 834 sq., 838 sq., 842, 848 sqq., 853, 854,

855, 862, 863, 866 sqq., 884, 887, 888 condictio liberationis 856 condictio ob causam finitam 855 sq., 873, 888 condictio ob rem—see condictio causa data causa non secuta condictio ob transactionem 843 condictio ob turpem causam—see condictio ob turpem vel iniustam causam condictio ob turpem vel iniustam causam 838, 844 sqq., 856, 862 sq., 887, 888 condictio possessionis 840 condictio pretii 898 sq. condictio ratione cessationis causae 858 sqq.

condictio sine causa 838, 840, 842, 855, 856 sq., 871 sqq., 877, 883, 884, 887, 888, 890, 900 condictio sine causa generalis 857, 871 sqq. condictio sine causa specialis 856 sq., 871 sq., 886 condictio triticaria 788 conditio sine qua non 832, 988 sq., 992 condition prevented from materializing 729 sqq., 746

condition, breach of (English law) 306 condition, implied (English law) 306, 580 condition, precedent/subsequent 744; and sec condicio suspensiva/rcsolutiva condition, satisfaction of 726 sqq., 746 sq.

condition, tacit/imp]ied 580, 612, 618. 620. 803, 815 sqq.; and see condicio tacita condition, undeveloped 581

conditions (in generi) 91, 122, 186 sq., 236,246, 284, 453, 708, 709 sq., 716 sqq., 742 sq., 743 sqq., 803 sqq., 848, 989

conditions, positive/negative 722 sq. conducere 338 sq., 384 conductio nummo uno 354 conductio rei suae 353 confusio 124, 759 consensual contract—see contract, consensual consensus 538, 559 sqq., 563 sqq., 567 sqq., 583 sqq., 599, 627 sq. consensus fictivus 23, 434 consent (defence) 1003 sq., 1013 consequential loss 310, 335, 790, 827, 831 sq.

consideration, doctrine of 13, 45, 48, 504 sqq., 534, 554 sqq,, 556 sq., 560, 571 consignation 821 consortium 452 sq., 454, 458 conspiracy 910 constantia 69, 653, 660

Constantine, influence of Christianity on 491 Constantinian donation 491 constitutio Antoniniana 79, 606 constitutum debiti 511 sqq. constitutum debiti alieni 141,511, 512 constitutum debiti proprii 511, 512 sq. constitutum possessorium 116consumer protection 86, 269 sq., 579, 641, 715 consumptio 871 sq. consumptio nummorum 840, 842 contemplation doctrine 830 sq. contingent condition—see condicio suspensiva contingent fee—see pactum de quota litis contra bonos mores—see transactions contra bonos mores contra naturam (sui generis) test 1102 sqq., 1111, 1113 sqq., 1137 contra proferentem rule—see interpretatio contra proferentem contract and delict 11 sqq., 202 sq., 206 sq., 244 sq., 674, 777, 837, 902 sqq., 1024, 1126;

and see concurrence of delictual and contractual liability contract for work—see locatio conductio operis contract in favour of a third party 34 sqq., 41 sqq., 46, 97 contract of employment 338 sq., 384 sqq. contract re—see contract, real contract re et verbis 154 sqq., 548 contract uberrimae fidei 473 contract with a protective ambit in favour of third parties 1041 contract, bilateral 338, 414 contract, bonae fidei/stricti iuris—see indicia bonae fidei/actiones stricti iuris contract, breach of—see breach of contract contract, concept of (English law) 776 SCJ. contract, censensual 32, 230 sqq., 338 sqq., 413 sqq., 451 sqq., 508, 546 sqq., 548, 589

sqq., 627, 647, 674, 755 sq., 757, 789 contract, erpress and implied 23 sq. contract, formation of 546 sqq. contract, freedom of— see freedom of contract contract, illegal—see illegality contract, immoral—see transactions contra bonos mores contract, imperfectly bilateral 200 sq., 206, 414, 801

contract, implied 837, 893, 1126

contract, impossible of performance—see impossibiKum nulla obligatio/impossibility contract, innominate real 419, 532 sqq., 549 sq., 578. 667, 814, 858, 860 contract, interpretation of-—see interpretation of contracts in general contract, invalid—see invalidity contract, origin of 4 sqq., 777 sqq.

contract, real 32, 153 sqq., 163 sqq., 188 sqq., 205 sqq., 220 sqq., 341, 534, 537, 689. 758, 836 sq.

contract, termination of—see termination of obligations contract, unilateral 573

contract, unilaterally binding 91, 141, 154. 165, 610 contract, verbal 32, 68 sqq., 546 sqq., 685, 755 sqq., 809; and see stipulation contract law, dynamic nature of 716 sq. contractor, independent—see locatio conductio opens contracts, classification of—see system of contractual obligations contractus 562 contractus litteris 32 sq., 547, 550, 836 contractus mohatrae 161 sqq., 171 contrahere 562

contrarius actus—see actus contrarius contrarius consensus 758 contrectatio (theft) 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 939, 946, 947, 949 sq. contribution, doctrine of (English law) 143 contributory negligence 1010 sqq., 1030, 1047 sqq., 1117 contumelia/contumely iniura 1052, 1053, 1059, 1064, 1066 sq., 1076, 1082, 1084, 1086 convalescence 682 sq. convenant vainc loi 540 convenientia/convenances 541 con venire 563

conventio 538, 541, 563, 565 sqq. conventio pignoris 221, 224 conventional penalties 38, 95 sqq., 185 (fenus nauticum), 233 (earnest), 526 (compromis

sum), 528, 686

Conventional Penalties Act (South Africa) 109 sq. conventional penalties, drafting of 103 sq. conventional penalties, excessive 106 sqq. conventional penalties, genuine/non- genuine (accessory/independent) 98 sq., 100 sqq.,

104 conventional penalties, range of application 103 sq. conventions, social 130, 155 conversion (law of contract) 683 sqq. conversion (law of torts) 910 convicium 1053 sq., 1065 coronation cases 817 correality 128 sq.

correspondence, principle of formal—see actus contrarius corrumpere 984 sqq., 1005 covenant, action of (English law) 778 crime—see delict and crime crimen expilatae heredicatis 944 crimtn iniuriae 1070, 1083, 1084 criminal proceedings 902, 909, 917 sq., 928, 944. 1053, 1071, 1076, 1087, 1089 culpa 17, 19 sq., 192 sq., 1Y5, 199, 211 sq., 281, 292, 333, 361 sq., 366 sqq., 375 sq., 377,

385 sq., 400, 426 sqq., 463 sq., 467. 524 sqq., 613, 695. 785 sqq., 791 sqq., 808 sq., 898, 1004 sqq., 1010 sqq., 1027 sqq., 1044 sq., 1122, 1129 culpa imputativa 19, 1129 culpa in concreto/in abstracto

210 sq.

culpa in contrahendo 11 sq., 244 sq., 249, 328, 602 sq., 613 sq., 619, 695, 903, 1024 culpa in eligendo 17,362,377,456,905, 1119, 1120, 1121, 1125 culpa in omittendo 1029 sq. culpa lata 202, 203, 209 sq., 428 sq., 447, 463. 607 culpa levissima 192, 429, 447, 524. 1028, 1029. 1030

culpa maior doctrine 1030,1048

culpa praecedens 808

cura annonae 256; and see annona

cura furiosi 437 sq.. 443

cura ludorum 1106

сига morum, censorial 707

custodia liability 193 sqq.. 203. 208. 226. 287. 289. 292. 346. 376. 398 sq.. 464 sq.. 515 sqq., 933 sqq, 995, 1101, 1121

custodiam praestare 194, 346, 398; and see custodia liability custodian, liability of 1134, 1141 sq.

cfenages 108 aq., 243 aq., 295, 300, 306, 824 aqq., 964, 970 aqq.,986, 1075, 1084 aq., 1086, IDO, 1111

damages, ascssmem of (lex Aquilia) 956, 961 sqq., 1019 damages, exemplary 909, 1094 damages, immaterial—see interest, immaterial damages, intrinsic/extrinsic 832 sq.

damages, recovery of (breach of contract) 776 sqq., 802 damages, recovery of (contract for work)—sec liability of the contractor damages, recovery of (depositum) 206; and see liability of the depositor/of the depository damages, recovery of (in cases of fraud) 673, 674 damages, recovery of (in cases of metus) 662 damages, recovery of (in cases of mora creditoris) 808, 822 damages, recovery of (in cases of mora debitoris) 791, 799 sq., 802, 804 damages, recovery of (lease)—sec liability of the lessor/of the lessee damages, recovery of (loan for use) 202 sq.; and see liability of the lender/of the borrower damages, recovery of (mandatum) 430, 431 sq.; and see liability of the mandator/of the mandatarius damages, recovery of (negotiorum gestio) 433, 444; and sec liability of the gestor/of the

principal damages, recovery or (partnership) 461 sqq.; and see liability of one partner against the

others/of socii towards third parties

damages, recovery of (pledge) 227 sq.; and see liability of the pledgee damages, recovery of (reliance on validity of contract) 602, 613 sq., 614 sq., 643 sq., 694

sq.

damages, recovery of (sale)—sec liability of the vendor

damages, sentimental—iff interest, immaterial damages, special/general 833 damnum 986, 1097 damnum emergens, lucrum cessans 172, 826 sq., 832 sq., 942, 972 damnum iniuria datum—see liability, Aquilian damnum intrinsecum/extrinsccum 832 sq. dare 6, 941 dare facere praestare oportere 6 sq., 748 dare obligations 749, 773, 774 sqq., 786, 810 datio 153, 156 sq., 775, 837, 843, 872 datio in exsolutione 39 datio in solutum 224, 753

sq. datio ob causam 842 sq.

datio ob rem 842 sq., 844 sqq., 854, 857 sq., 859, 861 sq. datio ob transactionem 843 datio ob turpem causam 845 sqq., 862 Daucrdelikt 932 death of contract 12 sq., 903 death of tort (delict) 903 sq.

debitor speciei liberator casuali interitu rei 809, 810 debt sur contract, action of (English law) 779; and see writ of debt deceit 910

decipere 243 declaratio honoris 1072 s q., 1090

declaration of intention 560 sq., 569, 583 sq. 598, 601, 613. 621 sq., 624 sq., 626, 636 sq. declaration theory 561, 585 sqq., 603, 615, 645 deductio ex mercede 371

"de facto" contracts 22

defamation 1054, 1056 sq., 1064 sqq., 1070, 1072, 1074 sqq., 1078 sqq., 1082, 1084 sq., 1087

default—see mora debit oris/credit oris defect of title (lease) 362 sq. defect of title (sale)—see liability for eviction defects, liability for latent—see liability for latent defects defences (to actio iniuriarum/defamation action) 1068 sq., 1078 sqq., 1081 definitions in Roman law 666, 925 sqq., 978 degustatio 285 sq.

deicctum vel effusum—see actio de deiectis vel effusis delay of acceptance of performance—see mora creditoris delay of performance—see mora debitoris delegatio obligandi 60, 149 delegatio solvendi 39, 159 sq. delict 1 sqq., 10 sqq., 295, 450, 674, 902 sqq. delict and contract—see contract and delict delict and crime 902, 909, 913, 917 sq., 920, 943 sqq. delict and tort 907 sq. denegatio actionis 699, 762 dentist, services of 395 denuntiatio 63, 64, 66, 225 denuntiatio litis 303 denuntiatio evangelica 543 depasturization 1107 sqq. dependants, acting through 51 sqq. dependants, delictual action of deceased's 1025 sq. dependere 133 deposit banking 173, 217, 219 deposit of immovables 214 sq. deposit of money 215 sqq. deposit, necessary— see depositum miserable depositum 40, 205 sqq., 427 sq., 788, 923, 924, 934 sq. depositum and mutuum 216 sq. depobitum Irregulare 173, 215 sqq. depositum miserabile 207 sq. depositum, gratuitous nature 205, 213 sq.

depositum, liability of depositor/depositary—see liability of the despositor/of the depositary deprecatio Christiana 1072 sq. detentio 190, 192, 203, 205, 378, III determination of purchase price at a later stage 254 sq. diatretion 983 sq., 1009 dicta in mancipio/in venditione 295, 308, 309 sq.

dicta promissave 315 sq., 319, 329 sq. dies 105, 724, 741 sqq., 798 dies a quo 741 sq. dies ad quern 741 sq. dies certus/inccrtus quando 741 dies interpellat pro homine 798, 805 Differcnztheorie 824. 833 difficultas in praestando 688, 794 sq.

difficultas non tollit obligationem, sed excusat a mora 795 dignitas 1064. 1082, 1084 dignity 1064, 1067, 1076, 1082, 1084, 1086 sq., 1093 diligens paterfamilias 210 sq., 427, 1008 sq. diligentia 192, 376 diligentia quam in suis 210 sq., 463, 467 diligentissimus paterfamilias І92 sq., 376, 400 disappointed beneficiary, action of 87, 1037, 1041 discrepancy between will and word 84; and see words v. intent disfigurement, compensation for 1027 disposition over the rights of others 51 dispositions as pias causas 493 sq.

dispositions mortis causa 478, 493 sq., 500, 597, 598, 708 sq., 720 sq., 723, 728, 731, 744;

and see testament,... dispossession manu militari 773 dissensus 588, 589 sq., 592, 600, 609, 613 dissimulatio (actio miuriarum) 1071 distress damage feasant 1109 divisio obligationum 10 sqq. divorce clauses, testamentary 711, 720 do ut des 534 sq. do ut facias 534 sq. documents, defacing of 924, 928 documents, theft of 932 sq. documents, use of 151, 492, 500, 547, 551 documents, use of (stipulation) 79 sqq., 85, 93, 547 dogs 976, 1095, 1101, 1106, 1109 dol principal, dol incident 673 dolo facil, qui petit quod redditurus est 668, 724 dolus 19 sq., 198, 205, 209 sqq., 226, 228 sq., 257 sq., 280, 295, 296, 309, 316, 426 sqq.,

446 sq., 462, 661, 662 sqq., 695, 791. 820, 832 sq., 1005 sq., 1027, 1052 sq., 1061, 1079 sq., 1127 dolus

bonus 669

dolus causam dans/dolus incidens 670 sqq. dolus in concrahendo 228, 244 sq., 667 sq. dolus malus 664 sqq., 668 sq., 792, 927; and see dolus dominium utile 359 dommage moral 1027, 1094 domus 345 domus venerabiles 493 don manuel 501 donatio 90, 149 (SC Vellacanum), 191 (gratis habitare), 477 sqq., 526, 734, 842, 851 donatio and commodatum 481, 488 sq.; and see gratis habitare donatio divortii causa 488

donatio inter virum and uxorem—see donation between husband and wife, prohibition of donatio mortis causa 478, 488, 710 donatio remuneratoria—see gift, remuncratory donatio sepulturae causa 486 donatio sub modo 39 sq., 478, 862 donation between husband and wife, prohibition of 485 sqq., 503, 647, 683, 896 sq. donation, disguised 489, 501, 646 sqq., 710 donation, executory contract of 495 donation, revocation of 497 sq., 501, 503 Doppetwirkungen im Recht 681 sq.

double effects in the law—see Doppelwirkungen ini Recht double stipulations (conventional penalties) 100 sqq. drafting of legal documents, style of 623 sq., 703, 704, 953 due date, postponement of 742 due date, relevance of 751 duel 1063, 1072, 1085 sq., 1091 sq. duress—see metus duress, economic 659 sq., 662 duty 5, 909, 1033 sq., 1045 duty of care (creditor towards surety) 140, 141 duty of care (tort) 911, 999, 1038, 1039, 1043, 1095

earnest 230 sqq. ecclesia vivit lege Romans 55 edictum de fens 1015, 1106 sq., 1109 sq.

edictum de iniuriis aestumandis 1052, 1053 edictum de pretiis rerum venalium 260 sq.

edictum generale (actio iniuriarum) 1053, 1059

editio actionis 836 effective form 82 sqq.

Eingriffskondikdon—see enrichment in any other way

electio 692

electricity supply, liability for interruption of 1037 elephants 1096

embezzlement 840, 922, 924, 946, 947, 951 emergency, help in cases of 436 sq., 438, 443, 449 sq. emergency, sacrifice in cases of 406 sqq., 409 sqq. emoluments, accruing—see commodum eius esse debet... emphyteusis 358 sq.

emptio annuorum redituum 172

emptio per aversionem 286 emptio rei speratae 245 sq.

emptio rei suae 241, 759 emptio spei 246 sqq.

emptio tollit locatum 378 sqq.

emptio venditio 230 sqq., 271 sqq., 293 sqq.; and see actio empti, actio venditi emptio venditio and datio in solutum 753 sq.

emptio venditio and locatio conductio 234 sqq., 276 sq., 342, 358, 396, 531 sq. endoplorare 938

enrichment action, general—see general enrichment action enrichment based on encroachment 840, 872, 890, 895 enrichment by transfer 841 sqq., 856, 863, 889, 895 enrichment claims, equitable nature of 835, 852 sq., 900; and see enrichment principle

(Pomponius)

enrichment claims, exclusion on account of knowledge 147, 850, 870 sq. enrichment in any other way 883, 889, 890 enrichment liability, measure of 878, 888, 895 sqq.

enrichment principle (Pomponius) 852 sqq. 873, 876, 877, 879, 884, 888, 892, 900 enrichment, erasable 895 sqq.

enrichment, unjustified 14, 20 sq., 176 sq., 834 sqq., 951 epilepsy—see morbus comitialis episcopalis audienlia 527 equality in exchange 258 sq., 259 sqq., 264 sqq., 268 sqq., 305, 354, 577, 682, 715 erctum non citum 451 sq., 458 Erfiitlungsverweigerung—see repudiation errantis voluntas nulla est 590, 610 error 564 sq., 583 sqq., 849 sqq., 868 sqq., 1068 error circa accessoria 610

error in corpore/objecto 589 sq., 593, 597, 610, 615, 616

error in motive 582, 597, 610, 614, 617 error in negotio

591 sq., 610, 615, 616 error in nomine 597 sq., 600

error in persona 592, 603, 610, 611 sq., 614, 615, 616, 1068

error in pretio 590 sq., 610, 615

error in substantia 592 sqq., 600, 603, 610, 615 sqq. error iuris 604 sqq.. 608 sq., 850 sq., 868 sqq. error iustus—see lustus error error relating to quality 593 sqq., 610, 617 error vincibilis/invincibilis 606 sqq., 869 sq. erus/dominus 959. 994 escape, requirement of 1139

essentialia negotii 234, 384 sq., 474, 618 estoppel 586, 620 estoppel by representation 601 sq. evasion of the law 704 eviction—see liability for eviction evincere, evictio 294 ex meo tuum facere 153. 158 sqq. ex nudo pacto non oritur actio 506, 508 sqq.. 536, 537 sqq.. 547, 549, 552, 555 ex nudo pacto oritur actio 42, 90, 513, 539 sqq., 546 sqq., 549 sqq., 559, 566. 691, 802, 860, 866, 872 exceptio (in general) 91, 106, 123 sq., 179 sq-, 508 sqq. 512, 550, 674, 680 sq., 700, 748,

763, 848 exceptio doli 62, 93 sq., 102, 112 sq., 138 sq., 157, 229, 509, 550 sq., 586, 600, 663 sq., 667

sq 671, 673, 674 sqq., 710 sq., 733, 742, 753, 763 sq., 820, 822, 856 exceptio doli generalis/spccialis 668, 677 exceptio evictionis imminentis 300 exceptio Labeoniana (rcceptum-liability) 515 sq. exceptio legis Cinciae 483, 484, 699 exceptio mercis non traditae 93 exceptio metus 657 sq. exceptio non adimpleti contractus 801 sq., 811 exceptio non numeratae pecuniae 93 sq. exceptio pacti 157, 508 sq., 527, 668, 685, 733, 742, 758 exceptio senatus consulti Vellaeam 150 sq., 700 exceptio senatus consulti Macedoniam 177, 179 sq., 683, 700, 705 exceptio veluti pacti ex compromisso 527 exchange transactions 342; and see exchange, contract of exchange, contract of 250 sqq., 532 sqq., 843 excusatio morae 794 sq. excuse 910, 1081 excutere 130 executed sale—see sale, executed execution 2 sq., 59, 126 sq., 133 exemption clauses 642 sq., 712, 815 exiguitas fructuum 372 existimatio 1062, 1082 expense, at the plaintiffs (unjustified enrichment) 887, 888, 889 sq., 894 expenses, reimbursement of (depositum) 206 expenses, reimbursement of (loan for use) 201 expenses, reimbursement of (mandatum) 414 expenses, reimbursement of (in cases of mora creditons) 821 sq. expenses, reimbursement of (negotiorum gestio) 433, 875 sq. expenses, reimbursement of (partnership) 460, 461 expenses, reimbursement of (pledge) 227 expenses, reimbursement of (sale) 277 sq.. 290 expensilatio 836 expropriation, risk of (sale) 288 sq.

facere obligation 37, 99. 101, 278, 773, 774 sqq., 780, 786, 810 sq. facere stipulation 89, 96

facio ut des 419, 534 sq., 667

facio ut facias 534 sq.

factum debitoris and culpa 786 sq.

fair comment (defamation) 1078,1081

fairness of price (sale)—see pretium iustum

fairness of rent (lease) 344

falsa demonstratio non nocet 598

false imprisonment 910

familia 2

family law 2, 30, 452 fault 17, 19 sq., 195, 333, 361 sq„ 365 sqq., 375 sq„ 385, 386. 427, 431 sq.. 695, 786 sq„

808, 814, 818. 819, 822, 859, 898. 905, 911 sqq., 990, 1004 sqq., 1010 sqq.. 1028 sq., 1033 sqq., 1048, 1081, 1086, 1093, 1100, 1108. 1110, 1116 sq.. 1119. 1122, 1129, 1132, 1140 sq.; and see negligence, cuipa, dolus fault (forfeiture of conventional penalties) 105 sq. fault as a requirement for mora 791 sqq., 795 sqq. fautc 998, 1007, 1036 favor libertatis 729 favor testamenti 709, 720, 728 fenerator 155 fenus nauticum 181 sqq., 538 fictions 64. 81. 135, 159 sqq., 163, 169, 191, 238, 300, 316, 331 sqq., 434, 499, 613. 656,

730 sq., 746, 753 sq., 756, 784 sq., 787, 800, 816, 8Y3, 898, 982, 1122, 1126 fideicommissum indebitum per errorem solutum 850 fideiussio 114, 120 sqq., 127, 129 sqq., 133 sqq, 136 sq.. 142, 144, 428 fideiussio fideiussoris 137 fideiussio indemnitatis—see promissio indemnitatis fidem emptoris sequi 273 sqq. fidem frangenti fides frangitur 579, 801 fidem praestare 850 fidepromissio 114, 118, 120, 125, 133, 296 fides (in general) 544 fides (Romana) 68, 69 sq., 115, 350, 415, 424, 428, 435, 439, 577, 669 fides (Teutonica) 541 sq. fiducia 50, 116, 190 filth, flow of 1138 fire, danger of 347 sq., 1002, 1138 forced heirship 478, 500 foreseeability (damages in contract) 829 foreseeability (delictual liability) 989 sq., 1008 forfeiture clause 738 forfeiture of conventional penalties 104 sqq., 110, 729 forfeiture of pledged property 223 form 69 sqq., 82 sqq., 87 sqq., 163 sq., 358, 492 sq., 499 sqq., 542,604, 622 sq., 629. 698,

755 formalism 48, 70, 72 sqq., 82 sqq., 87, 587, 598 sq., 622 sq., 627, 647, 703 formula inccrta, actions with 788 sqq. ₄

formulary system 99, 982 foundations 493 four (number) 14 sq. frangere 966, 983 sq., 985, 991, 1005 fraud (crime) 922, 924, 929, 947 fraud/fraudulent behaviour—see dolus fraus legi facta 648 sq., 702 sqq. free habitation, granting of—see gratis habitare freedom of contract 107, 166, 175, 255 sq., 258 sq., 264 sq. 268 sqq., 306 sq., 343 sq., 346

sq., 348 sqq., 374, 391 sq., 457 sqq., 577, 579, 584, 641, 693, 706 sq., 712 sq. freemen, delictual protection of bodily integrity of 1014 sqq., 1024 sqq., 1052 sq., 1084, 1101, 1106 freemen, sale of—see sale of a liber homo friendship—see amicitia ffui 351 frustration of contract 580, 582, 817 fundus patrimonialis 358 funeral expenses, recovery of 1025 fungibles 154, 188, 827 fur semper in mora 793, 942, 951 funosus, delictual liability of 1008, 1113 furtum 194, 196, 201, 216, 287, 839 sq., 921, 922 sqq., 985; and see theft

furtum balnearmm 944

furtum magnum 945

furtum manifestum 936 sqq., 942, 945 sq.

furtum nee manifestum 295, 932 sqq., 936, 942 sq., 945 sq.

furtum pignoris 923 sq., 934

furtum possessionis 923 sq., 947, 951

furtum usus 196, 205, 209, 840, 923, 947, 950, 952

furtum vel damnum in navi aut caupone aut stabulo 16 sqq., 1122, 1126, 1128, 1136 gambling 186, 247 sq., 253, 541

gaming and betting 8

gardien, liability of—see liability of the gardien

general clause, delict 906, 1024, 1032 sqq., 1035 sq.

general enrichment action 872 sq., 882, 884, 885 sqq., 887 sqq., 891, 893 sqq., 948 general part (BGB) 31, 569

generic goods, sale of 236 sqq., 284, 696

generic sale—see generic goods, sale of

genus perire non potest 811

Gertifte 938

Gesamthandsgemeinschaft 471 sq.

gift, executed 477, 480 sq., 492, 501, 502

gifts pro animae remedio 494

gifts, rcmuneratory 490, 497, 502 sq.

giro account 219

golden rule 624

good faith, principle of 87, 622, 637, 667 sq., 669 sq., 674 sq., 835; and see indicia bonae fidei

gratis habitare 191, 215, 488 sq. gratuity—see transactions, gratuitous group ownership 472 guarantee, implied 365 sqq., 696 sq., 814 sq.

habere Ijcere 97, 242, 278, 279, 294, 300, 749

habitatio gratuita—see gratis habitare

habitus matronalis 1055 sq.

Haverei—see average, general

haves and have-nots 348 sq.

Hellenistic influences on Roman law 79, 85, 183, 217 sq., 231 sq., 275, 407 sqq., 514, 631, 704, 1053. 1099

highway cases 912 hire

of gladiators 236 hire-

purchase 530 sqq.

honorarium 390, 415 sq.. 418, 419, 420, 483

honour 1057, 1062 sqq., 1082, 1084, 1086 sq., 1088. 1090 sq., 1093 sq.

horreum 346, 352, 399

human help, theory of (negotiorum gesrio) 438 sq. humanitas 156, 261, 436, 496, 1119 Humber ferryman, case of the 778 huur gaat voor koop 381 sq.

hypothetical will 77 id quod actum est 633 sq., 636, 638, 640, 642, 644, 647, 685 sq., 740 id quod interest—see quod interest

idem debitum (novatio) 60, 634 sq.

idem debitum (suretyship) 125 sqq.

ignorantia excusabilis/inexcusabilis 366 sq., 851

ignorantia vincibilis/invincibilis 869 sq.

illatio (theft) 939

illegality 697 sqq., 720 sq., 863 sqq. immorality—see transactions contra bonos mores impensae—see expenses, reimbursement of

imperitia culpac adnumeratur 335, 386 sqq., 397 sq., 404, 464 sq., 1009, 1028, 1126 sq. imperitia liability—see imperitia culpae adnumeratur impossibility doctrine of F. Mommsen 809 sq.

impossiblity, economic 581

impossibility in general 687 sqq., 692 sq. 719 sq., 809 sqq.. 859 sq., 897 sq. impossibility, initial—see impossibilium nulla obligatio impossibility, partial 812 sq.

impossibility, supervening 759 sq., 783 sqq., 792, 794 sq., 808 sqq., 815, 860 impossibilium nulla obligatio 194, 240 sq., 686 sqq., 719, 809, 898 impotentia 693 impounding of animals 1109

impubes infantia maior, delictual liability 1008 imputation 1034 in boms esse 221

in diem addictio 735 sqq., 744

in integrum restitutio (dolus) 664

in integrum restitutio (in general) 680 sq. in integrum restitutio (metus) 656 sq.

in pari turpitudine rule 176 sq., 846 sq., 863 sqq., 888 incertum 36, 90, 96, 99, 771, 790, 799, 807, 826, 856 incestuous marriage 847 indebitatus assumpsit 22 sq., 892 sq.

indebitum solutum 15, 769, 834 sq., 837 sq., 848, 850, 854, 855. 856, 868 indemnity, contract of 142 indirect iniuria 1058, 1064

individualism 435 sq., 448, 636, 911, 1034 sq., 1044 infamandi causa quid facerc 1053, 1056 sq.

infamia 131. 207, 209, 424, 428, 46*), 654, 655. 659, 664, 707, 933,943, 1054, 1062, 1070, 1091

infitiando lis crescit in duplum 308, 974, 994, 1019, 1020, 1108 inflation 260, 772, 956

iniuria 711, 915, 921, 976, 985, 987, 998 sqq., 1050 sqq., 1075, 1081 sqq. iniuria atrox 1062, 1070, 1073, 1093 iniuria litteris 1064, 1065 sq., 1081 iniuria realis 1064, 1065 sq. iniuria verbalis 1064, 1065, 1081 innominate real contract—see contracts, innominate real insinuatio—see registration insolvency 456, 475, 765, 774, 795, 874, 935 inspector, liability of—see liability of an inspector instalment sales 86, 531, 738 institor 52 Institutes, Institutional writing 29 insula 345 sq., 348 insurance 13, 181 sq., 197, 515, 523 sq., 904, 1132 intention—see animus/dolus

intention to create legal relations 559 sq., 571 sq. intercedere 145, 147, 148 sqq. intercsse circa rem/extra rein 830 interesse commune/convcntum/singulare 833 interesse/interest 35 sqq., 41, 139, 423 sq., 808, 826 sqq., 833 sq., 933, 934, 935 sq., 961 sq., 964, 968, 1015, 1019

interest charged for sea loans (fenus nauticum) 182 sq. interest on account of mora 791, 797, 799 interest on interest 169

interest rates, history of 166 sqq., 175, 698 interest, immaterial 97, 828, 905, 972, 1026 sq., 1062, 1084 sq., 1091 sq., 1093 sq.

interest, negative/positive 243 sq., 298 sq., 3(15, 361, 363, 614, 691, 694 sq. interest, occupational 277 sq.

interest, prohibition on the charging of 163, 170 sqq. 174 sq. interest, stipulation for 154 sq., 163 intermeddler, altruistic/officious 435 sc]., 448 sq.

interpellario {lex commissioria) 738 interpellatio (mora debitoris) 791 sqq., 795 sqq., 805 sq., 942 interpretatio contra creditorem 641

interpretatio contra proferentem 634. 638, 639 sqq., 728, 736 interpretatio contra stipulatorem 104, 639 sq., 728, 736 interpretatio in favorem libertatis—see favor libertatis interpretation (lex Aquilia) 965, 969, 971, 975 sqq., 991 sq., 1004 sqq. interpretation and conversion 684 interpretation of ancient legal acts 622 sq.

interpretation of conditions 728 sqq., 736 sq., 746 interpretation of contracts in general 621 sqq., 697, 701, 704 sq., 718, 730, 815 sq. interpretation of statutes 146, 148 sqq., 179 sqq., 624, 632, 703 sqq. 706 interpretation of stipulations 39, 84. 92, 110 sq., 119, 510 sq.

interpretation, rules of 637 sqq. interpretation, teleological—set' teleological interpretation interest, agreed upon by way of pactuni 182, 187, 218, 538 intervention, doctrine of necessitous 449 intimidation, tort of 908 intransmissibility of actions

active 61, 424 sq., 916, 1061, 1070

passive 5 sq., 61, 120, 424 sq., 915 sq., 973, 1020 sqq., 1061, 1070 invalidity 7, 87, 124 sq., 242 sq., 488 sq., 492, 500, 550, 609, 611, 614 sq., 660 sq., 662,

670 sqq., 678 sqq., 710 sq., 864 invalidity, partial 39, 74 sq., 75 sqq.. 169, 489 sq., 591. 674, 683, 708. 719 sq. invalidity, relative 615, 661, 672, 679, 682 uivieem se circumscnbcre 256 sqq., 669 isolation 457,707 index qui litem suam fecit 16 sqq., 1126 sq.

indicia bonae fidei 140 sq., 208, 218, 222 sq., 226, 237, 248, 256 sqq., 211 sq., 280, 297, 308, 329 sqq., 334, 340 sqq., 351, 360, 364, 375, 385, 406,408 sq., 413 sq., 428, 437, 445, 455, 458, 462, 509 sqq., 533, 536, 548, 589, 627, 652, 658, 660, 663, 667, 671, 674, 690, 710, 718, 730, 732, 742, 749, 761 sq., 766, 771, 789, 790, 796 sq.. 799 sq., 801, 807, 814, 822, 826

indicia contraria 200 sq. indicia stricta—see actiones stric'ti iuris iuramentum—see oath

iuris ignorantia nocet, facti ignorantia non nocet 604 sqq., 850 sq., 869 ius dispositivum/ius cogens 334, 641, 749 ius honorarium 680, 699, 995 ins in re aliena 220 sqq., 223 ius in rem 6 sq., 381 sq., 882, 1083 ius migrandi 356 ius perpetuum 359 ius poenitendi 578, 844, 858, 860 ius repellendi 356 ius retentions 200, 227. 229, 408, 822, 936 ius vigilantibus scriptum 86, 258, 307 iussum 49, 52, 61 insta causa (and mora creditoris) 820 insta causa (protection of lessee against expulsion) 380 insta causa (requirement for validity of contracts)—see causa in general iusta causa ignorantiae (unjustified enrichment) 850 iusta causa timoris 347 (lease), 653 sq., 658 sq. (nietus), 1001 (necessity) iusta causa traditionis 240, 271 sq., 481, 495, 499, 551 sq., 841. 867 iustum pretium—see pretium iustum iusta causa usucapionis 724

iustus error 586 sq.

javelin-throwing 1007

jest, acting in 1068

Jewish law 67. 170, 172, 527

Jews 172

jointdebtors 118, 128, 137, 145. 14Y judge, liability of 1126 sq.; and see index qui I item suani fecit judicial law-making in codified systems 1094

jurists, Roman 348, 605, 623. 627. 629 sq., 631 sq.. 703

just price—see pretium iustuni justification 910. 999 sqq., 1081

Kaufvor Augen 307, 326

killing of free men. delictua! protection in case of 1015. 1024 sqq. klaar van Scsscn 326

KonsHtnptiotiskotikurri'iiz 125 sqq.

labour law 350 sq., 384 sqq.

labour relations, regulation of 261 labour, estimation of 388 sqq.

laesio enormis 259 sqq., 374, 578, 610

laesio enormissima 264

laesio fidei 542, 568, 572

land, sale of—see sale of land

lanx 939 sq.

larceny 922.946

largesse, throwing of 247, 248

last opportunity rule 1012 sq.. 1049

lease, agricultural 352 sq., 357. 358, 375

lease, contract of 338 sq., 342 sqq., 351 sqq., 387; and see locatio eonductio rei

lease, defect of title—see defect of title (lease)

lease, duties of the lessee 374 sqq.

lease, duties of the lessor 360

lease, liability for latent defects—see liability for latent defects (lease)

lease, liability of the lessor/lessee—sec liability of the lessor/lessee lease, possible objects of 351 sqq.

lease, risk-regime—see risk (contract of lease)

lease, termination of 355 sq.

leases tor an indefinite period 357 sq.. 383

leases in perpetuity 358 sq.

legal drafting, style of—see drafting of legal documents, style of

leges de rebus rcpetundis 652. 656

leges perfectae, imperfectae. minus quam perfectae 169, 176, 261, 483, 697 sqq., 705, 707, 846

leges sumptuariac 483, 485, 703 legis actiones 83,

99, 452, 466, 835, 969, 974, 982 legislation, flood of

609

legislation, interpretation of—see interpretation of statutes

legislation, publication of 959 sq. legislation, quality of

146, 494, 623. 703, 828, 1049 legitimate portion—see

forced heirship Lcistims 889 Leistwtgskoiidikdon—see enrichment by transfer lenocinium 707 lex Aclia Sentia 686, 700 lex Anastasiana 66

lex Appuleia 119 sqq., 136

lex Aquilia 703, 953 sqq., 998 sqq., 1097

lex Aquilia, assessment of sum of condemnation 961 sqq., 1019

lex Aquilia, composition 957 sqq.

lex Aquilia, date of enactment 955 sqq.

lex Aquilia, text of 953, 959 sqq. lex Caipurnia 835 lex Cicereia 120 sq.

lex Cincia de donis et muneribus 191, 482 sqq., 491, 647 sq., 699, 703

lex Claudia de nave senatorum 704

lex commissoria 224, 531 sq., 735. 737 sq., 744 sq., 802, 806

lex Cornelia (suretyship) 121

1053. 1059, 1060

lex Cornelia de iniuriis

lex dicta 35

lex Falcidia 700, 703

119 sqq., 131 sq., 136, 703

698, 703

lex Furia (suretyship)

lex Furia testamentaria

lex Genucia 167

lex Hortensia 955, 957

lex lulia de adulteriis 700. 707, 848

lex lulia de maritandis ordinibus 485

lex Laetoria 698 sq.

lex locationis/conductionis 360. 362, 375, 376, 639

lex mancipio dicta 308

lex mercatoria maritima 407 sq.

lex Papia Poppaca 485 lexPcsolania 1101 lex Pubhlia 132 sq. lex Rhodia de iactu 406 sqq.

lex Silia 835

lex talionis 2 sq., 914, 1051

lex venditionis 639, 640 lex Voconia 485, 698, 703 legitime—see forced heirship liability and duty 5 liability based on reliance 12 sq., 22, 1041 liability between socii 461 sqq., 466 sq., 789 liability for eviction 225, 241, 293 sqq.. 363. 378, 753 liability for latent defects (sale) 305 sqq., 783, 813 liability for latent defects (lease) 365 sqq.

liability for latent defects (contract for work) 395 sq., 813, 814

liability for others—see liability, vicarious

liability in solidum 53, 128 sq.

liability of an inspector 739 liability of heirs 5 sq., 1021 sq.

liability of innkeepers 520 sq.; and see receptum nautarum caupotmm stabulanorum liability of one partner against the others 211, 462 sqq., 466 sq.

liability of socii towards third parties 469 sq.

192 sqq., 923

397 sqq., 923, 1121

205, 208 sqq.. 923,.1028

206

liability of the borrower liability of the contractor liability of the depositary liability of the depositor liability of the gardicn 1141 sq. liability of the gestor (negotiorum gestio) 445 sqq.

liability of the lender 165, 202 sq. liability of the lessee 375 sqq., 1120 sq.

liability ot the lessor 360 sqq.

liability of the mandatarius 426 sqq., 789 liability of the mandator 430 sqq.

liability ot the pledgee 225 sqq., 923 sq. liability of the pledgor 227 sq.

liability of the principal (negotiorum gestio) 443 sqq.

liability of the vendor 280 sq.

liability of vendor and purchaser on account of actio redhibitoria 317 liability, Aquilian 906, 928, 931, 933, 951, 953 sqq., 998 sqq., 1107 sq. liability, origins of contractual 4 sqq., 777 sqq.

liability, cumulative 916, 973, 1020

liability, origins of delictual 2 sq., 908 sqq., 914 sqq.

liability, exemption from—see exemption clauses liability, limitation of 977 sq., 989 sq., 1043 liability, noxal—see noxal liability

liability, strict 17 sq., 20, 22, 321, 326, 432, 444, 905, 911, 1005 sq., 1033, 1035, 1077 sq., 1080, 1095 sqq.

1065,

liability, vicarious 13, 16 sq., 245, 376 sq., 399 sqq., 905, 1118 sqq., 1135 sq. liability-interest 36 sq. libel 910, 1074 sqq., 1081 libellus famosus 1066, 1074 sqq.

liber homo bona fide serviens 441, 1016 sq. (delictual protection) liberal arts—see artes liberales liberal professions 393, 418, 419 sq. liberalitas 482, 490, 496 liberatio 856 libertas 350 sq., 435 sq., 446, 457, 466, 490, 493 liberum corpus nullam recipit aestimationem 1015, 1025 licentia pignorandi 1109 licium 939 sq. limitation of actions 912 liquidated damages clauses 107 sq. litis consumptio 126 sqq., 137, 138 litis contestatio 28, 61, 126, 127, 130, 134, 139,457, 759, 797, 896, 899, 916, 920, 942, 1020

sq., 1061, 1100 litiscrescence—see infitiando lis crescit in duplum living conditions in Rome 344 sqq. loan (for consumption) by agreement 160 sq.

loan for consumption 5, 153 sqq., 216 sq., 836, 842, 854, 872, 897, 899 loan for consumption, liability of the lender—see liability of the lender loan for consumption, risk-regime—see risk (loan for consumption) loan for use 188 sqq., 923, 934, 995

loan for use, liability of the borrower/lender—see liability of the borrower/of the lender loan for use, risk-regime—see risk (loan for use)

loan transactions (in general) 4, 90, 156, 171, 181, 185, 188 sq., 415, 837, 863; and see loan for consumption, loan for use, nexum

loans to merchants involved in overseas trade—see fenus nauticum

loans to professional sportsmen 186 sqq.

loans to sons in power 177 sqq. locare 338 sq., 384 locatio conductio ad longum tempus 359, 382 locatio conductio and emptio venditio 234 sqq., 276 sq., 342, 358, 396, 531 sq. locatio conductio in general 338 sqq., 413, 420 locatio conductio irregularis 358, 402 locatio conductio operarum 338 sq., 346, 350, 384 sqq., 396 sq.

locatio conductio operis 214, 338 sq., 346, 393 sqq., 464, 517 sqq., 933 sq. locatio conductio operis, liability of the contractor—see liability of the contractor locatio conductio operis, risk-regime—see risk (contract for work) locatio conductio rei 338 sq., 342 sqq., 346,351 sqq., 387, 408, 519,578, 934; and see lease, contract of

locado in pedes mensurasve 405 locatio per aversionem 405 locatio rei suae 353

locupledor, liability in quantum locupletior factus est 875, 882, 885, 896 sq. locupletior-pauperior—see pauperior-locupletior locus solutionis—see performance, place of

longi temporis praescriptio 769 sq.

loss—see damages

loss of profits—see lucrum cessans

lucri faciendi gratia (theft)—see animus lucri facicudi

lucrum 926

lucrum cessans—see damnum emergens

lustrum 355 sq.

luxury animals, liability for 1117, 1130

magistrate, actions of (delictual liability) 1003, 1067 sq. mailbox theory 560 sq.

mala fides superveniens поп iiocct 220, 280

malae hdei gestor (negotiorum gestio and unjustified enrichment) 875 sq.

malae fidci possessor (negotiorum gestio and unjustified enrichment) 876 malice (defamation) 1076, 1077, 1078, 1079, 1O81 malperfortmnce. positive—да positive malperformance malum carmen incantare 1054

mancipatio 237 sq., 274. 294 sq., 300, ЗОН, 834, 841 mandate—see mandatum

mandatum 49, 57 sq., 61, 64, 133, 138, 139, 215, 413 sqq.. 444 sq., 456, 460 sq., 469, 578 mandatum ad agendum 61

mandatum aliena gratia 423 sq.

mandatum and negotiorum gestio 433 ъцц.

mandatum incertum 421 sq.

mandatum morte solvitur 424 sqq.

mandatum post mortem 425

mandatum qualihcatum 127, 139 sqq.. 424

mandatum tua tantum gratia 422 mandatum, duties of the mandatarius 414 mandatum, duties of the mandator 414 mandatum, illegal/immoral 421, 707

mandatum, liability of mandator/mandatarius—sec liability of the mandator/of the mandatarius

mandatum, range of application 420 sqq.

mandatum, revocation/renunciation 425 mandatum, types of 422 sqq. manus miectio

2 sq., 120, 133, 914, 968, 974 marine insurance

181 sqq. maritime salvage 449 marriage brokerage 8 marriage legislation 485, 487 marriage, purity of 487 matrimonia libeni 96 sq. medical malpractice 1028, 1 126 sq., 1133 medical practitioners—see physicians membrum ruptum 2 sq., 914, 966, 1050 sq. merces certa 354 merces Insta 354

merces locationis 353 sqq.. 384 sq,, 420 merces vera

354. 385, 647 merchants, Christian view on 170, 173

sq. merchants, Roman view on 256 sqq., 669 sq. mcrecrix—see prostitute messenger 50, 56 sq., 399, 1120 sq. metus 651 sqq., 662 sqq. met us infaniiae 659 metus iustus/iniustus 659 metus reverentialis 659 microorganisms, liability for damage done by 1118

minus in maiore inest 74 sq., 591

misrepresentation in general 601 sq., 619

misrepresentation, fraudulent 243, 329, 673 sq.

misrepresentation, innocent 329 sq., 673

misrepresentation, negligent 673 sq., 1043 mise en demeure 796, 798 sq.

misstatement, negligent—see negligent statements, liability for

mistake—see error

mistake, common 596, 697

mistake, mutual 589

mixed transactions 235, 276

mobilization of land value 116

mola salsa 417

money 170, 174, 216, 250, 279, 788, 1087; and seepecimia

montes pietatis 173

mora creditoris 817 sqq.

mora debitons 738, 783, 787, 790 sqq., 802, 809, 819, 942

mora debitoris ex persona 791 sq., 795 sqq., 806

mora debitoris ex re 792, 797 sqq., 805

moral consideration 505

morbus 311,319

morbus comitialis 313

morbus sonticus 312

mores maiorum 350, 485, 669, 786

morte Cincia removetur 484, 487

morte socii solvitur societas 456

mortgage 116

mortis causam praebere/praestare 976 sqq., 991

mortuus redhibetur 330 sqq.

motorcar accidents, liability in cases of 1134 sq., 1140

mourning dress, propcr/malicious use of 1057

municipality cases 1045

munificentia 482

munus 415,482

mutare 153

mutuum 5, 153 sqq., 216 sq., 836. 842, 854, 872, 897, 899

mutuum and donation 481

mutuum and the agreement of the parties 156 sqq., 165, 565, 837

mutuum date nihil inde sperantes 170, 799

nacUgcfonnte Rechtsgeschäfte 89

naturalia negotii 234

naturalis obligatio—see obligatio naturalis

Naturdlrestimtioti 824 sq.

nauta 517

ne bis in idem—see bis de eadem re agere non licet

necessaries, supply of (negotiorum gestio) 449

necessity 1000 sqq.

negligence 192, 210 sqq., 427,463 sq., 525, 910 sqq., 990, 999. 1006 sq., 1039, 1052, 1080. 1087, 1093, 1131. 1132 sq., 1138. ! 140; and sec culpa

negligence, gross—see culpa lata

negligent statements, liability for 11. 1037, 1038, 1041, 1043 negotia partiaria 354

negotiable instruments 85; and see bills of exchange

negotiorum gestio 15, 410, 423, 433 sqq., 460 sq., 875 sqq., 880, 882, 883 sq. negotiorum gestio and mandatum 433 sqq.

negotiorum gestio, liability of gestor/principal—see liability of the gestor/of the principal negotium (negotiorum gestio) 440 negotium contractum (as requirement for unjustified enrichment condictiones) 854, 874

neighbour test 1039

nemo auditur turpitudinem suam allegans 670, 865 sq.

nemo plus luris transferre potest quam ipse haberet 279, 293

nemo potest praecise cogi ad factum 774sq,, 809,811

nexi liberatio—see solutio per aes et libram

nexum 4 sq., 48, 156, 755

no liability without fault 911, 1034 sq., 1125. 1129 sq., 1138

no-fault liability—see liability, striet

nomina ossibus inhaerent 58

non remittetur peccatum, nisi testituatur ablatum 824

twn-cumut des responsabililes 906

non-natural user 1139

non-pecuniary loss—see interest, immaterial

nonfeasance doctrine 778

notary, attestation/drafting of documents by a 82, 85, 500 sq., 547

notice (contract of employment) 387

notice (lease) 344, 357 sq., 383

notice (legis actio per condictiorcem) 835 sq.

notice of rescission 804, 805 sq.

notice protection (lease) 343, 383

notification of the debtor (cession) 63, 64, 66

notification of the debtor (pledge) 225

novatio 7, 60, 61, 90, 93, 119, 149, 169, 512. 634 sq., 725, 756 sq., 758 sq.

novus actus interveniens 450

noxa caput sequitur 315,917,1100, 1111 sq., 1116, 1118

noxae deditio 315, 1099, 1112, 1118, 1126

noxa! liability 314 sq.. 361, 916 sq., 973, 1099 sq., 1107, 1111 sq., 1116, 1118 sq., 1126 nuda pactio obligationem non parit—see ex nudo pacto non oritur actio nuisance 910

null and void—see void/voidable

mil n'est cense ignorer la hi 608

nulla poena sine lege 524

nullity—see invalidity

numbers, symbolism of 15

nuntius—see messenger

oath 41 sq., 72. 527, 542, 568, 646, 692, 701, 774

oblatio 821, 823

obligare 1,82

obligatio 1 sqq.

obligatio ex necessitate 24

obligatio ex variis causarum figuris 14, 410. 837

obiigatio naturalis 7 sqq., 52, 179 (SC Maccdonianum), 497. 513, 530, 538, 848, 868 sq. obligation 1

obligationes ex lege 19

obligations quasi ex contractu 15 sq., 20 sqq.. 410, 434. 521, 837, 875, 880, 884, 891, 892 sqq.

obligationes quasi ex delicto 16 sqq., 19 sq., 891, 1035, 1122, 1126 sqq.

obligations, classification of—see system of obligations obsignatio and despositio 821 occentare 1054

occidere 976 sqq., 991, 992 sq.. 1005 offer and

acceptance 560 sq., 564, 567, 571, 573, 575 sq. officium

115, 131,415,436, 439

omissions, liability for 979 sq., 983, 999, 1029 sq., 1043 sqq. omnis condemnatio pecuniaria—see condemnatio pecuniaria omnium contributione sarciatur, quod pro omnibus impensum esi 407, 410 oorzaecke, redclicke (Grotius) 558 sq. ope consilio furtum factum 930 sq. operae 384, 389, 844 (recoverability), 1027 (operarum aestimatio) operae liberales 388, 390

operae libertorum 9, 387 sq.

opus (faciendum) 384, 393

oral formality (stipulation) 68 sqq., 72 sqq., 78 sqq., 527, 547, 549 orators 630 sqq.

organ theory (agency) 57

Organschaft 51 sqq.

os fractum 914, 958, 965 sq., 1050 sq.

ought implies can 194, 687, 784

outlays, reimbursement of 431, 444

ownership 223, 359; and see transfer of ownership ox, the goring 1095 pacta adiecta 95, TT1, 509 sqq., 538, 563

pacta de stando in perpetua societate 474

pacta ex intervallo adiecta 510, 558

pacta in continenti adiecta 509 sqq., 558 sq., 735

pacta in favour of third parties 35, 42

pacta in general 508 sqq., 537 sqq., 548, 562 sq., 565 sq., 568, 732

pacta legitima 511, 526 sqq., 538 sq.

pacta nuda 499, 506. 508 sqq., 530, 538 sqq., 548, 552, 555

pacta praetoria 511 sqq., 538 sq.

pacta successoria 712, 714

pacta sunt servanda 164, 391, 395, 540, 543, 576 sqq., 716, 802, 844

pacta vestita 511 sqq., 538 sqq., 552 sq,

pacta, illegal/immoral 709 sq.

pactio—see pactum

pactum de hereditate tertH 712

pactum de mutuo dando 154, 163 sq.

pactum de non petendo 508, 563, 685 sq., 758

pactum de non praestanda evictione 225, 300

pactum de quota litis 418, 712, 713 sq.

pactum de retroemendo 510

pactum de vendendo, pactum ne veneat (pledge) 224 sq.

pactum displicentiae 319, 735, 739 sqq., 744 sq.

pactum geminatum 513, 540, 549

pactum protimiseos 510

pactum redhibendi 319,739

pactum reservati dominii 276 sq., 531, 745

pactum taciturn 685

pain, suffering and disfigurement, compensation for 1026 sq., 1085, 1088 palinodia 1072 sqq.

pancratium 1003 sq.

Pandektensystem 30 sq.

par turpitudo—see in pan turpitudine rule

parking garage 522

parol evidence rule 624, 650 part-performance, doctrine of 88 part-performance 749

partial invalidity—see invalidity, partial

parriarian agricultural lease—see colonia partiaria parties, change of—see agency, cession, delegatio, substitution partnership—see societas

partnership, civil/commercial 471,475

paterfamilias, acting through others 51 sqq.

paterfamilias, position of 256, 307

paterfamilias, protection of 178 sq.

patria potestas 878, 916, 1119; and see paterfamilias, position of patrimony, delictual protection of—see pure economic loss, delictual liability for patronage—see patronatus

patronatus 131. 350 sq., 417. 497, 498, 686

pauperies 1096 sq.

paupcrior-locuplctior 486 sq., 489, 502. 897 payment postnumcrando 374 sq.

peculium—see actio de pecuiio

pecunia 3; and see money

pecunia doloris 1027

pecunia pecuniam parcro non potest 170

pecunia traiecticia 181, 183; and sec fenus nauticum

pmis 3, 914; and see quadrupedes pecudes

peformance, object of 749

penal bond—see bond, penal

penalties 95, 169, 207 sq., 902, 956. 961, 975, 1051, 1076. 1085 sq.: and see conventional penalties

penalty clauses—see conventional penalties pendency, state of

(condicio suspensiva) 723 sqq., 745 sq. perduellio 918 perfection of a contract of sale 283 sqq.

perfection of a donation 484, 491 performance—see solutio; Lcistung performance, place of 751

performance, rendered by third parties 752 sq.

performance, rendered to third parties 752, 756 performance, specific—see specific performance performance, time of 750 sq. periculum 281, 287 sqq.; and see risk periculum conductors 385.

401 sqq. periculum debitoris 811. 860 periculum emptoris 281 sqq., 740 sq., 807, 935 periculum locatoris 370 sq.. 373, 403 permutatio—see exchange, contract of

perpetuatio obligations' 784 sqq., 792, 800, 807 sq., 814. 898 perseverantia voluntatis 484, 488 personae publicae 41

personality rights, infringement of Ю52 sqq., 1082 sqq., 1086 sq.. 1092 sqq. persons, law of 25, 30

physician and patient, legal relationship 393. 395

physicians 390 sq.. 1028, 1126 sq. pia causa 493

sq.. 495 pietas 350, 415, 436, 439, 711, 1062

pignus—see pledge pigs 976. 1106 pirates 182,

409 plagium 944

plain meaning rule 622, 624 pledge 8. 40, 116, 149, 184 (fenus nauticum), 220 sqq., 357, 725. 727, 734, 923 sq., 934.

995. 1057

pledge, liability of pledger/pledgee—see liability of the pledger/of the pledgee pledge, sale of 223 sqq. plures rei promittendi 118, 128, 137 pluris petitio 765 sq.

plus cautionis in re est quam in persona 115 plus valere quod

agitur quam quod simulate concipitur 648 poena 914

poena dupli 207. 295, 914, 932, 944, 945 sq., 1107, 1128

poena quadrupli 167, 655, 657, 661 sq., 698, 914, 920, 936, 940. 944, 945 sq. poena tripli 914, 920, 940 polhchatio 481, 496, 574 sqq. pontifical nature of ancient Roman law 83

positive malpcrformance 328, 783, 808, 812 sq.. 816, 1024 positive Vertragst'erletzungen—see positive malperformance positum vel suspensum—see actio de positis vel suspensis possession and detention 383 postumus 629

Pothier rule 334 sqq. power of attorney 67 praedes 118 praepositio 52 praestare 6 praestare-obligation 773 sq. pre-emption, right of 510 precanum 54, 190. 215, 277, 532, 536 precedence, right of 1066 precontractual relationship—see culpa in contrahendo prescipcion, extinctive 8sq., 305, 308, 317 sq., 319, 324 sq., 328, 329, 396, 767 sqq., 813, 905. 1070 sq.

Prescription Act (South Africa) 767 sqq. prescription, acquisitive 768, 770 press, liability of the 1080 pretium certum 253 sqq. pretium iustum 255 sqq., 264 sqq. pretium verum 252,489,647 prevention equals satisfaction—see conditions prevented from materializing price {sale; in general)—see pretium prices, maximum 260 sq. principal, undisclosed 47 prior conduct doctrine 1045

privacy, invasion of 1059, 1082 sq., 1084, 1085, 1093 sqq. private autonomy 258 sqq., 267 sqq., 343, 490, 577, 584, 615, 626, 64! private carrier 523 privilege (actioiniuriarum, defamation) 1066, 1067 sq., 1078, 1081 privity of obligation/contract 5 sq., 34, 38, 45

Praculians/Sabinians 39, 105 sq., 118 sq., 210. 250 sqq., 414, 532, 720, 753, 927, 928 sq. procuratio 53 sq. procuratio and mandatum 437 sq. procurator ad litem 50 procurator in rem suam 60 sqq., 63, 66 sq., 134 procurator omnium bonorum 53 sq., 417 sq., 421, 443, 752 products liability 11, 1133 professors of law (remuneration) 418 profit moral 44

promise of gift 86, 477, 480 sq., 492, 495, 498, 501 sq., 507, 558 promise, nature of 381, 567 sq., 572, 575 promissa (sale, latent defects) 310 promissio 542, 567 sq., 575 sq., 580promissio indemmtatis 127, 137, 140, 142 promissory estoppel, doctrine of 505 promittere 72 promutuum 837, 900 prostitute 846, 847 sq.. 1055 protective form 82, 84 sqq. protestatio facto contraria 1070 protestation (accio iniunarum/defamation) 1069 sq. provisions for calling off a sale 735 sqq. provocation 1069, 1107, 1116 public carrier 523 sq. public law 343. 349, 947, 1127 public policy, contracts against 713 publicani, liability of 1122 publicani, partnership of—see societas publicaiiorum

publicatio 288 sq., 363 sq.

publication (defamation) 1076, 1081

publicity principle (agency) 46 sq., 56 puffing 315

punishment 902. 909, 944, 1087

punishment of animals 1098 sq.

purchase price 250 sqq.

purchase price, payment of and transfer of ownership 272 sqq., 289

pure economic loss, delictual liability for 603, 674, 905 sq., 958, 1022 sqq., 1035 sqq. purely patrimonial loss—see pure economic loss

purgatio morae 823

purgatio poenae 110 sqq.

purus 733 quadrupedes pecudes 957,976, 1101 quadrupes 1101, 1106 quaestio lance et licio 939 sq. qualitas 593.594 quanti ea res erit 190, 206, 222, 223, 655. 771, 788, 825 sq., 941, 994 quanti ca res erit in diebus triginta proximis 961, 962 sqq., 972 sq., 1019 quanti cares est 95 sq., 511, 689, 771, 784 sq., 787, 800, 825, 826, 897 quanti ea res fuit 771, 932 sq.

quanti id in eo anno plurimi fuit 961 sq., 970 sq., 974 sq., 993. 1019 quantitas dupli (damages) 108 sq., 300 sq., 828 sq.

quantitas perire non potest 899

quasi novatio 101 quasi-contract (English law) 23 sq., 893 quasi-contracts—see obligationes quasi ex contractu quasi-delicts—see obligationes quasi ex delicto quasi-mutual assent, doctrine of 586 sq. querela inofficiosi testamenti 680 querela non numeratae pecuniae 94 qui cadit a syllaba, cadit a causa 83 qui facit per alium, facit per sc 55 qui tacet, consentire videtur 357 quod actum est—see id quod actum est quod interest 36, 172, 243 sq., 298 sq., 300 sq., 309, 824, 826 sqq., 833, 971 sq., 973, 1026 quod interest deceptum non esse 243, 679, 691

railway law 1130 sqq., 1135 rapina 915,920 ratihabitio 49, 434, 443, 683, 752 real contract—see contract, real rear-suretyship 137 reasonable animal 1115 sq. reasonable man 660, 1009 recantatio—see palinodia receipt of stolen property 922, 947 receptum arbitri 513 sq. receptum argentarii 514 receptum nautarum, cauponum, stabulariorum 54, 514 sqq., 1121, 1128 recipere 515 reciprocal process consumption—see Konsitmptiotiskotikurrciiz recourse between joint debtors 137 recourse, right of the surety against the principal debtor 132 sqq., 143 recourse, right of the surety against his co-sureties 136 sq.. 143 sqq. redemptio a piratis 409 redemptio ab hostibus 495

redhibendi indicium 316 sq. redimere litem 712 registration (gift) 492, 494, 495, 499, 500 sq. rei interveneio (mutuum) 157, 837 rei vindicatio 221, 834. 842, 863, 864. 867, 877, 919, 940 sqq., 947 release (from obligation) 6, 133, 508 sq., 563, 725, 754 sqq., 777. 841 relocatio tacita 356 sq.

remedies in rem/in personam scriptae 655, 657, 661, 663 sq. remedies, aedilitian 311 sqq., 321 sq., 322 sqq., 328 sqq.. 395 sq.. 593, 610, 813 remissio mercedis 371 sqq.

remissio tacita (actio iniuriamm) 1071 remoteness 990 remuneration 415 sq., 419, 444 (negotiorum gestio) remunerativeness, principle of necessary 48, 275 rcmuneratory gift—see gift, remuneratory rent—see merces renunciation (partnership) 455, 460, 462 representation theory 57 representation, direct—see agency representation, indirect 49 sq., 421 representation, procedural 60 sqq., 64, 66 sq. repudiation 816, 1054 sqq., 1057, 1064, 1067, 1074 sqq., 1081, 1086 sq., 1090 sq., 1094 res 25 sq.. 960. 964, 968 res aliena pignori data 228 res divini iuris 241 res extra commercium 241 sqq.. 688 res ipsa loquitur 1140 sq.

res pent domino—see casum sen tit dominus rescindability —see Anfechrbarkeit rescission 6.02, 615. 661, 663, 672, 673 sq., 679, 681, 745, 800 sqq., 814; and see withdrawal from contract, right of unilateral rescission, notice of—see notice of rescission rescue and the idea of contribution 407 sqq. rescue cases 439, 449 sq., 497, 502 rescue, duty to 1044, 1045 reservatio mentalis 643, 644 sqq., 650 reservation of title 276 sq., 531, 745 reservoirs, liability for bursting 1138 sq. resolutive condition—sec condicio resolutiva restitutio in integrum—see in integrum restitutio restitutio laesae famae 1072, 1087, 1090 restitution doctrine (Canon law) 29, 885, 893. 1021,1027, 1072 restitution, law of (England) 24, 837, 892 sqq. restoration in kind 824 sq., 907 restraint of trade, agreements in 715 retention, right of 201, 227, 229, 408, 822, 936 retorsio 1069 revenge 2 sq., 508, 914, 915 sq., 937, 1000, 1063, 1099 sq.. 1136 reverentia 709, 943, 1062 reward, promise of 572 sqq. rights in personam/in rem 7, 382; and see tus in rem risk (contract for work) 401 sqq., 811 risk (contract of employment) 385 risk (in general) 811, 860; and see periculum risk (lease) 369 sqq.

risk (loan for consumption) 154, 162, 181 sq. risk (loan for use) 196 sq.

risk (sale) 281 sqq., 724, 740 sq., 743, 807, 811, 935 robbery 524; and see rapina Riickyriffskondiktion 890 rumpere 966, 984 sq., 991, 1005

rusticitas 606

Rylands v. Fletcher, rule of 1135, 1138 sqq.

Sabinians—see Proculians

salarium 416 sqq., 419

sale and loan transactions/usury 162 sq., 171

sale and specific performance 775 sq.

sale and suretyship 138 sq.

sale breaks hire 378 sqq.

sale by description 90, 236 sqq., 306

sale in writing 232

sale of a liber homo 241 sqq., 688, 690 sq.

sale of an inheritance 249

sale of cattle 318 sq., 326 sq., 328

sale of generic goods 90, 236 sqq., 284

sale of gladiators 236

Sale of Goods Act (England) 306 sq., 336 sq.

sale of land 85, 87, 304, 646, 682, 779 sq., 781

sale of non-existing objects 240 sq.

sale of res extra commercium 241 sqq., 688, 690

sale of slaves 311 sqq.

sale of the creditor's action, fictitious (suretyship) 136 sq.

sale of the pledge 223 sqq.

sale of wine 284 sqq.

sale sub corona 318

sale subject to approval 285 sq., 744; and see pactum displicentiae sale, contract of 230 sqq., 271 sqq., 293 sqq., 690 sq.

sale, defect of title—see defect of title (sale)

sale, duties of the purchaser 277

sale, duties of the vendor 278 sqq., 293, 303

sale, executed 237 sq., 307, 492, 842; see also cash sale, principle of sale, executory 237 sq., 291

sale, liability for latent defects—see liability for latent defects (sale) sale, liability of the vendor—see liability of the vendor sale, perfection of 283 sq.

sale, possible objects of 234 sq., 245 sqq.

sale, risk-regime—see risk (sale)

salt 417

sanctio 697, 701, 704, 705 satisfaction consumption—see Soluti onskonkurrenz satisfactum, satisfaction (pledge) 222 sqq.

Schuld und Haftung 5

Schutzform—see protective form scienter doctrine 1110 sq., 1136 sq.

scientia 202, 321, 333, 335, 365, 831

scire leges non est verba earum tenere, sed vim ac potestatem 705 sea loan—see fenus nauticum

sea voyages in antiquity 182, 184, 407 security of tenure 342 sqq., 357, 382 sq.

security, personal/real 114, 115 sqq., 220 selection, idea of (vicarious liability) 1123, 1136 self-defence 999 sq.

self-help 651 sq., 770, 938, 1063, 1109 semel commissa poena non evanescit 110 sqq.

senatus consultum Macedonianum 9, 177 sqq., 606, 700, 705 senatus consultum Silanianum 606

senatus consultum ultimum 651

senatus consultum Vellaeanum 145 sqq., 152, 606, 700 sequester 219

sequestration, conventional 219 sq.

seriousness, indicia of 477, 480, 507, 549, 556 seriousness, lack of 643 sq., 644 servants, liability of the master for delicts committed by 111 9 sq., 1123 sq., 1136; and see liability, vicarious

service, contract of—sec contract of employment servum alienum verberare 1053, 1058 servus fugitivus 332 sq., 924 set-off—.nec compensatio seven (number) 15 severability 77 sq.

sexual morality, shift of standards 714 sq. shares in profits and losses, allocation of (societas) 457 sqq. ship, management of 407, 517

si per debitorem/crcditoreni stetit 105 sq., 385, 730, 785 sqq., 820, 822 sic utere tuo ut alieno non laedas 1033, 1137 sq. simplicity 68 simulatio 643, 646 sqq,, 665, 669, 706 sine causa (as requirement for unjustified enrichment condictiones) 854 sqq., 868, 871 sq.,

884 sine qua non test— see conditio sine qua non slander 910, 1074 sqq.. 1081 slavery 56, 387, 1051, 1119 slaves, acquisitions made and obligations incurred by 51 sqq. slaves, sale of—see sale of slaves societas 354, 451 sqq., 578, 710 societas alicuius negotiationis 453 societas and agency 468 sqq. societas leonina 459 societas omnium bonorum 452 sqq., 466, 475 societas omnium bonorum quae ex quaestu veniunt 454, 475 societas pubheanorum 468 societas quoad sortem/quoad usum 470, 475 societas unius rei 453 sq. societas, contribution to 457 sqq., 464, 470, 475 societas, liability of socii towards each other and towards third parties—see liability of one

partner against the others/of socii towards third parties societas, termination of 455 sqq.. 475 sq. socii venaliciarii 467 sq. solatium 1091, 1093 solidarity—see liability in soJidum solidus 495, 499 sollertia 669 sq. solutio 6, 748 sqq., 841 solurio impropria 758 sqq. solutio per aes et librani 4, 133. 755, 756 solutio per errorem 849 sqq., 86H sqq. solutionis causa adicctus 38, 752 sq.

Solndonslioiikurrcnz 127 sq. soivere 6,154 soinnmtioii 796. 798 sq. sons in power, injuries to 1015 sq. specific performance 96, 770 sqq., 779 sqq., 799, 809 specificatio 871 spes debicum iri 725, 746 spheres of risk 195, 371, 385, 403, 404, 521, 602, 730, 82(1 spondere—see sponsio sponsio 70sq.,72, 114, 117 sqq., 125, 132 sq., 296, 635 sponsor 117 sq.

sport and sportsmen 186 sq.. 1003 sq., 1011, НИЗ. 1028, 1069 standard contract terms 69, 328, 360, 641 sq., 715 Standard Terms Act (Germany) 642

Star Chamber 1075 sq, statuiibcr 717, 729 sq., 749 status and contract 350, 392 status doctrine 631 status relationships 350 sq., 387, 392 Statute of Frauds (England) 86 statutes, interpretation of—see interpretation of statutes sterilitas 373 stipulan 72 stipulatio 35, 68sqq., 89sqq., 95, 118, 155, 238, 341, 480, 527, 540. 546 sqq., 550 sq., 558 sqq., 599 sq., 610, 639, 653, 674, 685, 689 sq., 691 sq., 710, 717, 733, 742, 744, 836 stipulatio alteri 34 sqq., 97; and see alteri stipulari nemo potest stipulatio alternativa 99, 686 stipulatio and the agreement of the parties 510 sq., 565, 685 stipuhtio Aquiliana 757, 770 stipulatio de successione futura 712 stipulatio duplae 295 sq., 297 sq., 300 sq. stipuiatio habere licere 2%, 297 stipulatio poenae 38, 95 sqq., 185 (fenus nauticum), 526 (compromissum) stipulatio praepostera 721 sq.

stipulation, abstractly/causally framed 91 sq., 550, 710 stipulation, scope of 89 sqq., 238

stipulation, interpretation of—.«■1046 sq.

versan in re illiata 197, 209, 348, 808

versura 169

Vcrtrag 568

Verwendungskondiktion 890

vicarious liablity—see liability, vicarious

villa 345

vindex 974

vinegar sold as wine 594 sq.

virilis defensio 303

vis absoluta/compulsiva 660

vis maior 193 sqq., 209, 287, 289, 370 sq., 386. 403, 515 sqq., 523, 815, 933, 1134, 1141 vispellio 310

vitia ex ipsa re 371

vitium 312 sqq., 319

vitium anirni 314 sq.

void/voidable, terminological problems 678 sqq.

volenti non fit iniuria 450; and see consent (defence)

voluntary assumption ofrisk 1118 sq.

Voraussetzungstehrv 581,888

Vorteilsausgleiclmng—see compensatio lucri cum damno

votum—see vow

vow 692

warren en vrijen 304

wage liability 1119 sq., 1123

warehouses 346, 352, 399

warranty as to quality of an object sold (Roman law) 309 sqq., 315 sq., 320, 321, 334 sqq. warranty as to quality of an object leased (Roman law) 362, 365 sqq.

warranty in general (English law) 803 sq.; for Roman and continental law. see defect of title warranty ot peaceable possession 293 sq., 300

warranty of title (English law) 293, 303

Wegfall der Geschaftsgmtidlage. doctrine of 582

Wehrmann haben hilft nicht 1070

wild aninmals 976, 1102, 1104 sq.. 1109sq., 1113 sq., 1136 sq.

will theory 561, 581, 585 sqq., 612, 614 sq., 626, 636, 643, 645, 661, 662

will, last will—see testament

Willenserklamtig 569

wine 284 sqq., 595 wine, sale of 284 sqq.

Wirkform—see effective form withdrawal from contract, right of unilateral 537, 578 sq., 738, 745, 802, 811 sq., 844, 858

sqq; and see rescission WoUenshedmgung 744 sq. women as sureties 145 sqq. women, their creditworthiness 151 women, their position in Roman law 146, 528 word formalism (stipulation) 72 sqq., 510, 599, 622 sqq., 640 words v. intent 564 sq., 583 sqq., 587 sqq., 598 sqq., 621 sqq., 643, 704 sq. work, contract for—see locatio conductio operis workman 396 workmen's compensation 1132 writ of debt 99; and see debt sur contract, action of writing, increased use of (Roman law) 71, 78 sqq., 85, 232, 527 writing, requirement of 70 sq., 79 sqq., 85 sqq., 142, 358, 492 sq., 500, 530, 551 wrongfulncss 910, 990, 998 sqq., 1013, 1028, 1043, 1045, 1047, 1093

⁵⁰ § 767; cf. already the pandectist writers, e.g. Girtanner. op. cit.. note 48. pp. 402 sqq.

³¹ Cf. e.g. Ernst Levy. ''Principal and Surety in Classical Roman Law^{1 2 3}'. (19511 14/15 BIDR 217: "No doubt, the liability of the fideiussor was accessory, i.e. dependent in some way upon the principal's obligation. How far, however, this dependence made itself felt, is another matter."

² Gai. Ill. 119.

³ Gai. Ill. 126.

⁵¹ Gai. Ill. 126.

^s Cf. supra, p. 74 (note 391.

³⁶ As Justinian put it: ''Non solum enim in quantitate, sed etiam in tempore minus et plus intellegitur" (Inst. Ill. 20. 51. ⁵⁷ Cf. Inst. Ill. 20. 5.

^{1 1 * 3} Cf. already Glanvill. X. 3. in fine:. si principals debitor ita inde defecerit quod

non habeat unde solvere possit, tunc demum recuperandum erit ad piegios" and then the Statute of Merchants 1285 (13 Edward I) (on which, see Theodore Plucknett, Legislation of Edward I (1962), pp. 138 sqq.).

¹⁹² Burge, Suretyship, pp. 341 sq.

® As has been the case, for instance, in Wb/son v. Gerber, supra, note 176.

¹⁹¹ Cf. Fecnstra, op. cit., note 21, pp. 296 sqq., 322 sqq. ; Werner Ogns, "Die personlichen Sicherheiten in den westeuropäischen Rechten des Mittelalters", (1971) 29 Recueils (op. cit., note 2) 21 sqq. For the "Dogmengeschichte" of the suretyship contract generally, see Girtarmer, op. cit., note 48, pp. 151 sqq.; for its Germanic roots, see Franz Beycrle, "Die Ursprung der Bürgschaft", (1927) 47 ZSS (GA) 567 sqq.

³ Cf. the arguments advanced by Hans Kreller, Das Verbot der Fraucnint er Zession von Augustus bis Justinian, Anzeiger der phil.-hist. Klasse der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Wien), pp. 6 sq.

¹⁰⁶ Ulp. D. 16, 1, 2, 1.

¹³ lul. D. 14. 2. 6. Cf. today Rule XIV of the York Antwerp Rules (19741.

“ Paul. D. 14. 2. 2. 3.

® Pap. D. 14. 2. 3: Herm. D. 14. 2. 5. 1.

“ Call. D. 14. 2. 4 pr.: Wieacker. Studi Albertario, vol I. pp. 520 sqq.

¹³⁷ As to the following, see Gunter Wesener. "Von dcr Lex Rhodia de iactu zum § 1043 ABGB". in: Festschrift fur Johannes Barniann (19751. pp. 36 sqq.

^K Gl. Aequissimum ad D. 14. 2. 2. pr.

⁷³ Cf. the argumentum ad absurdum by Labeo (D. 17, 2, 60, 1): "... si propter societatem eum heredem quis instituere desisset aut legatum praetermisisset aut patrimonium suum neglegentius adminisirasset:..." The same, of course, applies to gains made

⁷³ Of fundamental importance is Fritz Pringsheim, "Id quod actum est'", (1961) 78 ZSS 1 sqq.; cf. further Wunner, Contractus, pp. 179 sqq.; Gandolfi, op. cit., note 19, pp. 116 sqq., 308 sqq.

¹ Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 45. 1. 41.

⁵ Traite des obligations, n. 160; "de schuldenaar wordt geacht zig allccnlijk aan deezen onderworpen tc bebben" (Van dcr Linden, Verhandelitig van Contracten en andere

³³³ Hubert Niederländer. Die Berekhcnmgshafiung im klassischen romischen Recht (1953"). pp.

141. 145 sqq.; Kaser. RPr I. p. 600.

Cf. gl. Actionem ad D. 3. 5. 5. 5.

For details of the development, sec Van Zyl, Saakwaarnemingsaksie, op. cit., note 248,

pp. 42 sqq., 51 sq., 57 sq., 64 sqq., 77 sqq., 85 sq., 91 sqq.; cf. also Festschrift Verddtn,

pp. 138, 150.

^2S)' Cf. Hermann Kantorowicz, Studies in the Ghssators of the Raman Law (1938), pp. 86 sqq.

J^{7 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 22 23} Inleiding, III, I, 15.

^2a^ Cottmientarius ad Pandectas, Lib. V, Tit. Ill, XXIII.

³ For all details, see Van Zyl, Saakwaarnemingsaksie, op. cit., note 248, pp. 62 sqq.

Traitt' da contra! de mandal (appendice), n. 193.

Carolus Molinaeus, "Commentarius in priores Titulos antiqui Consuetudinis

Pansicnsis", Tit. I (De fiefs), GJoss V, n. 103 ("Patet enim in ratione in qua se fundat ille

text, nempe in ilia sola aequitate naturali, ne quis aliena jactura locupletetur"), in: Opera

omnia (Parisns, 1681), vol. I, p. 88.

²² Cf., for example, Gluck, vol. 8, pp. 309 sq.; further Van Zyl, Saakwaarnemingsaksie, op. cit., note 248, pp. 77 sqq., 85 sq.

²³ By way of analogy of this extension of the actio negotiorum gestorum and. again, on the basis of equity an utilis actio negotiorum gestorum was also, occasionally, granted to the gestor who had managed the principal's affairs contrary to his express wishes. Again, it was the glossator Martinus who initiated this extension. For all details, see Van Zyl,

op. cit., note 248, pp. 48 sqq., 55, 61 sqq., 71 sqq., 81 sq., 88, 96 sq.

(1982) 48 SDH/318 sqq.

²⁴ Dawson, op. cit., note 119, p. 85 translates "de in rem verso" as "concerning what has been converted to [the master's] account".

²⁵ Cf. Niederländer, op. cit., note 253, pp. 37 sqq.

¹⁸ For details, see Tony Weir, "Complex Liabilities", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. XI, 12 (1983), nn. 10 sqq. For a recent comparative discussion on the question of concurrence or altemativity of remedies in medical malpractice claims, see Dieter Giesen, International Medical Malpractice Law (1988), pp. 33 sqq.

¹⁴ § 852 BGB.

§ 195 BGB: for details, see Peters/Zimmermann. Vvrjahmn'^{i 2 3}sjristen. pp. 218 sqq.

³ § 282 BGB.

² §§ 29. 32 ZPO.

³ Cf.. for example. §§ 599 (loan for use"). 690 (deposit"), as opposed to § 823 I BGB.

^a § 847 BGB: cf. infra, pp. 1027. 1092 sqq.

³ § 253 BGB.

³ § 831 BGB.

²⁷ § 278 BGB.

~^M For details, see Peter Schlechtricm. Vertragsordnung und ansservertragiiche Haftung (1972"). pp. 289 sqq.

~ Both claims can, however, not be treated as completely independent. On the interaction between the two notionally independent claims, see Weir. op. cit., note 18, n. 61. Cf. also the example discussed supra, pp. 202 sq.

^{3altromische Erbenhaftung", (1952)1 AHDO-RIDA 507 sqq.; Voci, DER, vol. I, pp. 45 sqq. For medieval English law and its rule of "actio personalis moritur cum persona", see Simpson, History, pp. 41 sq., 558 sqq. The situation changed only with the rise of assumpsit.}

² See, for example, Liebs, RR, pp. 231 sq. On solutio, see generally D. 46, 3 and Buckland/Stein, pp. 564 sq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 635 sqq. The old and original meaning of solutio is still reflected in what Gaius tells us about the form of release per aes el libram "Me eo nomine a te solvo libroque" were the words, which had to be used by the person to be released: Gai. Ill, 174.

^{^[21]} This is Paulus' famous definition of an obligation, contained in D. 44, 7, 3 pr.; on which, see, for example, Talamanca, ED, vol. 29, pp. 28 sqq.

^{^[22]} Gai. IV, 4.

³ Sturm, Stipulaiio Aquiliana, pp. Ill sqq. The term derives from "praesstare" (to stand in as a hostage) and had been carried over from the days when the person liable was bound as a hostage.

³ Sec Gai. IV. 2.

^{^[25]} For a clear analysis of this fundamental distinction, sec Nicholas, Introduction, pp. 99

Cf. Buckland/Stein, pp. 552 sq.; Pierre Cornioley, Naturaiis obligatio (1964); Kaser, RPr I, pp. 480 sqq.; Enrico Moscati, "Obbligazioni naturali", in: ED, vol. 29 (1979), pp. 353 sqq.; Gaetano Scherillo, "Le obbligazioni naturali", (1968) 175 Archivo giuridico 516 sqq.; j.A.C. Thomas, "Naturalis obligatio pupilli", in: Sein und Werden im Recht, Festgabe für Ulrich von Ltibtow (1970), pp. 457 sqq.; Paul van Warmelo, "Naturalis obligatio", in: Huldigingsbundel Pont (1970), pp. 410 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 287 sqq. "Naturalis" obligatio in this context, therefore, means as much as "non-genuine" obligation. Cf. Iui. D. 46, 1, 16, 4 "per abusionem".

³ Cf. Iui. D. 46. 1. 16. 4; Ulp. D. 44. 7. 10.

³ Ulp. D. 46. 2. 1 pr.. 1.

²⁰ Ulp. D. 16. 2. 6 (but see Buckland/Stein. p. 5521; Fensham v. Jacobson 1951 (21 SA 136 (T1 at 137H-138F.

^{^[30]} Cf. e.g. Gai. Ill. 119 a; William Burge. Commentaries on the Law of Suretyship (18491. p. 7.

See Mario Rotondi, "Alcune considerazioni sul concetto di obbligazione naturale c sulla sua evoluzione", (1977) 75 Rii'ista del diritto commentate 213 sqq.

^{^[32]} Cf. especially the comprehensive analysis by Wessels, Contract, vol. I, pp. 386 sqq.

³¹ § 656 BGB.

² §§ 762 sqq. BGB. For South African law, cf. Fensham v. Jacobson 1951 (2) SA 136 (T) and Gibson v. Van der Walt 1952 (1) SA 262 (A). Cf. also Pothier, Traitedujeu, n. 58; § 1271 ABGB, art. 514 II OR. On gaming in Rome and on the reaction of the Roman authorities, cf. Marek Kurylowicz, "Die Glücksspiele und das romische Recht", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Saiifilippo, vol. IV (1983), pp. 267 sqq.

^3fl 656 BGB has been severely criticized as being discriminatory and infringing the basic rights ot the German "Grundgesetz"; it has been said to be pushing a trade with a legitimate social function into the twilight of doubtful seriosity and thus impeding, rather than facilitating, judicial control of real abuses. The courts are now increasingly faced with difficult problems arising from situations where the fee paid to a marriage broker has been pre-financed by the broker's bank. Also, a flourishing business of escort agencies has sprung up in recent years to accommodate the increasing number of "singles". Into which contractual category do the various partnership service transactions fall? And is § 656 BGB applicable in all these cases? On these questions, see Peter Gilles, "Partnerschaftsservice statt Ehemakelei", 1983 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 362 sqq.

^{^[36]} Is it really acceptable to maintain that the law has to prevent people from ruining themselves by indulging in gaming and betting? A more pragmatic approach as to why gaming and betting contracts should be unenforceable is advanced in judicial pronouncements such as Graham v, Pollok (1848) 10 D 646 at 648 ("However laudable the sport may be, we have far more serious matters to attend to") or Christison v. McBride (1881) 9 R 34 ("The Queen's Court does not exist for settling disputes as to who drew the winning number in a lottery") (both Scottish cases).

¹⁸ § 222 BGB; cf also Pentecost & Co. v. Cape Meat Supply Co. 1933 CPD 472 and now ss 10, 17 of the South African Prescription Act 68/1969. For further discussion and comparative material, see Karl Spiro, Die Begrenzung privater Rechte durch Verjdhrungs-, Verwirkungs- und Fatalfristen, vol. I (1975), § 244.

³⁴ See e.g. Staudinger/H. Ditcher (1979), § 222, n. 3.

^{^[39]} Paul. D. 14, 6, 10. Another interesting case, where Roman lawyers used the term

"naturalis obligatio", concerned the actio de peculio. If the paterfamilias granted a peculium to his son in power or slave, he was liable for all commercial debts incurred by that person in power. This liability was "dumtaxat de peculio", limited by the amount of the peculium at the moment of condemnation. As far as the computation of the value of the peculium was concerned, whatever the paterfamilias "owed" to the peculium was added, whatever

"claims" he had against the peculium were deducted from it. Of course, any transactions between two members of the same familia could never give rise to an "obligation". Yet they were not a legal non-entity, because in the context of the calculation of the peculium they were taken into consideration. In the course of time, quite a few other cases of "naturales obligationes" were added: obligations incurred by a ward without auctoritas tutoris (Paul. D. 12, 6, 13, 1), obligations extinguished due to capitis deminutio (Ulp. D. 4, 5, 2, 2) or litis contestatio (Ulp. D. 46, 1, 8, 3) etc.

"It would be wholly incorrect to say that there were no general concepts in the Roman law of the time of Justinian and before; on the contrary, Roman jurists eagerly discussed situations in which a contract would be void because ofmistake', situations in which the enforcement of an informal obligation was required by 'good faith', and various other types of situations in which legal results involved a reference to concepts.... However, these concepts were not treated as ideas which pervaded the rules and determined their applicability. They were not considered philosophically. The concepts of Roman law, like its numerous legal rules, were tied to specific types of situations. Roman law consisted of an intrinsic network of rules; yet these were not presented as an intellectual system but rather as an elaborate mosaic of practical solutions to specific legal questions. Thus one may say that, although there were concepts in Roman law, there was no concept of a concept" (Berman, Law and Revolution, pp. 149 sq.).

Cf. e.g. Cornioley. op. dr., note 27. pp. 256 sqq.: Van Warmelo. Huldigingsbundet Font. pp. 419 sqq.

^{^[44]} D. 12, 6, 26, 12. For all details, see Wolfgang Waldstein, Operae libertomm (1986) (on Ulp. D. 12, 6, 26, 12 r.f. pp. 363 sqq.).

⁴·' D. 5. 3. 25. 11.

¹⁶ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 50. 17. 84. 1; 45. 1. 126. 2.

⁴⁵ Cf. Van Warmelo. Huldigingsbundel Font, p. 433. n. 1.

⁴⁷ Cf. e.g. Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLIV. Tit. VI. III.

^{^[46]} Cf. therefore Wessels. Contract, vol. I. p. 394: "Our law does not favour the extension of the scope of the natural obligation, and therefore mere debts of honour and promises pietatis causa are not to be regarded as giving rise to natural obligations." Would gaming, betting or marriage broking fall into this class of cases?

⁴ For an outline of the historical development, see J.E. Scholtens. De Geschiedenis der natuurlijke Verbintenis sinds het Romeinsche Recht (193ll: Van Warmelo. Huldigitigsbundel Pont, pp. 421 sqq.. Rotondi. (1977") 75 Rivista del diritto coninterciale 213 sqq.: cf also Savigny. Obligationenrecht, vol. I. §§ 5 sqq.: Windscheid/Kipp. § 287 sqq.

^s Hausmaninger/Selb. p. 250.

³ On a similar note. Van Warmelo. Huldigingsbundel Pont (for modern South African

law"), concludes by saying: "Hierdie reelings sal en moet gehandhaaf word, maar om hulle

(nou en dan") as natuurlike verbintenisse te noem lei tot niks en skep eerder onduidelikheid en onsekerheid."

³² See A.M. Honorc, Gaius (1962), pp. 97 sqq. (100); Witold Wolodkiewicz, "Lc fonti delle obbligazioni nellc istituzioni di Gaio c nelle res cottidianac", (1970) 24 Rivista italiana per le scienze giuridiche 138 sqq.

^s Gai. Ill, 88: "Nunc transeamus ad obligationes. quarum summa divisio in duas species diducitur: omnis enim obligatio vel ex contractu nascitur vel ex delicto."

^{^[52]} See, for example, Arthur van Mehrcn, "A General View of Contract", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, VII, 1, nn. 1 sqq.; Charles Fried, Contract as Promise (1981), p. 4 and passim.

³⁵ A.S. Burrows, "Contract, Tort and Restitution. A Satisfactory Division or Not?", (1983) 99 LQR 217 sqq.; cf. also Fried, op. cit., note 54, pp. 2 sq.: "The law of property defines the boundaries of our rightful possessions, while the law of torts seeks to make us whole against violations of those boundaries, as well as against violations of the natural boundaries of our physical person. Contract law ratifies and enforces our joint ventures beyond those boundaries."

^A B.S. Markesinis, "The Not So Dissimilar Tort and Delict", (1977) 93 LQR 78 sqq.

⁵⁷ See especially the two famous cases of MacPkerson v. Buick Motor Co. (1916) 217 NY 382, 111 NE 1050 and Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562 (HL); Friedrich Kessler, "Products Liability", (1966/67) 76 Yale LJ 887 sqq.; R.W.M. Dias/B.S. Markesinis, The English Law of Torts: A ComptfraHve Introduction (1976), pp. 61 sqq.

See, for example, H. Mazeaud, "La responsabilite civile du vendeur fabricant", (1955)

[54] Revue trimestrielle de droit civil 611 sqq.

⁴⁹ See Werner Lorenz, "Das Problem der Haftung fur primare Vermogensschaden bei der

Erteilung einer unrichtigen Auskunft", in: Festschrift fur Larenz (1973), pp. 575 sqq.

® [1964] AC 465 (HL). For the broader context of this discussion, see Atiyah, Rise and

Fall, pp. 771 sqq.

^a Hans Dolle, furistische Entdeckungen, Verhandlungen des 42, Deutschenfuristentages, vol. II

(1959), pp. B 1 sqq.

Rudolf von Jhering, "Culpa in contrahendo, oder Schadensersatz bei nichtigen oder nicht zur Perfektion gelangten Vertragen", (1861) 4 Jhjb 1 sqq.

^s Erich Schanze, "Culpa in contrahendo bei Jhering", (1978) 7 lus Commune 326 sqq.

^M For an overview of the development in German law, sec Peter Gottwald, "Die Haftung fur culpa in contrahendo", YfolJuristische Schulung 877 sqq.; Dieter Medicus, Verschulden bei Vertragsverhandlungen, Gutachten und Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. I (1981), pp. 479 sqq. For a comparative analysis, see Friedrich Kcssler/Edith Fine, "Culpa in Contrahendo, Bargaining in Good Faith, and Freedom of Contract: A Comparative Study", (1964) 77 Harvard LR 401 sqq.

^{^[64]} The famous linoleum carpet case: RGZ 78, 239 sqq.

® The vegetable leaf case: BGHZ 66, 51 sqq., in which culpa in contrahendo and the contract with protective function in favour of a third party were combined.

^{^[66]} Markesinis, (1977) 93 LQR 122; cf also J.C. Smith, "Economic Foss and the Common Law Marriage of Contracts and Torts", (1984) 18 University of British Columbia LR 95 sqq.

® See Grant Gilmore's elegant series of lectures "The Death of Contract" (1974). The

modern English law of contract grew up around the action of assumpsit. Historically, this action was an offspring of the action of trespass on the case (that is, ot the law of torts): see Simpson, History, pp. 199 sqq. According to Gilmore, contract is today being reabsorbed into the mainstream of tort, the residual category of civil liability (pp. 87 sqq.). For the rise (especially during the age of individualism since the latter half of the 18th century) and the modern decline of contract (since about 1870) in England, see the fascinating analysis by Atiyah, Rise and Fall, esp. pp. 345 sqq., 388 sqq., 398 sqq., 681 sqq., 716sqq. Atiyah argues that in the English common law benefit and reliance (as opposed, especially, to mere promise) were the traditional key concepts of liability. Accordingly, there was no inherent difference between contractual and delictual obligations. It was only with "the settling of classical contract theory" (developed during the age of freedom of contract, stimulated by and intimately linked to the rise of individualism, laissezfaire and the free market ideology, legal formalism, positivism and principle orientation), that a firmer line between contractual and non-contractual duties came to be established: due, mainly, to the creation (or formulation) of general rules governing contractual relationships, with clearly defined abstract concepts and based on the will theory, by doctrinal writers (starting with the treatises by Pollock and Anson) since the 1870s. These writers drew heavily on Roman law and on modern continental lawyers such as Pothier or Savigny. Their works "continued to exercise a dominating influence on English contractual thought through the next hundred years, and indeed, may be said to still rule us from their graves" (p. 682; cf. also F.H. Lawson, "Doctrinal Writing: A Foreign Element in English Law?", in: lus Privatum Gentium, Festschrift fur Max Rheinstein, vol. I (1969), pp. 191 sqq. and A.W.B. Simpson, "The Rise and Fall of the Legal Treatise: Legal Principles and the Forms of Legal Literature", (1981) 48

University of Chicago LR 632 sqq.). In Atiyah's view, this later idea "that tort liabilities are wholly different from contractual liabilities because the latter arise from consensual obligations is not soundly based, either in logic or in history" (p. 505). He argues that with the decline of contract a resurgence of benefit-based and reliance-based liabilities is taking place today- Thus, in his opinion, the time "is plainly ripe for a new theoretical structure for

contract... (and for the) redrawing of conceptual categories of the law" (pp. 778, 779). Cf. also Gerhard Kegel, "Verwirkung, Vertrag und Vertrauen", in: Festschrift fur Klemens Pleyer (1986), pp. 528 sqq. and, for German law, Eduard Picker, "Vertragliche und deliktische Schadenshaftung", 1987 Juristenzeitung 1041 sqq. (also advocating abolition of the dichotomy of contractual and delictual liability for damages; according to Picker, liability for damages always arises ex lege and it is only the duty to render performance that is based on private autonomy, i.e. contract).

® § 831 BGB allows the "person who employs another to do any work" to escape liability for damage done by his employee, by proving that he has exercised the necessary care in the selection of the employee and that, where he had to supply equipment or to supervise the work, he has also exercised ordinary care as regards such supply or supervision. For a comparative analysis of this rather unfortunate rule, see Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 294 sqq.; cf. also infra pp. 1125 sq.

⁷³ Cf. recently A.J.E. jaffey, "Contract in tort's clothing", (1985) 5 Legal Studies 77 sqq., who concludes his analysis of the case law with the comment: "By all means let the relevant rules of contract be reformed. But to use tort at random to evade them leads to confusion, uncertainty and inconsistency in the law" (p. 103).

¹ [1964] AC 465 (HL) at 525-6.

^{^[71]} In this vein, against the "Death of Contract" school see, for example, A.S. Burrows, (1983) 99 LQR 217 sqq., 255 sqq., 263 sqq.; Fried, op. cit., note 54, pp. 1 sqq.; Smith, (1984) 18 University of British Columbia LR 108 sqq., 125.

^{^[72]} Op. cit., note 54, n. 2. Owing to the availability of insurance, the tortfeasor who is liable in delict today typically does not ultimately have to bear the loss. Delictual rules, therefore, have to take into account the fact that in all likelihood losses will not be borne by individuals but will be shifted to groups. Contractual relations involve different kinds of risk; here, typically, the individual parties will bear the loss assigned to them.

^{^[73]} Max Kaser. "Divisio obligationum". in: Studies Thomas, p. 85: contra: Arnaido Biscardi. "Some Critical Remarks on the Roman Law of Obligations". (1977) 12 The Irish Jurist 372 sqq., according to whom Gaius saw the delict/contract dichotomy as exhaustive. Cf. also Thomas, TRL, p. 2.

^{^[74]} Gai. Ill. 91.

Gai. D. 44, 7, 1 pr.; cf. Wolodkiewicz, (1970) 24 Rivista italiana per le scienze giuridiche 78 sqq.

Inst, Ill, 13, 2. For details of the development of the divisio obligationum from Gaius' cwo- and threefold down to Justinian's fourfold division, see Kaser, Studies Thomas, pp. 73 sqq.; Theo Mayer-Maly, "Divisio obligationum", (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 375 sqq. (in English); Giuseppe Grosso, II sistema romano dei contratti (3rd ed., 1963), passim; Talamanca, ED, vol. 29, pp. 38 sqq. Cf. also Diosdy, pp. 112 sqq., who has recently advanced the supposition that the trichotomy of the sources of obligations, as laid down in D. 44, 7, 1 pr., never existed in Roman law.

^{^[76]} Cf. the (too severely") critical analysis by H. Goudy. "Artificiality in Roman Juristic

Classifications", in: Studigiuridici in onore di Carlo Fadda, vol. V (1906), pp. 209 ff. (214 sqq.).

³⁹ That Justinian was very conscious of the role of symbolic numbers in the arrangement of the Corpus Juris Civilis appears from § 1 of his Constitutio Tanta.

⁸³ Some examples from the Bible: Three is the number of the Holy Trinity, three angels

visited Abraham, for three days Christ was buried, three times Christ asked his Father that

the cup might pass, three times Peter renounced Christ, three times Christ showed himself to his disciples after his resurrection. In our modern, heathen, usage, man no longer piously accepts the harmonic structure of the world (as expressed in perfect numbers), but still clings to the somewhat superstitious aura attaching to the "lucky three". For the symbolic influence of the number three in Roman law, see H. Goudy, Trichotomy in Roman Law (1910).

^a For example the four cardinal points of the compass, the four seasons, the four elements, the four temperaments, the four ground colours of the rainbow, the four years between two intercalary days, the sequence of the four empires according to St. Hieronymus, underlying the doctrine of translatio imperii. For further discussion, see Desmond Varley, Seven, The Number of Creation (1976), pp. 43 sqq.

^{^[83]} As to the importance for the Greeks of the number seven, cf, for example, Wilhelm H. Roscher, Die Hebdomadenlehren der griechischen Philosophen und Arzte (1906); RE, vol. XIV, col. 2579; Joachim Ritter, Historisches Worterbuch der Philosophic, vol. Ill (1974), pp. 1022 sq.; for the Romans, cf., for example, Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae, Lib. Ill, 10; cf. also the comparative material in the annotations by Fritz Weiss, in: Aulus Gellius, Die Attischen Nachte, vol. I (1875), pp. 193 sqq.; Varley, op. cit., note 81, pp. 19 sqq. and passim. The book of Revelation contains no fewer than 54 instances of Sevens.

^s Goudy, Trichotomy, p. 5, asks rhetorically: "What literary... author nowadays, in dividing his treatise into parts, books, etc., or dividing his subject-matter into heads and categories or genera and species, would attach any special importance to what the number of these might be?" However, one can point to Thomas Mann, whose entire work (esp. the Magic Mountain, Joseph and his Brothers and Doctor Faustus) is profoundly influenced by the symbolism of numbers. Cf, for example, the brilliant essay by the American Germanist, Oskar Seidlin, "Das hohc Spiel der Zahlen", in: O. Seidlin, Klassische und modems Klassiker

(1972), pp. 103 sqq.; for the English version, see (1971) 86 Publications of the Modern Language Association 924 sqq.

^m A legatum per damnationem gave rise to a personal claim of the legatee against the heir. We are not concerned here with the other important type of legacy, the legatum per vindicationem. Here the legatee acquired ownership of the object left to him immediately at the death of the de cuius, and as a result he could avail himself of the rei vindicatio. A third type of legacy, the legatum sinendi modo, was of little practical relevance in classical times.

® Inst. Ill. 27.

® Inst. IV. 5.

^{^[88]} That can mean either that the judge now has to step into the role of the defendant and. in that sense, brings a suit on himself, or that the judge has become (emotionally) so entangled in the case that he lacks the necessary impartiality (he treats the case as if it were his own). On this topic, see Kelly, Roman Litigation, pp. 102 sqq.; further David Pugsley, "Litem suam facere", (1969) 4 The Irish Jurist 351 sqq. (with parallels in English law); D.N. MacCormick, "Iudex Qui Litem Suam Fecit", 1977 Ada Juridica 149 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "The Liability of thejudge in the Republic and Principate", in: A\RW, vol. II, 14 (1982), pp. 5, 9 sq., 16 sqq.; Alvaro D'Ors, '"Litem suam facere"', (1982) 48 SDMI 368 sqq.; P.B.H. Birks, "A New Argument for a Narrow View of litem suam facere", (1984) 52 TR 373 sqq.

^m Cf. D. 9, 3; Inst. IV, 5, 1; Gai. D. 44, 7, 5, 5; further, for example, Wittmann, Korpervertetzung, pp. 62 sqq.; Giannctto Longo, "I quasi-delicta—actio de effusis et deiectis — actio de positis ac suspensis" in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. IV (1983), pp. 428 sqq.; Enrique Lozano y Corbi. "Popularidad y regimen de legitimacion en la 'actio de effusis et deiectis'", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi, vol. V (1984), pp. 311 sqq.

⁸⁰ Cf., for example, Alan Watson, "Liability in the Actio de Positis ac Suspensis", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan, vol. I (1963), pp. 379 sqq.; William M. Gordon, "The Actio de Posito Reconsidered", in: Studies Thomas (1983), pp. 45 sqq.; Longo, Studi Sanjilippo, vol. IV, pp. 428 sqq.

⁵⁰ Cf., for example, Wolodkiewicz, (1970) 24 Rivista italiana per le scienze giuridiche 210 sqq.

⁹ The connection between negotiorum gestio and tutela, on the one hand, and mandatum (mandate) on the other, is obvious. In the case of indebitum solutum, the condictio (i.e. the action applicable for the recovery of a loan-muiuum) was granted. On the historical relationship between the claims for unjustified enrichment (the law of condictiones) and the old procedural remedy of condictio, see infra, pp. 835 sqq. Communio resembled societas (partnership), and in the case of legatum per damnationem the actio ex testamento was granted, which was closely related to the actio ex slipulatu.

^{^[93]} Buckland/McNair, pp. 395 sqq.

^{^[94]} Cf. Hochstein. Obligations, pp. 26 sqq.; Peter Stein. "The Nature of Quasi-Delictual Obligations in Roman Law", (1958) 5 RIDA 563 sqq. Cf. also Thomas, TRL, p. 377 ("a kind of insurance for the victim of harm, dictated by public policy"); D'Ors, (1982) 48 SDHI 368 sqq. (objective liability); MacCormick, 1977 Acta Juridica 149 sqq. But see Witold Wolodkiewicz, "Sulla cosidetta responsabilita dei 'quasi delkti' nel diritto romano ed il suo influsso sulla responsibility civile moderna", in: Laformazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1277 sqq. (no common denominator for the quasi-delicts); Longo, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. IV, pp. 401

For details, see Hans Hermann Seiler, Die Systematik der einzelnen SchuWverhaltnisse in der neueren Privatrechtsgeschichte (Diss. Munster, 1957), pp. 15 sqq.; as far as 19th-century codifications are concerned, cf. also Carlo Augusto Cannata, "Sulla classificazione delle fonti delle obbligazioni dal 1804 ai nostri giorni", in: La formazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1177 sqq.

® Cf. also Windscheid/Kipp, § 362, n. 1, albeit in very cautious terms: "... in letzterLinie Sache des Taktes" (in the last resort a matter of tact).

^IC0 See Pufendorf, De jure naturae et gentium, esp. Lib. V, but also already Hugo Grotius, De jure belli ac pads, esp. Lib. II, Cap. XII, 1 sq. Cf. also the system of the Preussisches Allgemeines Landrecht (Prussian General Land Law), which does not have a title on obligations or even on contracts, but deals with the individual obligations in the context and from the point of view of their function for acquisition, loss and transfer of ownership.

^{^[98]} Cf.. for example. Muhlenbruch. Doctrina Pandectarum, Lib. Ill. II (Singulae obligationum species); Windscheid/Kipp, IV. Buch, Zweites Kapitel.

¹⁰ E.g. Antonius Merenda, Controversiarum iuris libri XXIV, Tom. HI (Bruxellis, 1746), nn. 2, 11 sqq. ("distingui non possunt obligationes quasi ex contractu orientes ab iis, quae nascuntur quasi ex maleficio").

■ Cf. Brinz, Pandekten, § 94 (Geschajtsfordemngen und Strajjorderungen); further Seller, op. cit., note 98, pp. 94 sqq.

^IW Windscheid/Kipp, IV. Buch, Zweites Kapitel III; Vangerow, Pandekten, 5. Buch, 4.-6. Kapitel; cf. also art. 1370 II c.c.

Dating back to Mod. D. 44, 7, 52 pr., 5. On this text and on the concept of obligationes ex lege generally, see Theo Mayer-Maly, "Das Gesetz als Entstehungsgrund von Obligationen", (1965) 12 RIDA ATI sqq.; idem, (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 380.

^{^[102]} Mayer-Maly, (1965) 12 RIDA 449; cf. also art. 1173 codice civile.

¹⁰⁷ Struve, Syntagma, Exerc. VIII, Lib. IV, Tit. IX, CXIII ("[Q]uasi delict[um]... consistit in aliqua culpa, ut ita loquar, imputativa, hoc est quae alicui ex alieno facto eorum,

quos quis adhibet, imputatur."); Samuel Stryk, Tractatus de actionibus forensibus (Wittember- gae, 1708), Sectio I, X, § LV.

¹¹² Johann Gottlieb Heincccius, Recitationes in elementa iuris civilis secundum ordinem Institutionum (Vratislawiae, 1773), Lib. IV, Tit. V, § MXXXII. Further e.g. Pothier, Traite des obligations, n. 116: "Ом appelie delit lefail par iequel une personne, par dot ou maiignite, cause du dommage ou quetque tort une autre. Le quasi-delit est lefait par Sequel une personne, sans maiignite, mais par une imprudence qui n'estpas excusable, cause quelque tort une autre."

^{^[106]} But see, for example, Vangerow, Pandekten. §§ 623 sqq.; Puchta, Pandekten. IH 304 sqq., who still puts loan and unjustified enrichment on a par.

Schweizerisches Obligationenrecht (1911), am. 62 sqq,

^{^[108]} Andreas von Tuhr, Allgemeiner Teil des schweizerischen Obligationenrechts. 1. Halbband (1924), _D. 39.

The Italian codice civile (1942) subdivides the law of obligations into specific contracts, unilateral promises, negotiable instruments, negotiorum gestio, unjustified enrichment and delicts. South African law, incidentally, treats quasi-contracts without much kindness. They are dealt with neither in textbooks on contract nor in those on delict. Even in a textbook on the law of obligations (Lee and Honore" (2nd ed, 1978, by Newman and McQuoid-Mason)), the quasi-contracts are not mentioned. In other works (such as Hosten/Edwards/Nathan/ Bosnian, Introduction to South African Law and Legal Theory (1980), pp. 506 sqq.), enrichment appears as a brief appendix to the law of delict, negotiorum gestio, in turn, as an appendix to enrichment. There is only one major monograph each on enrichment and negotiorum gestio. On "quasi-contract" in the French Civil Code, c{.. for example, Carlo Augusto Cannata, "Das faktische Vertragsverhaltnis oder die ewige Wiederkunft des Gleichen", (1987) 53 SDHI310 sqq.

^{^[110]} On the history of the BGB in this respect, sec Seller, op. cit., note 98, pp. 72 sqq.

^{^[111]} Theo Mayer-Maly, "Vertrag und Einigung", in: Festschrift jiirH.C. Nipperdey, vol. I

(1965), p. 522. Cf. also Seiler, op. cit., note 98, pp. 112 sqq.; Helmut Coing, "Bemerkungen zum überkommenen Zivilrechtssystem", in: Vom deutschen zum europäischen Recht, Festschrift für Hans DSIIe, vol. I (19631. p. 25.

^1B Christian Wolff. Institutions juris naturae et gentium, § 62.

^{^[114]} Hochstein. Obligationes, pp. 11 sqq.. 150 sq.: Heinz Hübner. "Zurechnung statt Fiktion einer Willenserklärung", in: Festschrift fur H.C. Nipperdey, vol. I (19651. pp. 397 sqq.: Mayer-Maly. (19651 12 RIDA 450 sq.

^{^[115]} Seiler, op. cit., note 98, pp. 95 sq. and passim.

Josef Esser, "Die Zweispurigkeit unseres Haftpflichtrechts", 1953.Juristenzeitung 129 sqq.; Hein Kotz, "Gefahrdungshaftung", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. II (1981), pp. 1779 sqq.; in English, for example, Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 142 sqq., and Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 309 sqq. with many references.

Cf. esp. Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, "Schutzgesetze — Verkehrspflichten—Schutzpflich ten", in: II. Festschrift ?ir Karl Larenz (1983), pp. 27 sqq. (pp. 85 sqq.: "Die Haftung für 'Schutzpflichtverletzungen' als 'dritte Spur' zwischen Delikts- und Vertragshaftung") with many other references.

^{^[118]} Cf. BGHZ 21, 319 sqq.; Gunter Haupt, Uber faktische Vertragsverhaltnisse (1941); Karl Larenz, Allgemeiner Teil des Bürgerlichen Rechts (6th ed., 1983), pp. 525 sqq., criticized, in the present context, by Mayer-Maly, Festschrift Nipperdey, vol. I, pp. 514 sqq.; idem, (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 376 sqq.; cf. also Eugen Dietrich Graue, "Vertragsschluss durch Konsens?" in: Rechtsgeltung und Konsens (1976), pp. 105 sqq., 112 sqq. For a rather unconventional historical evaluation of this trend, cf. Cannata, (1987) 53 SDHI 291 sqq.

^K [1914] AC 398 (HL) at 415.

¹³⁶ Simpson. History, pp. 489 sq.; cf. also Goff and Jones. Restitution, pp. 5 sqq.

^{^[121]} Continental writers, too. have sometimes argued that the obligations quasi ex contractu are based on a consensus fictivus or praesumptus: see, for example, Van Leeuwen,

Censura Foremis, Pars I, Lib. IV, Cap. XXV; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLIV, Tit. VII, v. ("Quasi contractus sunt praesumtae conventions, ex quibus mediante facto valida nascitur obligatio"). But see the critical analyses by Vinnius, Institutions, Lib. Ill, Tit. XXVIII pr., n. 3 sq. and Pothier, Traite des obligations, nn. 113, 117; they derive the quasi-contracts from aequitas (utilitas). On Vinnius' view and the response it drew (on the Continent as well as in England), see Peter Birks, "English and Roman Learning in Moses v. Maeferlcm", (1984) 37 Current Legal Problems 11 sqq. Cf. further Cannata, (1987) 53 SDH/306 sqq. For a more detailed analysis of civilian opinion on the dogmatic foundation of quasi-contractual liability, see now Peter Birks/Grant McLeod, "The Implied Contract Theory of Quasi-Contract: Civilian Opinion Current in the Century Before Blackstone", (1986) 6 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 46 sqq., 55 sqq.

¹² Cf. Birks, (1969) 22 Current Legal Problems 165. A very different perspective on these developments is adopted by Atiyah, Rise and Fall, pp. 181 sqq., 480 sqq. According to him, the close affinity between contract and quasi-contract is confusing only to the modern lawyer, and on the basis of the will theory of contract. Eighteenth-century lawyers, on the other hand, were concerned primarily about the recompense of benefits; whether a man promised to make a recompense or failed to promise when he plainly ought to make a recompense was a secondary matter.

® Cf., for example, John Austin, Lectures on Jurisprudence (5th ed., 1911), pp. 911 sqq., 984 sq.; Maine, pp. 201 sq.; Birks, (1984)37 Current Legal Problems 9 sqq. According to Birks, it was Lord Mansfield (Moses v. Macferlan (1760) 2 Burr 1005) who introduced the notion of quasi-contract into the English common law. "It is as certain as anything can be", writes Birks, "that no Roman lawyer ever intended quasi ex contractu to suggest the shadow of a contract... [But] it is likely that [Lord Mansfield]... understood] it as 'sort-of-contract' because that interpretation was already current among contemporary civilians" (p. 10). This is the "dark side" of the famous decision in Moses v. Macferlan (on its "bright side", see infra p. 894). Whatever Lord Mansfield's reasons for appealing to Roman law in order to explain the non-contractual range of indebitus assumpsit (on which cf. infra pp. 892 sq.) may have been, it was the kmd of appeal which "beckons to disaster" (p. 5). With Moses v. Macferlan contractual doctrine started to overshadow and to deform the English law of restitution. Via Blackstone's Commentaries on the Law of England (Book III, Chapter 9) the "anti-rational" (p. 23) fiction became firmly ingrained in the English common law. Cf. further Birks/ McLeod, (1986) 6 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 46 sqq., 77 sqq.

¹²⁰ For a comparison between quasi-contract in Roman and English law. see Buckland/ McNair, pp. 329 sqq.

^Q Fibrosa Spolka Akcyjna v. Fairbairn Lawson Combe Barbour Ltd. [1943] AC 32 (HL) at 62.

^{^[126]} Per Lord Atkin, United Australia Ltd. v. Barclay's Bank Ltd. [1941] AC 1 (HL) at 29.

⁰³ Cf., for example, A.S. Burrows, "Contract, Tort and Restitution. A Satisfactory Division Or Not?", (1983) 99 LQR 217 sqq.; for further discussion, see infra pp. 893 sqq.

^Bl Cf. Mod. D. 44, 7, 52 pr.: "Obligamur aut re aut verbis aut simul utroque aut consensu aut lege aut iure honorario aut necessitate aut ex peccato." On obligari lege, cf. Theo Mayer-Maly. (1965) 12 RIDA 437 sqq.; on obligari necessitate, cf. Theo Maycr-Maly, (1966) 83 ZSS 47 sqq.

Just as in modern English law, where private law is not seen as a system cither. Cf. Schulz, Principles, p. 57; on the approach of the Roman lawyers towards abstraction

(and systematization) generally, cf. already pp. 40 sqq. and idem, RLS, p. 257.

^{^[131]} Schulz, RLS. p. 94. Cf. also, for example, Frier, Roman Jurists, p. 171: "Quintus Mucius is the father of Roman legal science and of the Western legal tradition. He is the inventor of the legal profession"; generally on Quintus Mucius, see Richard A. Bauman, Lawyers in Roman Republican Politics (1983), pp. 340 sqq.; Wieacker, RR. pp. 549 sqq., 595.sqq. 630 sq.

^nK D. 1,2, 2, 41. For details, see Alan Watson, Law Making in the Later Roman Republic (1974), pp. 143 sqq., 179 sqq.

^{^[133]} Cf. Peter Stein. "The Development of the Institutional System", in: Studies Thomas. pp. 151 sqq.; cf. further Frier, Roman Jurists, pp. 155 sqq.; Wieacker, RR, pp. 597 sqq.

Gai. I, 8; cf. especially Stein, Studies Thomas, pp. 154 sqq.; Jolowicz, Roman Foundations, pp. 61 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, pp. 56 sqq. Thus, Gaius was moving from "divisio" (i.e. dividing the material merely into categories) to "partitio" (breaking it down into its constituent elements). Cf. generally Dieter Norr, Divisio undPartitio (1972).

^M Cf., for example, De Zulueta, Gaius II, pp. 23 sq.; Jolowicz, Roman Foundations. pp. 63 sqq.

Cf. Hans Kreller, "Res als Zentralbegriff des Institutionensystems", (1948) 66 ZSS 572 ^3

"A decidedly heterogeneous assemblage": Schulz, RLS. p. 160.

^b5 See the analysis by Stein, Studies Thomas, pp. 160 sqq. On obligatio and actio in classical law, cf. Emilio Betti, La struttura dell' obbligazione romana (2nd ed., 1955); Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 218 sqq.

^BS On actions in post-classical law, Kaser, RPr II, pp. 65 sqq.; RZ. pp. 467 sqq.; c(. also Jolowicz, Roman Foundations, pp. 75 sqq.

^{^[140]} Theophilus, Paraphrases institutionuni Lib. Hl, Tit. XHI: ",'u i i cpkc -yap mav ayuiyuiv at ^avoycu."

This is the difference to English law; c(. Buckland, "Cause of action: English and Roman", (1943) 1 Seminar 4 sqq.

^{^[142]} If the action had been brought, that is, if litis contestatio had taken place, no other action could be brought under the same contract: the barring effect of litis contestatio.

^{^[143]} Cf. Jolowicz, Roman Foundations, pp. 62 sqq.; for the usus modernus, Coing, p. 393; questions of the law of obligations were still occasionally treated as part of the law of actions.

^H System, vol. I, pp. 401 sqq.

V’innius. Institutions. Lib. Ill. Tit. XIV. 2.

[146]

It was only in the 18th century that the French lawyer Pothier set himself the task of putting the texts of the Digest into a systematic order; see his Pandecta lustinianae in novum ordinem Digestae.

^1M Cf. the accounts given by Jolowicz, Roman Foundations, pp. 61 sqq.; Peter Stein, "The Fate of the Institutional System", in: Huldigingsbundel Paul van Warmelo (1984), pp. 218 sqq.; Andreas B. Schwarz, "Zur Entstehung des modernen Pandektensystems", (1928) 42 ZSS 578 sqq. and Lars Bjorne, Deutsche Rechtssysteme im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (1984), pp. 131 sqq. More specifically on the system developed by the Spanish scholastics (which was based on their restitution doctrine), see Gunther Nufer, Uber die Restitutionslehre der spanischen Spatscholastiker und ihre Ausstrahlung auf die Folgezeit (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Freiburg, 1969), pp. 16 sqq., 59 sqq.; Coing, pp. 190 sq.

^ls" The system of Justinian's Institutes was also essential in the shaping of the national legal systems in the 17th and 18th centuries; on these "Institutes of National Law", see Klaus Luig, 1972 Juridical Review 193 sqq. Luighas coined the term "Institutionalists" on the model of the "Institutional writers" of Scottish law, i.e. the authors of systematic expositions of private law. As far as Institutional writing in Scotland, England and America is concerned, see Lawson, Festschrift Zajtay. pp. 339 sqq.

^{^[149]} The composition o( Book Three is based on the system adopted by Donellus, Commentarii de Jure Civili. As to the Prussian Code, which was based on a totally different system, cf. supra, note 100.

^!f'⁷ Cf. his Grundriss eines Systems des gemeinen Civilrechts zum Behuf von Pandekten- Vorlesungen 1'1807).

^lfE II. I. 58.

¹⁸ II. I. 59. The first book is entitled "Van de beginselen der rechten ende van der menschen rechteiiche gestaltenisse".

^1,1 Others had rather blurred this distinction. The extent to which the question of systematization had been controversial is demonstrated by the fact that, while traditionally obligations had been dealt with as part and parcel of "res", attempts were not wanting to accommodate, the other way round, the law of things within the framework of the law of obligations. Cf. e.g. jean Domat. Les loi.x civiles dans leur ordre nature!, who subdivided the law into engagements and successions.

^1,1 This systematic approach goes back to Samuel Pufendorf. De jure naturae et gentium (1672"). It found legislative realization in the Prussian Code.

^{^[155]} Cf.. for example, the structure of Christian Wolff's Institutiones juris naturae et gentium and of part II. 2 PrALR.

^{^[156]} Gai. Ill. 89 (also 119 al; cf. also Gai. D. 44. 7. 1. 1; Inst. Ill. 13. 2. This scheme is discussed by Ulrich von Lubtow. Betrachtungen zum gaianischen Obligationenschema, Atti Verona, vol. Ill (19511. pp. 241 sqq.; Max Kaser. "Gaius und die Klassiker". (19531 70 ZSS (RAI 157 sqq.; Grosso. Sistema, pp. 73 sqq.; Carlo Augusto Cannata. "La 'distinctio' re-verbis-liiteris-consensu et les problemes de la pratique", in: Sein und Werden ini Recht, Festgabefiir Ulrich von Lubtow (19701. pp. 431 sqq. ; cf. also idem "Sulla 'divisio obligationum¹ nel diritto romano repubblicano e classico". (19701 21 lura 52 sqq. On the further history and reception of this classification, see Seiler, op. cit.. note 98. passim.

The rather mysterious (Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz. Istituzioni di diritto romano (14th ed.. 19681. p. 3281 obligatio litteris mentioned (only!l in the Institutes of Gaius (III. 128 sqq.l will be passed over since it did not form part of the legacy of classical Roman law to the European ius commune. It may have originated as a consequence of the expansion of trade and commerce during the time after the second Punic war, when it became increasingly inconvenient to use the form of a stipulation (requiring the presence of both parties in one and the same place) in order to oblige somebody to pay a sum of money. The obligatio litteris (giving rise to an obligatio strict! iuris) arose as a result of the entry ("expensum ferre": cf. Gai. Ill, 129; Cicero, Pro Q. Roscio comoedo. I, 2) by the creditor into his codex accept! et expensi. This codex (mentioned by Cicero, op. cit., II, 5 sqq.) appears to have been a kind of inventory which was drawn up by a Roman paterfamilias (usually monthly) in order to record (in chronological sequence) all receipts, expenses, claims and debts. It thus reflected the development of a family's financial position and was the basis of the accounting system of a Republican household; as such it enjoyed a specific vis, diligentia and auctoritas (cf. Cicero, op. cit., II, 5 sqq., when he also refers to the codices as "aeterna, servantur sancte, perpetuae existimationis fidem ct religionem amplectuntur"). The entry that gave rise to the obligatio litteris appears to have been made by the creditor at the request of his debtor (usually in the form of a—written—iussum); it was based on a fictitious loan (a pecuniam credere with regard to which neither a datio (cf. infra, p. 153) nor a stipulation had been effected) and had a novatory effect: it replaced another obligation, for instance one

^{^[158]} Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, pp. 11 sq., but see infra, pp. 72 sqq.

^{^[159]} Kaser, RPr I, pp. 539 sq., 543, n. 49.

^{^[160]} Schmidlin, Rechtsregeln, pp. 71 sq.; cf. also Okko Behrends, "Überlegungen i hiiji Vertrag zugunsten Dritter im romischen Privatrecht", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo. vol. V (1984), pp. 1 sqq.

^{^[161]} Q.M. Scaevola D. 50, 17, 73, 4. The reference to pacta and leges dictae has often been regarded as interpolated. However, in this fragment Scaevola succinctly refers to the three possibilities which might conceivably create effects in favour of third parties, and there is no reason why such enumeration should not be classical. Contracts are probably not mentioned because the naming of a third party was regarded by the jurist as such a deviation from the typical pattern that it was treated as an incidental provision (lex dicta); cf. Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, pp. 9 sq. Further on D. 50, 17, 73, 4, see Wieacker, RR. p. 578. On pacta in favorem tertii, see Peter Apathy, "Zur exceptio pacti auf Grund eines pactum in favorem tertii", (1976) 93 ZSS 97 sqq.

^{^[162]} On this text and its implications, cf., most recently, Behrends, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. V, pp. 5 sqq.

^H Cf. the criticism by Schulz, CRL. n. 822.

^{^[164]} Cels. D. 42, 1, 13 pr.; 45, 1, 97, 1; Pomp. D. 45, 1, 112, 1; Pap. D. 45, 1, 118, 2; c(.

Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 217 sqq. ¹⁰ Kaser, RZ. pp. 286 sqq.

³ Interestingly, an "interest-theory" of a very similar kind ("He that hath interest in the promise shall have the action") played a crucial role in the shaping of the English "privity of contract" doctrine (on which see infra, p. 45). For a modern analysis, see Vernon V. Palmer, "The History of Privity—The Formative Period (1500-1680)", (1989) 33 American Journal of Legal History 7 sqq.

^z Cf. Ulp. D. 45, 1, 38, 17, which, from this point of view, has to be regarded as partially interpolated. See Kaser, Festschrift Seidl, p. 87. Paul. D. 45, 1, 126, 2 seems to have escaped the attention of the compilers.

^{^[168]} Cf. infra, pp. 95 sq.

^{^[169]} Cf. in this context the interesting considerations of Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, p. 20; he argues that the main function of the modern contract in favour of a third person (as, for example, regulated in the BGB) is to make provision for relatives. The father of a family wants to protect wife and children against the possibility that the estate might not suffice for their maintenance after his death. In Roman times the subsistence minimum of the civis Romanus and his relatives was provided for by other means (cf., for example, the cura annonae).

^{^[170]} This institution has been analysed in great detail by the Roman lawyers. Cf. the

casuistry in Pothier, Pandectae justinianae IV (1819), pp. 266 sqq.; Wesenberg, Vertrage

zugunsten Dritter, pp. 20 sqq.

²⁰ Cf. Paul. D. 44. 7. 44. 5; infra, pp. 98 sq.

³ Gai. Ill. 103 and Schmidlin. Rechtsregeln, pp. 72 sqq.

¹ On which, see infra, p. 78.

^{^[174]} This is the line taken by Justinian: Inst. Ill. 19. 4. Cf. also lav. D. 45. 1. 110 pr.

³¹ The creditor authorizes the debtor to make performance to a third person: cf. e.g. Afr. D. 46. 3. 38. 1.

^{^[176]} An accessory creditor, who was entitled both to receive performance and to sue: his right, however, depended on that of the main creditor. Cf. Gai. HI. 110 sqq.: Schulz. CRL, pp. 491 sqq.

Cf. Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, pp. 29 sqq.; Ankum, Etudes Macqueron, p. 23.

^{^[178]} Vat. 286.

³³ They arc specified and discussed by Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, pp. 23 sqq. Cf. also Wind scheid/Kipp, § 316, 2; Hans Ankum, De voorouders van een tweehoojdig twistziek monster (1967), pp. 15 sqq.; Behrends, Studi Sanfitippo, vol. V, pp. 48 sqq.

³³ "Si, cum venderet creditor pignus, convenerit inter ipsum et emptorem, ut, si solvent debitor pecuniam pretii emptori, liceret ei recipere rem suam, scripsit lulianus et est rescriptum ob haue conventionem pigneratieiis actionibus teneri creditorem, ut debitori mandet ex vendito actionem adversus emptorem, sed et ipse debitor aut vindicare rem poterii aut in factum actione adversus emptorem agere."

⁴³ "Si res tuas commodavir aut deposuit is, cuius preeibus meministi, adversus tenentem ad exhibendum vel vindicatione uti potes. Quod si pactus sit, ut tibi restituantur, si quidem ei qui deposuit successisti, iure hereditario depositi actione uti non prohiberis: si vero nee civili nee honorario iure ad te hereditas eius peninet, intellegis nullam te ex eius pacto contra quem supplicas actionem stricto iure habere: utilis autem tibi propter aequitatis rationem dabitur depositi actio" (Diocl. et Max.).

⁴ The common denominator of all these exceptions seems to be that an action was granted "to the third person... against one who took a thing with notice of [the third person's] right": Thomas, TRL, p. 247.

^{^[183]} Kaser, RPr II, pp. 339 sq.; Emilio Albertario, "I contratti a favore di terzi", in: Festschriftfiir Paul Koschaker, vol. II (1939), pp. 26 sqq.

See Ankum, De voorouders, op. cit., note 38, pp. 17 sqq.; Coing, pp. 423 sqq.; Ulrich Muller, Die Entwicklung der direkten Stellvertretung und des Vertrages zugunsten Dritter (1969), pp. 29 sqq.; Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, pp. 101 sqq.; Johannes Christiaan de Wet, Die ontwikkeling van die ooreenkoms ten behoewe van 'n derde (1940), pp. 28 sqq.

^{^[185]} De Wet, op. eit., note 43, e.g. pp. 63 sqq., 68 sqq., 140.

^4-1 Cf. for the humanists, for example, Franciscus Duarenus. In Tit. de Pactis, cap. Ill, 7 sq. ; for the usus modemus e.g. Benediktus Carpzovius, Definitions Foreuses ad Constitutions Electorales Saxonicas, Lipsiae et Francofitrti (1694), Pars H, Constitutio XXIX, Def. XX, nn. 1 sqq.; Constitutio XXXIII, Def/XXVH.

* Dionysius Gothofredus, Corpus Juris Civilis Romani, Lib. XLV, Tit. I, 38, § 17, t; cf. also e.g. Vinnius, Institutiones, Lib. Ill, Tit. XX, 4, n. 3, but see also 19.

^{^[188]} Cf. Stryk, Usus modemus pandectarum, Lib. II, Tit. XIV, § 12: "... et sic non negatur

aptitudo, per alium quaerendi obligationem, sed negatur regalia [sic; regula?]."

⁴³ Savigny, Obiigationenrecht, vol. II, pp. 81 sqq.

Cf. the analysis by Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 44 sqq.; Wesenberg, Vertrage zugunsten Dritter, pp. 102 sqq.; as to the discussion amongst the medieval legists and canonists generally, cf. also Hans Ankum, "Die Vertrage zugunsten Dritter in den Schriften einiger

mittelalterlicher Romanisten und Kanonisten", in: Sein und Werden im Recht, Festgabe für

Ulrich von Lubtow (1970), pp. 559 sqq.; idem, De voorouders, op. cit., note 38, pp. 17 sqq. ⁵⁰ Cf. already Accursius, gl. Nihil agit ad I. 3. 20, 4. This exception was based mainly on Ulp. D. 46, 6, 2-4, which deals with a servus publicus. Cf. csp. Hermann Lange, " 'Alteri stipulari nemo potest' bei Legisten und Kanonisten", (1956) 73 ZSS 279 sqq.; Coing, p. 425.

³¹ Cf. Lange, (1956) 73 ZSS 297 sqq. Note in this context the promise required of schismatic bishops who returned to the church: "... promitto tibi N. et per te sancto Petro apostolorum principi, atque eius Vicario N. beatissimo Gregorio, vel successoribus ipsius."

² Cf. Coing, p. 425.

^s Cf. infra, pp. 537 sqq.

^{^[195]} On the essence and significance of stipulations under the ius commune cf., however, infra, pp. 546 sqq.

³⁵ This line of argument (despite not being supported by the Roman sources) also commended itself to some writers of the German usus modernus (cf. Stryk, Usus modernus pandeetarutn, Lib. II, Tit. XIV, § 12) and of Roman-Dutch law (Van Leeuwen, Censura Forensis, Pars I, Lib. IV, Tit. XVI, n. 8); cf. also Grotius, De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, § 10.

" Especially by the humanists; c{. Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 73 sqq.

^{^[198]} Cf. Brinz, Pandekten, § 374 (p. 1627). Cf. also Savigny, Obiigationenrecht, vol. II, p. 84 (stating that, from the point of view of "good and accurate theory" the doctrine has to be rejected "out of hand").

² Brunnemann, Commentarius in Pandectas, Lib. XLIV, Tit. VIII, Ad. L. 11, n. 1.

^{^[200]} Donellus, Commentant de Jure Civili, Lib. XII, Cap. XVI, 9 sq.; Savigny, Obiigationenrecht, vol. II, p. 76.

^{^[201]} § 375.

⁹ See especially Ankum, De voo roude rs, op. cit., note 38, pp. 27 sqq.; De Wet, op. cit.,

note 43, pp. 104 sqq.; Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 98 sqq.

Cf. Didacus de Covarruvias a Leyva. "Vanae Resolutiones Juridicae". in: Opera Omnia (Francofurti. 1573). Lib. I. Cap. XIV. 11. Both Muller, op. cit.. note 43. and Coing, p. 430. emphasize that the break with the "aiteri stipulari nemo potest" rule ultimately originated in Spanish legal science; cf., for example, the discussion in Perezius, Praeletittones. Lib. VIII, Tit. LV, n. 9.

^f'³ Exercitationes, Ad Regulas juris. Disput. XI, 1. 73, 5 (should read: 16).

^{^[205]} Pars I, Lib. IV, Cap. XVI, 8. The discussion among the Dutch jurists has been summed up by Voet, Gommentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLV, Tit. I, III; cf. also Groenewegen. De legibus abrogatis, Inst. Lib. Ill, Tit. XX. § 19 aiteri.

^,;> Cf. Reinhard Zimmermann/David Carey-Miller, "Hugo Grotius—Generis humarri iuris consultus", V)S4 Jura 1 sqq.

^A III, I, 36; but see also III, III, 38.

^{^[208]} Lib. II, Cap. XL § 18. As so often (cf. Otto Wilhelm Krause, Naturtechtler des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts (1982), pp. 150 sqq.), Grotius built on the foundations laid by the late

scholastic Spanish legal science (cf. supra, note 62.).

^6H Wieacker, Privatrechtsgeschichte, pp. 293 sq. and especially, Diesselhorst, Hugo Grotius,

passim: cf. infra, p. 544.

^M It is hardly surprising that both sometimes get mixed up in South African law; c(. e.g. Leslie Rubin, "The Legal Consequences of Contracts Concluded by a negotiorum gestor", 3954 Butterworth's South African LR 131 sq.; Lee, Introduction p. 439.

⁷⁰ § 75 I 5 PrALR.

Thcil 4. Cap. 1, § 13 Codex Maximilian eus.

^{^[213]} § 854 Sachsisches Gesetzbuch.

^{^[214]} § 881 ABGB; reformed, however, by the third Theilnovcllc in 1916.

⁷¹ Traite des obligations, mi. 54 sqq.

^D Art. 1165 code civil; on the origin of the provisions regarding contracts in favour of a third party in the French and Dutch codifications, see Ankum, De voorouders, op. cit., note 38, pp. 30 sqq.; as far as French law is concerned, cf also Edouard Lambert, Du contrat en faveur des tiers (1893), passim.

⁷⁽¹ This provision has been received in Louisiana (but has been changed subsequently). On the history of "stipulations pour autrui" in Louisiana, see J. Denson Smith, (1936) 11 Ttilane LRJS sqq.

' The most important parts of the "vast edifice which the French courts have constructed on the frail foundation of art. 1121". especially Despretz c. Wannebroucq, Cass. civ. 16.1.1888, are easily accessible in Kahn-Freund/Levy/Rudden, A Source-hook on French Law (2nd ed., 1979), pp. 454 sqq.; cf. also Nicholas, h'LC, pp. 177 sqq.

™ Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 126 sqq., 138.

^7,1 Cf. especially Windscheid/Kipp. § 316. In § 316 a, a variety of theories and constructions (mostly based on fictions) is discussed which were proposed in the course of the 19th century in order to get around the effects of the "alten stipulari nemo potest" rule.

Cf. in this context the polemic though instructive remarks by von Kirchmann. Die Werthlosiqkeit der Jurisprudenz als Wissenschaft (1848), as quoted by Zwcigcrt/Kutz/Weir. p. 126.

Cf. e.g. Mutual Life Insurance Co. of New York v. Hotz 1911 AD 556 sqq.; McCullogh v. Fernwood Estate Ltd. 1920 AD 204 sqq. and the criticism by De Wet, op. cit., note 43, pp. 146 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 94 sqq. For a different view, see J. Kerr Wylie, "Contracts in favour of third parties", (1943) 7 THRHR 94 sqq.

^{^[222]} Cf. the comparative analysis by Zweigert/Kotz/Weir. pp. 124 sqq.

^H~ Cf. the comparative analysis by Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 133 sqq.; and the historical analysis by Palmer, (1989) 33 American Journal of Legal History 3 sqq.

’°^rbim!op Pneumatic Tyre Co. Ltd. v. Selfridge and Co. Ltd. [1915] AC 847 (HL) at 853; cf. also Beswick v. Beswick [1967] 2 All ER 1197 (HL); Treitel, Contract, pp. 458 sqq.

^{^[225]} Cf. Buckland/McNair, pp. 214 sqq.; Arthur L. Corbin. Contracts for the Benefit of Third Persons. (1930) 46 LQR 12 sqq.; Louise Wilson, "Contract and Benefits for Third Parties", (1987) 11 Sydney LR 230 sqq.

^{^[226]} De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. Xf 18.

¹ The distinction is sometimes blurred; cf., tor example, supra, notes 48, 69. ' Thus, one person acts, but the effects of that act arise in a third party. Rabel, "Die Stellvertretung in den hellenistischen Rechten und in Rom", in: Atti del congresso internationale di diritto romano. vol. I (1934), p. 238, has called this a legal miracle (''Ursprünglich

%ibt es nirgends eine direkte Stellvertretung. Sie ist ein juristisches Wunder").

¹¹¹¹ Cf. Raul/D. 45, 1', 83 pr.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 317; Klaus-Peter Martens, "Rechtsgeschäft und Drittinteressen", (1977) 177 Archiv jur die civilistische Praxis 139 sqq. The validity of such a transaction is (in modem times) incompatible with the autonomy of each individual to enter into legal transactions (Privatautonomie). In the case of agency, this problem docs not arise, as the principal has conferred the power of agency on the agent.

^{^[230]} Cf., for example, Windscheid/Kipp, § 73, n. 15; Wolfram Muuer-Freienfels, Die

Vertretung beim Rechtsgeschäft (1955), pp. 15 sqq.; Karsten Schmidt, "Offene Stellvertretung"

1987Juristische Schulung 425 sqq.; cf. also art. 1984 code civil; art. 1388 codice civile. For a

comparative evaluation, see Philippos Doris, "Die unmittelbare Stellvertretung des BGB im

Lichte funktions- und strukturahnlicher Rechtsgebilde in anderen Rechtsordnungen", in; //. Festschrift fur Karl Larenz (1983), pp. 161 sqq.

¹¹ Cf. § 364 II BGB, which formulates with unsurpassed elegance: "In the case, that the will to act in another person's name, is not apparent, the absence of the will to act in one's own name is not to be taken into consideration?'

It aims at protecting both the party with whom the "agent" contracts and third parties (who have an interest in the certainty and clarity of legal relations).

^$ Cf. e.g. Christian Wolff, Institutiones juris naturae et certtium. § 551.

⁵⁸ Cf. Wolfram Muller-Frcicnfcls, "The Undisclosed Principal",'(1953) 16 Modem LR 299 sqq.; idem, "Comparative Aspects of'Undisclosed Agency". (1955) 18 Modem LR 33 sqq.; S.J. Stoljar, The Law of Agency (1961), pp. 203 sqq.

¹⁾⁴ Cf. e.g. G.H.L. Fridman, The Law of Agency (4th ed., 1976), pp. 191 sqq.

⁹¹ Lippen & Co. v. Desbats 1869 Buch 189; O'Leary v. Harbord (1888) 5 HCG 1; cf. J.C. van der Horst, Die Leerstuk van die "Undisclosed Principal" (1971).

^{^[237]} Cullinan v. Noordkaaplandse Aartappelkerntiioerkwekers Kooperasie Bpk. 1972 (1) SA 761 (A) at 767F—G: "Ofskoon... die leerstuk... inderdaad indruis teen die grondbeginsels van ons reg, is die onderhawige myns insiens nie 'n geval waar ingegryp en die leerstuk oorboord gegooi kan word nie...."

Cf. Axel Claus. Gewillkürte Stellvertretung im Romischen Privatrecht (1973); G. Hamza, "Aspctti della rappresentanza negoziale in diritto romano", (1980) 9 Iudex 193 sqq.; idem, "Fragen der gewillkürten Stellvertretung im romischen Recht", (1983) 25 Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Htmgaricae 89 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 260 sqq.; idem, "Zum Wesen der romischen Stellvertretung", (1970) 9 Romanitas 333 sqq.; idem, "Stellvertretung und 'notwendige Entgeltlichkeit'", (1974) 91 ZSS 146 sqq.; Ludwig Mitteis, Die Lehre von der Stellvertretung (1885); Muller, op. eit., note 43, pp. 14 sqq.; Joseph Plescia. "The Development of Agency in Roman Law", (1984) 30 Labeo 171 sqq.; Raphael Powell, "Contractual Agency in Roman Law and English Law", 1956 Bittterworth's South African LR 41 sqq.; Quadrato, ED, vol. 38, pp. 417 sqq.; Rabe], Atti, op. cit., note 87, pp. 23S sqq.; idem, Grundzuge. §§ 118 sqq.

But cf Alessandro Corbino, "Forma librale ed intermediazione negoziale", in: Sodalitas, Scritti in onore ai Antonio Guarino, vol. V (1984), pp. 2257 sqq.

® Cf. Mitteis. op. cit.. note 97. pp. 13 sqq.; Kaser. RPr I. p. 260. A totally different hypothesis has recently been advanced by Claus. Stellvertretung, pp. 14 sqq. According to him. (ancient") Roman law did not object to agency in the sense that a free person could acquire rights and incur obligations on behalf of somebody else. Taking as his point of departure what Erwin Seidl (for example in: Agyptische Rechtsgeschichte der Saiten- und Perserzeit (2nd ed., 1968), pp. 45 sqq.) has called "the principle of necessary remunerativeness"— which, according to Seidl, originally applied in Roman law just as in all other (early) legal systems (cf. for England the doctrine of consideration)—he argues that if the remuneration had come from the property of a third party or if what had been acquired had benefited the property of the third party, that third party, and not the person concluding the contract, would be liable and entitled under the transaction. Only later on, when the will of the parties began to be emphasized and ultimately replaced the principle of necessary remunerativeness as the basis of the contractual transactions (that is, since the end of the third century B.c.) did the jurists introduce the prohibition of agency. For a refutation of this theory, see Kaser, (1974) 91 ZSS 146 sqq.

^{^[241]} On this topic generally, see Schulz, Principles, pp. 83 sqq.; Dieter Non, "Zum Traditionalismus der romischen Juristen", in: Festschrift ?ir Werner Flume, vol. 1(1978), PP, 153 sqq.

Muller-Freienfels, Vertretung. op. cit., note 89, p. 53.

^{^[243]} Cf. M.I. Finley, The Ancient Economy (1973); Tenney Frank (ed.), An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome. vol. I. v (1959); M. Rostovtzeff, The Social ana Economic History of the Roman Empire (1926); and the essays collected in M.I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Ancient Society (1974) and Helmmh Schneider (ed.), Zur Sozial- und Wirtschcftsgeschichte der spaten romischen RepijbUk (1976); Wieacker, RR, pp. 347 sqq.

⁰³ As to what follows cf. especially the clear and instructive analysis by Kaser, (1970) 9 Romanitas 333 sqq.; also Rabel, Grundzuge. §§ 118sqq. On the reasons for an increasing need for agency (and thus: for the intervention of the praetor), see Powell, 1956 Butterworth's South African LR 42 sqq.

¹⁰⁴ But cf. W.M. Gordon, "Agency and Roman Law", in: Studi in onore di Cesare San?lippo. vol. Ill (1983), pp. 341 sqq., who argues that "Roman law gradually reached a position where the advantage of going further was more theoretical than practical and Roman law reached this situation in a way which gave practical results which were in certain respects preferable to those which would follow from the adoption of direct agency" (p. 343). For a critical evaluation of the traditional opinion, see also Quadrato, ED. vol. 38, PPj.417 sqq.

^s Cf. esp. Max Kaser, "Zur Methode der romischen Rechtsfindung", in: Ausgewahlte Schriften, vol. I (1976), pp. 3 sqq.

^{^[246]} The institutions of buying commission and commission for sale are modern examples of indirect agency. They are based on the desire to make use of independent entrepreneurs at foreign trading centres and on the preference of the buyers or sellers at these foreign trading centres to contract with the representative on the spot rather than with some unfamiliar and far-off principal. Transactions through commission agents were very popular in the 19th century; owing to the modern means of transport and communication their importance has decreased considerably, cf. Karsten Schmidt, Handelsrecht (3rd ed., 1987), pp. 762 sqq. Agency, for the fathers of the BGB, meant "direct agency" (cf. supra, p. 46); they regarded (rules about) indirect agency as obsolete and dispensable. Time has shown that this attitude was too rigid; the need for indirect agency in certain circumstances has had to be accommodated by the courts (cf., for example, the Geschäft fur den. den es angeht (transaction for whom it concerns), on which, see Karl August Bettermann, Vorn stellvertretenden Handeln (1937), pp. 90 sqq.; Klaus Muller, "Das Geschäft fur den, den es angeht", 1982 Juristenzeitung Tri sqq.). As far as Roman law is concerned, the importance of indirect agency as a satisfactory alternative to direct agency is stressed by Gordon, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. Ill, pp. 344 sqq.

^{1 7} Ratihabitio is subsequent assent; cf., for instance, Ulp. D. 46, 8, 12, 1; 3, 5, 5, 11. On the theory and history of ratification in the law of agency, see Gualtiero Procaccia, (1978-79) 4 Tel Aviv University Studies in Law 9 sqq.

applies to t^Ae informal transactions only. Where, for example, formal oral declarations by the stipulator and promisor are required (stipulatio), the parties could not make use of nuntii.

¹⁰⁴ As to the concept of a nuntius, ct. Flume, AT, § 43, 4; Gotz Hueck, "Bote—Stellvertreter im Willen—Stellvertreter in der Erklärung", (1952-53) 152 Archivfiir die civilistische Praxis 432 sqq.; Mitteis, op. cit., note 97, pp. 128 sqq.

^1D Paul. D. 18, 1, 1, 2: "Est autem emptio iuris gentium, et ideo consensu peragitur et inter absentes contrahi potest et per nuntium et per litteras."

^{^[250]} Gai. ?, 60.

^1E Kaser, RZ. pp. 152 sqq.; Claus, Stellvertretung, pp. 52 sqq.

^1B As, for example, where the impubes was still an infans or where he was absens.

¹⁴ Paul. D. 26, 7, 27: "Tutor, qui tutelam gerit, quantum ad providentiam pupillarem domini loco haberi debet."

^1B Cf. especially Max Kaser, "Ruhende und verdrängende Hausgewall im alteren romischen Recht", (1939) 59 ZSS 31 sqq. (35 sqq.).

^lb Ner. D. 41, 1, 13, 1; Paul. D. 41, 2, 1, 20.

^{^[256]} Cf. Ulp. D. 26, 7, 9 pr.; Ulp. D. 13, 5, 5, 9.

^{^[257]} Cf. Scaev. D. 36, 3, 18, 2.

® Actiones utiles were also granted for and against municipia on account of the acts of their actor (representative in court): Paul. D. 3, 4, 10; Ulp. D. 13, 5, 5, 7 sqq.; cf. further Ulp. D. 12, 1, 27.

™ Cf. Gai. D. 41, 1, 9, 4; Ulp. D. 6, 1, 41, 1; Paul. D. 13, 7, 20 pr.

^Q Cf. recently Wolfgang Kruger, Erwerbszurechnung kraft Status (1979), pp. 21 sqq.; as far

as Ehe acquisition of possession through persons in power is concerned, see Hans-Peter Benohr. Der Besitzerwerb durch Gewaltabhangige im klassischen romischen Recht (19721. On the problems arising in situations where a slave has several domini, see Geoffrey MacCormack,

"Nomination: Slaves and Procurators", (1976) 23 RIDA 191 sqq.

^c Cf. Gai. II. 86 sqq.

¹³ (1970) 9 Romanitas 343 sqq.

^K1 We find the same idea in public law: populus Romanus and municipia act through their magistratus. Cf. also the post-classical concept of the delegatus prindpis (C. 1, 50 and 51). Cf., for example, Gai. D. 50, 17, 133: "Melior condicio nostra per servos fieri potest, deterior fieri non potest." Could slaves alienate property for their masters? For details, see Hans Ankuin, "Mancipatio by Slaves in Classical Roman Law?", 1976 Acta Juri dice 1 sqq.; idem, "Mancipatio by Slaves in Classical Roman Law", in: Huldigingsbundel Paul van Warmelo (1984), pp. 6 sqq.

⁰⁵ Cf., for example, Ulp. D. 44, 7, 14.

^{^[266]} Cf. generally e.g. Claus, Stellvertretung, pp. 64 sqq. and passim The term has its origin in Paul. D. 14, 1, 5, 2: "[H]oc enim edicto non transfertur actio, sed adicitur."

“ D. 15. 4: C. 4. 26.

“ Gai. IV. 72a-74a: Itist. IV. 7. 4-4c: D. 15. 1: C. 4. 26.

“ D. 14. 1: C. 4. 25.

^Q "Non tarnen omne, quod cum institore [se: vel exercitore] geritur, obligat eum qui praeposuit, sed ita, si eius rei gratia cui praepositus fuerit, contractum est, id est dumtaxat ad id quod eum praeposuit" (Ulp. D. 14, 3, 5, 11).

^{^[271]} D. 14, 3; C. 4, 25.

⁰³ On the interpretation of the term "institor", cf. the analysis by Nikolaus Benke, "Zu Papinians actio ad exemplum institoriae actionis", (1988) 105 ZSS 597 sqq.

^1,4 D. 15. 3.

“ Gai. IV. 71; Ulp. D. 14. 1. 1. 4; Ulp. D. 14. 3. 7. 1.

^{^[274]} Liability in solidum = several persons owe one performance in such a manner that each

of them is bound to effect the whole performance, but the creditor is entitled to demand the performance only once. Cf. today, for example, § 421 BGB.

^{^[276]} Cf. Marceli./Ulp. D. 14. 3. 1; Paul. D. 46. 5. 5.

^13M Piero Angelini. II procurator ( 197lì; Okko Behrends. "Die Prokuratur". ( 197lì 88 ZSS 215 sqq.; Hamza. (1983Ì 25 Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 97 sqq.; J.-H. Michel, "Quelques observations sur 1'evolution du procurator en droit romain", in: Etudes offertes a Jean Macqueron (1970), pp. 515 sqq.; Kaser, RPrll. pp. 100 sq.; idem, (1974)91 ZSS 186 sqq.; Renato Quadrato, "D. 3, 3, i pr. e la definizione di 'procurator'" (1974) 20 Labeo 210 sqq.; idem, ED. vol. 38, pp. 422 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 193 sqq.

^{^[278]} Cf., for example, Gai. II, 95; (on which, see Claus, Stellvertretung. pp. 174 sqq., but also Quadrato, ED. vol. 38, pp 426 sqq.); Inst. II, 9, 5. Nomination by the procurator determined whether he or his principal acquired: see MacCormack, (1976) 23 RIDA 191 sqq.

^{^[279]}Pap./Ulp. D. 19, 1, 13, 25.

“ Pap. 14. 3. 19 pr.; Pap./Ulp. D. 19. 1. 13. 25; Pap./Ulp. D. 17. 1. 10. 5; Ernst Rabel. "Ein Ruhmesblatt Papinians", in: Festschrift?ir Ernst Zitelmann (1913); Claus, Stellvertretung, pp. 259 sqq.; Quadrato, ED, vol. 38, pp! 431 sqq.; Benke, (1988) 105 ZSS 607 sqq.

“ Cf.. for example. Ulp. D. 43. 26. 6. 1; Ulp. D. 4. 9. 1. 3.

“ Cf. e.g. Afr./Ulp. D. 12. 1. 9. 8; Scaev. D. 39. 5. 35. 2; Paul. D. 45. 1. 126. 2; Kaser. (1974) 91 ZSS 177 sqq.; Ulrich von Lubtow, "Die Darlehensgewahrung durch den Prokurator", in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. 1(1971), pp. 149 sqq.; Fritz Pringshcim, Der Kauf mit fremdem Geld (1916), p. 109.

¹⁴ Ulp. D. 14, 1, 1, 18; Paul. D. 14, 5, 8. On the cognitio extra ordinem, the latest form of civil proceedings in Roman taw, which was first concurrent with, but later replaced the formulary procedure, cf. Kaser, RZ, pp. 339 sqq., pp. 410 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp 557 sqq.

Levy, Obiigationenrecht, pp. 60 sqq. On the post-classical developments, see also Sandro Angelo Fusco, "Pecuniam commodore" (1980), pp. 44 sqq.

^{^[285]} Cf. the details in Kaser, RPr II, pp. 99 sqq.; Claus, Stellvertretung, pp. 337 sqq. Probably the most important change related to the acquisition of possession (and through possession, ownership) through extranei which was now no longer restricted to tutores and procuratores, but generally admitted: Inst. II, 9, 5; C. 7, 32, 1. This generalization, however, possibly dates back already to late classical times: cf. Alan Watson, "Acquisition of Ownership by 'traditio' to an 'extraneus' " (1967) 33 SDH7T89 sqq.; Kaser, (1974) 91 ZSS 194 sq.

^{^[286]} Irnerius, "gl. danda ad D. 3, 3, 27, 1", in: Enrico Besta, L'opera d'lmerio, vol. II (1896), p. 42.

^{^[287]} Especially at the time of the glossators and the humanists. For a general discussion, see Coing, pp. 423 sqq.; J.C. de Wet, " 'n Bydrae tot die geskiedenis van die ontwikkeling van direkte verteenwoordiging by die sluiting van ooreenkomste", (1942) 6 THRHR 99 sqq., 210 sqq.; Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 29 sqq.; Paolo Cappellini, "Rappresentanza", in: ED, vol. 38 (1987), pp. 435 sqq.; Hasso Hofmann, Repräsentation (1974), pp. 152 sqq.; for the more modem history, see Wolfram Muller-Freienfels, "Die Abstraktion der Vollmachtserteilung im 19. Jahrhundert", in: Helmut Coing, Walter Wilhelm (eds.), Wissenschaft und Kodifikation des Privatrechts im 19. Jahrhundert, vol. II (1977), pp. 144 sqq. For a discussion of the (comparative) history of agency, see also Gualtiero Procaccia, "On the History of Agency", (1976) 2 Tel Aviv University Studies in Law 56 sqq.

^{^[288]} See, for example, Adalbert Erler, in HRG, vol. I (1971), cols. 798 sq.

The oft-quoted brocard (esp. in English law) "qui facit per alium, facit per se" goes back to two regulae contained in the Fiber Sextus, Lib. V, Tit. XII, De regulis iuris LXVHI and LXXH (Bonifacius VIII). It was, however, hardly more than a guideline and did not establish a legal rule about agency (in private law) which would have abrogated the Roman principle. Cf. Hermann Lange, (1956) 73 ZSS 286 sqq.; Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 62 sqq., but see also Procaccia, (1976) 2 Tel Aviv University Studies in Law 70 sqq.

¹ One may think, for instance, of Christ's death as satisfactio vicaria for Adam's fall (likewise a peccatum vicarium) or of the Pope as vicarius Christi. Also the hierarchical structure of the Church has always necessitated acting for others. For details cf., for example, J. Ratzinger, "Stellvertretung", in: H. Fries (ed.), Handbuch theologischer Grundbegriffe (1963), vol. II, pp. 566 sqq.; Hofmann, op. cit., note 148, pp. 47 sqq., 116 sqq. and passim; Settimio Carmignani Caridi, Rappresentanza, in: ED, vol. 38 (1987), pp. 485 sqq. On the development of agency in the early canon law, cf. Anton Kradepohl, Stellvertretung und katholisches Eherecht (1964), pp. 28 sqq. On agency in the conclusion of a marriage according to canon law, see Kradepohl, pp. 64 sqq.

^{^[291]} Cf. Vangerow, Pandekten, § 608 (vol. Ill, pp. 293 sqq.); Muhlenbruch, Doctrina Pandectarum, § 131.

⁵³ "... in his quae adeo sunt personalia, quod ex persona procuratoris non possunt transire in dominum procurator repraesentat persona domini directo sicut nuncius": Bartolus, Commentaria, D. 39, 2, 13, § Si alieno, 3. This thought was based on texts such as Ulp. D. 14, 3, 1; Paul. D. 46, 5, 5; vide supra, note 137.

⁴ Cf. e.g. Bartolus, Commentaria, D. 3, 3, 67, § Procurator qui pro evictione.

¹⁵ Cf. supra, p. 41 (note 49).

¹³⁵ But it was approved and taken over in the 16th century by Franciscus Hotomanus; cf. the analysis by Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 96 sq.

^{^[296]} Obligationenrecht, vol. II. § 57.

^1SH Obligationenrecht, vol. II. § 56.

^{^[298]} On the relationship and mutual impact of the actio de in rem verso and agency, see Kupisch. Versionski age, pp. 30 sqq.

It is rather surprising to see how. for instance, some of the humanists condemned slavery as not being reconcilable with the Christian teaching, but nevertheless extensively discussed and regarded as binding the sources of Roman law relating to the legal position of slaves (for instance, in the present context, as one of the exceptions to "alten stipulari nemo potest"’). But see. on the other hand. Simon van Leeuwen (Censura Forensis, Pars i. Lib. II. Cap. XII. n. 2). who argued that since slavery had been abolished, the Roman rules relating* to acquisition through slaves had to be applied to those free persons ("famulos, et ministros liberos homines, qui nobis operis suis inserviunt"’) who had taken their place.

^H Cf. analysis and references in Muller, op. cit.. note 43. pp. 55 sqq.

^E Cf. De Wet. (1942) 6 THRHR 210 sqq.: D.J. Joubert. Die Suid-Afrikaanse Verteenwoordigingsreg (1979’1. pp. 13 sqq.

¹⁶⁸ Disputationes luris Fundamentales (Franequerae. 16881. Disp. LI. n. 9.

¹⁸ Commenterais ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII. Tit. I. IX.

^lffi In the same passage. Voet. incidentally, compares procurators and nuntii:. quia

procuratores hodie in negotiis contrahendis considerantur magis ut nuncii." This has been

translated by Percival Gane (The Selective Voet, vol. Ill (1956) in the following way;. because agents are rather regarded today in making business contracts as messengers." On that basis, Voet's opinion has been criticized in (1910) 27 SALJ 385. According to Muller, op. cit., note 43, p. 109, Voet is saying that the agent is more than a nuntius.

¹⁰⁵ Censura Forensis, Pars I, Lib. IV, Cap. Ill, n. 10.

^{^[306]} Cf. supra, pp. 43, 45 sq., and Muller, op. cit., note 43, pp. 123 sqq. This was then also taken over in the usus modernus, cf. e.g. Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. DXIX; for France, see Pothier, Tratte des obligations, im 74 sqq. For details of the development, see, in particular, Coing, pp. 426 sqq., 429 sq.; Cappellini, HD, vol. 38, pp. 447 sqq.

^lfE Cf. § 85 I 13 PrALR; §§ 1002 sqq. ABGB; Theil 4. Cap. Y. § 7 Codex Maximihaneus;

§ 788 Sächsisches Gesetzbuch; artt. 1984, 1998 code civil.

Brinz, Pandekten, §371.

¹⁷³ Windscheid/Kipp, § 73 (pp. 350 sqq.).

^{^[310]} This had been Savigny's opinion (Obligationenrecht, vol. II, §§ 54 sqq., 57, 59) ("('•eschafisherrntheorie"; organ theory); for an analysis, see Heinz Mohnhaupt, "Savignys Lehre von der Stellvertretung", (1979) S lus Commune 60 sqq.; cf. for England also Stoljar, op. cit., note 93, pp. 14 sq.

^{^[311]} Cf., for example, § 166 BGB; Flume, AT, § 43, 3. This is also the situation pertaining in modern Roman-Dutch law; see, for example, De Wet en Yeats, p. 87 sq.; Joubert, op. cit., note 162, pp. 24 sqq.

^m "Die Stellvertretung bei dem Abschluss von Rechtsgeschäften nach dem Allgemeinen Deutschen Handelsgesetzbuch", (1866) 10 ZUR 183 sqq.

^1,1 Cf. especially Muller-Freienfels. in: Wissenschaft und Kodifikation, op. cit.. note 148. pp. 144 sqq.; for a comparative view, see also Procacda, (1976) 2 Tel Aviv University Studies in Law 81 sqq.; Gerd Justus Albrecht, Vollmacht und Auftrag (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Kiel, 1970), passim.

^{^[314]} Cf. e.g. §§ 164 sqq. BGB; am. 1387 sqq. codice civile; §§211 sqq. Civil Code (Greece). For a comparative analysis of agency in modern civil-law systems, see Wolfram Muller-Freienfels, "The Law of Agency", in: A.N. Yiannopoulos (ed.), Civil Law in the Modem World (1965), pp. 77 sqq.

Cf., for example, Fridman, op. cit., note 94, pp. 8 sqq.

^{^[316]} Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 101. On the history of agency (and its relationship with the privity requirements of modern contractual doctrine), see, most recently, Palmer, (1989) 33 American Journal of Legal History 28 sqq.

^{^[317]} J-C. De Wet, "Agency and Representation", in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. I (1976), n. 115.

^ra These arc the words of art. 1984 code civil. They are based on Pothier, Traite des obligations, nn. 74 sqq. In South African law this view is maintained by A.J. Kerr, The Law of Agency (1979), pp. 1 sqq., 15 sqq., whose whole treatise is, in turn, greatly influenced by Pothier. (The Traite du contrat de mandat has, incidentally, been translated into English: B.G. Rogers, Pothier's Treatise on the Contract of Mandate (1979).)

The word "assignment" is derived from assignare (assignatio), cession from cedere (cessio). Only the latter expression occurs in the Roman sources (C. 4, 35, 22 sq.).

^1HT Cf., for example, Azo, Summa Codicis, ad C. 4, 10 (p. 118, left col.); cf. Erich Genzmer, "Nomina ossibus inhaerent", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan, vol. I (1963), pp. 159 sqq·

^1K* Cf. Schulz. CRL, p. 628: "It could not be otherwise. A law in which execution on the person of the debtor is a living institution cannot allow a creditor to transfer his right to another without the consent of the debtor, thereby perhaps substituting a harsh creditor for a mild one." For the same consideration in Jewish law, see S.J. Bailey, "Assignment of Debts in England from the Twelfth to the Twentieth Century", (1931) 47 LQR 535.

^{^[322]} Cf. already Hugo Donellus, Commentarii de Jure Civili, Lib. XV. Cap. XLIV, VIII ("Nam et hae sunt in bonis nostris").

^im Cf. the analysis in Zwcigcrt/Kotz/Weir, pp. 108 sqq.

^{^[324]} § 398 BGB. As to the history of this section d. Klaus Luig, Zur Geschichte der Zessionslehre (1966), pp. 100 sqq., 130 sqq. In the civil-law systems we speak of singular succession to obligations (as opposed to the universal succession of the heir). The assignment is usually based on a sale of the right: the contract of sale provides the obligationary agreement to cede or, put differently, the assignment is the real agreement executing the obligation incurred by virtue of the sale of the right. (The situation is thus similar to the sale of corporeal objects, where both traditio and a "real" agreement arc necessary to transfer ownership; cf, infra, p. 239). This applies to legal systems (such as the German and the South African) which require an act separate from the obligationary contract (e.g. of sale) to transfer the right. The matter is different in French law, where ownership of corporeal objects passes on account of the contract of sale. Consequently, the French Code also deals with cession de creance in the context of the law of contract.

¹⁸⁵ Artt. 1689 sq. code civil. These provisions are based on the writings of Domat and Pothier and, through them, ultimately on the Coutume de Paris (with the famous rule: un simple transport ne saisit point—a mere cession does not place the "assignee" in "possession" of the claim); cf. Frans Heinrich Grosskopf, Die geskiedenis fan die sessie van vorderingsregte

(1960), pp. 78 sqq. Even though they have been not inconsiderably modified by the courts, they have proved to be too cumbersome for commercial practice. Both legislator and courts have found ways to get around them, as, for instance, by using the institution of "subrogation personnelle" (artt. 1249 sqq.). Cf. Ghestin, "La transmission des obligations en droit francais positif", in: La transmission des obligations (IXes Joumees d'etude juridique Jean Dabin, 1980), pp. 3 sqq., 36 sqq.

^1H7 Cf. esp. Biondo Biondi. "Cessione di crediti e di aim diritti". in: Novissimo Digesto Italiano, vol. Ill (1959), pp. 152 sqq.; Luig, op. cit., note 185, pp. 2 sqq.; Georg H. Maier, "Zur Geschichte der Zession", in: Festschrift für Ernst Rabel, vol. II (1954), pp. 205 sqq.; Wladyslaw Rozwadowski, "Studi sui trasferimento dei crediti in diritio romano", (1973) 76 BIDR 11 sqq. On the possibility of achieving a change of creditors by way of an oath (iusiurandum), see Fritz Sturm, "Der Eid im Dienste von Abtretung und Schulduber- nahme", in: Studi in onore di Gaetano Scherillo, vol. (I (1972), pp. 514 sqq.

¹⁸⁵ Gai. II, 38.

^{^[328]} Paolo Cosentino, "Osservazioni in tema di mandatum e di delegatio", (1966) 69 BIDR 299 sqq.: Wolfgang Endemann. Der Begriff der Delegatio im klassischen Romischen Recht (1958").

^{19124 sqq.}

⁷ His name would thus appear in the intentio of the formula; in the case of procedural

representation, the intentio gives the name of the "assignor", while only the condemnatio is

framed in favour of the representative. ²⁰⁸ Luig, op. cit., note 185, pp. 6 sq.

^2S Cf. Alex.. C. 8. 16. 4; Gord.. C. 8. 41. 3 (probably interpolated").

^{^[349]} Discussion and references in Rozwadowski. (1973") 76 BIDR 91 sqq.. 155 sqq.; Luig. op. cit., note 185, pp. 6 sqq. On the significance of the denuntiatio in the ius commune (does

"denuntiatio simplex" suffice or is the drawing up—and handing over—of a formal

instrument required?; what is the effect of denuntiatio or—in France—insinuatio?), cf. Coing, pp. 447 sq.

²¹ As Groenewegen, Tractatus de legibus abrogates, Cod. Lib. VIII, Tit. XLII, 1. 3, n. 3, aptly put it: "Sed quemadmodum hodie sublatis actionum formulis,... extra ordinem,... et suppresso actionum nomine... jus dicitur, ideoque directae et utilis actionis distinctio penitus sublata est."

²² Cf. Levy, Obiigationetirecht, pp. 155 sqq. In the Codex we find terms such as "actiones

transmittere" (C. 8, 53, 33) and "actiones per cessionem transferre" (C. 5, 12, 31 pr.).

For the history of assignment in the European ius commune, see the works by Grosskopf and Luig, also the overview by Coing, pp. 445 sqq.; Bruno Huwiler, Der Begriff der Zession in der Gesetzgebung seit dem Vernunftrecht (1975^, pp. 1 sqq.; Susanna Johanna Scott, Sessie in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg (1977), pp. 4 sqq. Cf. the analysis by Grosskopf, op. cit., note 186, pp. 43 sqq.

¹⁵ Cf. the desperate exclamation by Cacheranus, as quoted by Grosskopf, op. cit., note 186, p. 75: "Videtis igitur, doctissimi Lectores, varias Doctorum opiniones, et doctrinas, a quibus facile se extricare non est, nisi elevemus oculos ad Christum lesum, Dei veritatem et sapientiam."

Cf, for example, Christian Friedrich Muhlenbruch, Die Lehre von der Cession der Forderungsrechte (3rd ed., 1836), p. 22; Mackeldey, Systema iuris Romans, § 333; Vangerow, Pandekten, § 574. n. 1.

^J7 Muhlenbruch. op. cit.. note 216. pp. 147 sqq.

^{^[357]} As far as the pandectist literature is concerned, cf. Luig. op. cit.. note 185. pp. 47 sqq.

¹⁹ Generally on the use officiions. see Maine, pp. 13 sqq.; Gustav Demclius. Die

Rechtsfiktion in ihrer geschichtlichen und dogmatischen Bedeutung (18581; Josef Esser. Wert und Bedeutung der Rechtsfiktionen (2nd ed.. 19691; Lon L. Fuller. Legal Fictions (19671; Karl Larenz. Methodenlehre der Rechtswissenschaft (5th ed.. 19831. pp. 251 sqq.; Peter Birks. "Fictions Ancient and Modern", in: The Legal Mind, Essays for Tony Honore (19861. pp. 83 sqq.; Wieacker. RR, pp. 324 sqq.: Tomasz Giaro. "Uber methodologische Werkmittel der Romanistik". (19881 105 ZSS 223 sqq.

” Die Actio des romischen Civitrechts vom Standpunkte des heutigen Rechts (18561. pp. 148 sqq.; also in Windscheid/Kipp, §§ 329 sqq.

"Zur Zessionslehre", (1857) 1 Jhjb 351 sqq.

“ Cf. also already §§ 376 sqq. I 11 PrALR.

^{^[362]} Adversariorum iuris tractatus. Tract. Ill, Pars I, Cap. I, 5.

^{^[363]} Cf. the analysis by Grosskopf, op. cit., note 186, pp. 103 sqq., 116 sqq.

^{^[364]} Vide Johann Schilter, Praxis iuris Romani inforo Germanico, Francofurti et Lipsiae (1713), Exercitatio ad Pana. XXX, §§ LXI1 sqq.

²³⁵ Cf. De Wet en Yeats, pp. 225 sqq.; P.M. Nienaber, in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. II (1977), nn. 324 sqq.; Susanna Johanna Scott, The Law of Cession (1980). Very influential in South African practice has been Johann van de Sande's book De Actionum Cessione. Being, however, a Frisian author, he can be regarded as authority for Roman-Dutch law strictu senso only with circumspection. The reception of Roman law in Friesland has been more far-reaching than in Holland. The problem of cession provides a good example, for in accordance with what they understood the Roman law to be, both Van de Sande and Ulrich Huber did not regard claims as transferable (cf. e.g. Van de Sande, Cap. VIII, 19: "[actio] intra viscera ejus, cui debetur, haere[a]t").

⁷ Cf. e.g. Christian Wolff, Institutions juris naturae et gentium, §§ 313 sqq.; Darjes, Institutiones iurisprudentiae universalis, §§ 489 sqq. For a detailed analysis, see Huwiler, op. cit., note 213, pp. 45 sqq.

^{^[367]} On the concept of cession in the codifications influenced by natural law (Codex

Maximilianeus Bavancus, PrALR and ABGB), see Huwiler, op. cit., note 213, pp. 103 sqq.

Even though we would not today regard the holder of a right as its "owner", assignment (as with transfer of ownership) both in German and South African law is an abstract legal act (abstract, that is, from the obligational agreement; a different view based on the tradition of "cessio sine causa facta non valet" was still adopted, for instance, by Van de Sande, De Actionum Cessione, Cap. II, 3). As to the development of the concept of cession

as an abstact legal act, see Klaus Luig, "Zession und Abstraktionsprinzip", in: Coing/Wilhelm (ed.), Wissenschaft und Kodifikation des Privatrechts im 19. Jahrhundert, vol. II (1977), pp. 112 sqq.

Cf. especially Luig, in: Wissenschaft und Kodifikation, op. cit., note 229, pp. 112 sqq.

Cf. Paul. D. 18. 4. 5: § 404 BGB: Van Zyl v. Credit Corporation of SA Ltd. 1960 (41 SA

582 (A) at 588F-H. The general principle in South African law, as in German law, seems to be that the position of the debtor must not be adversely affected as a result of the cession: cf. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XVIII. Tit. IV, XIII; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 231 sq. As to the position of the debtor where assignor and assignee have tried, by means of the assignment, to deprive him of his counterclaims, see the fascinating decision L.T. A. Engineering Co. Ltd. v. Seacat Investments Ltd. 1974 (1) SA 747 (A) with a full discussion by Jansen JA of Ulp. D. 3, 3, 33, 5 and Gai. D. 3, 3, 34. Cf. Paul van Warmelo, (1974) 91 SALJ 298 sqq.; Zimmermann, RHR. pp. 66 sq.

^{^[371]} Cf. C. 8, 16, 4 (Alex.); § 407 BGB; Lovell v. Paxinos and Plotkin: in re Union Shopfitters v. Hansen 1937 WLD 84 at 86. In French practice (since about the 16th century) the debtor has been protected in a different manner: by formalizing the act of cession and requiring "signification" of the debtor. Only such signification (denuntiatio) was seen to transfer the claim; cf. e.g. supra, pp. 59, 63.

³³³ The lex Anastasiana: C. 4, 35, 22. Cf. still Windscheid/Kipp, § 333; Van de Sande, De Actionum Cessione. Cap. XI, and also artt. 1699 sqq. code civil. The rule has not been adopted in the BGB; in South Africa it is regarded as having been abrogated by disuse: cf. Seaville v. Corfey (1892) 9 SC 39.

^{^[373]} Cf.. for example. Holdsworth. HEL, vol. VII (2nd ed.. 19371. p. 520: "... the assignment of such a right of action by the act of two parties was unthinkable." ^A Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 224 sq.

^{^[374]} On this interesting episode and on the traces that it left in English law (as, for example—possibly—the common-taw exceptions in favour of such assignments as concerned the King; the Jews, as the King's villains, were considered to be dealing in his property and on his behalf), see Bailey, (1931) 47 LQR 516 sqq. As the reasons for the rejection of the customs of the Jewry (which would have made debts freely assignable)

Bailey refers to the unpopularity of their originators, the reaction of a people released from hated oppression, and the obstinate inertia of the common law.

^{^[376]} As to this term (which is still in use today), see Holdsworth, HEL, vol. VII, pp. 515

⁸On the historical development in England, see Percy H. Winfield, "Assignment of Choses in Action in Relation to Maintenance and Champerty", (1919) 35 LQR 143 sqq.; Bailey, (1932) 48 LQR 248 sqq., 547 sqq. Bailey sums up his analysis in the following words (p. 579): "The history of this subject shows clearly that the common law Courts obstructed the development of a sound and uniform doctrine of assignment.... This was due to their inability to harmonize any such doctrine with the general principles which they evolved."

^{^[374]} Others were the dotis dictiu and the promissio operarum of a libertus: Gai. Ill, 95 a, 96; for an overview cf. Albanese, Atti negoziedi. pp. 68 sqq.; specifically on the promissio operarum liberrorum cf. Wolfgang Waldstein, Operae libertonm (1986), pp. 239 sqq.

^{^[375]} Gai. Ill, 92; cf. also Inst. Ill, 15 pr. and 1.

^{^[376]} Kaser, RPr I, p. 538.

" CLR. p. 474.

^s Nodes Atticae. Lib. XVI, II. ("They say that it is a rule of the dialectic art that if there is inquiry and discussion of any subject and you are called upon to answer a question which is asked, you should answer the question by a simple 'yes' or 'no'. And those who do not observe that rule... are thought to be both uneducated and unobservant of the customs and laws of debate... For a discussion will become endless and hopelessly involved, unless it is confined to simple questions and answers"; trans. John C. Rolfe, The Attic Nights of Aldus Gellius. vol. Ill (1928), p. 133.)

It is one of the main aims of legislative consumer protection against the "small print" to ensure that special attention is drawn to the standard clauses and that the consumer is provided with a reasonable opportunity to take note of their contents; cf. e.g. § 2 AGBG.

^{^[379]} Cf. Oratio pro A. Caecina ІП—7.

^{^[380]} The point is made by Rudolf von Jhering, Geist П, pp. 556 sqq., quoting J. Christiansen, Institutionen des romischen Rechts.

^{^[381]} On the attitude of Roman lawyers towards abstraction (reserve and disinclination), see

Schulz, Principles, pp. 40 sqq.

^D Cf. also Maine, pp. 193 sq.

¹ See Schulz, CRL. p. 474.

^E Schulz, Principles, pp. 223 sqq.; Luigi Lombardi, Dalia "fides" alia "bona fides" (1961),

pp. 1 sqq.; Harald Fuchs and Ernst Meyer, in: Hans Oppermann (ed.), Romische Wertbegriffe

(1983), pp. 23 sqq., 529 sqq.; Wieacker, RR. pp. 506, 643 sq.

^B Deofficiis, 1, VII—23.

“ Gai. Ill, 105.

^B Gai. Ill, 136 (in fine); Paul. Sent. V, VII, 2 ("Verborum obligatio inter praesentes non etiam inter absentes contrahitur.").

^B C. 2, 55, 4, 7; generally on the contemptuous attitude of the Byzantines towards the oral forms of Roman law, see Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 86 sqq.

^{^[389]} The necessity for formalities designed to provide evidence may not have been felt so strongly in former times because, until fairly recently, the memory of most people was much more reliable than it is today.

^{^[390]} Cf. e.g. Behrends, op. cit.. note 24. p. 35.

Or a symbolic binding with a haulm (stipula)? For these and other hypotheses c{., for

³ Cf. e.g. Kaser. RPrl, p. 169.

example, Dull, (1951) 68 ZSS 191 sqq.; Detlef Liebs, "Contrarius actus. Zur Entstehung des romischen Erlass Vertrags", in: Sympotica Franz Wieacker (1970), pp. 134 sq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "Formalism, Symbolism and Magic in Early Roman Law", (1969) 37 TR 453

sqq. Cf. also already Inst. Ill, 15 pr.: "Quae hoc nomine inde utitur, quia stipulum apud

veteres firmum appellabatur, forte a stipite descendens."

^{^[396]} Gai. Ill, 93, 94. On the relationship between sponsio and stipulatio, see, most recently, Cornioley, Scntti Guarino, vol. VI, pp. 2891 sqq.; Malte Dobbertin, Zur Auslegung der Stipulation im klassierten romischen Recht (1987), pp. 45 sqq.

"The Form of the Stipulation in Roman Law", (1953) 69 LQR 63 sqq.

^{^[398]} Cf. e.g. Annemarie Winkler, "Gaius III, 92", (1958) 5 RIDA 603 sqq.; De Zulueta, Gaius II, pp. 153 sqq.

^{^[399]} Ulp. D. 45, 1, 1, 6; Gai. Ill, 93; Inst. Ill, 15, 1. Thus, in developed law there was no magic in the use of particular words. As to the use of "Poenum... vel Assynum... lingua" cf. Riccobono/Kerr Wylic/Bcinart, pp. 39 sq.

^A° Ven. D. 45, 1, 137 pr.

" "Arma virumque cano" (Aeneis. Lib. I, 1); cf. Flor. D. 45, 1, 65 pr.

^{^[402]} D. 45, 1, 137 pr.: "... ceterum si post interrogationem aliud acceperit, nihil proderit, quamvis eadem die spopondisset."

"" Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 35 sq.

^{^[404]} D. 45, 1, 1, 2: "Si quis ka interroget 'dabis?' respondent 'quid ni?' et is utiquein ea causa est, ut obligetLir: contra si sine verbis adnuisset."

^3:1 Cf. the example given in Ulp. D. 45, 1, 1, 3.

^{^[406]} Ulp. D. 45. 1. 29 pr.; D. 45, 1, 86; Paul. D. 45. 1, 140 pr.; cf. Schmidlm, Rechtsregeln, pp 73 sq.

Ulp. D. 45, 1, 1, 5: "... Scichi adiectionem pro supervacuo habendam puto:... duae sunt quodammodo stipulationes, uni utilis, alia inutilis, neque vitiatur utilis per hanc inutilem."

(‘'Ulp. D. 45, 1, 1, 4.

³¹³ Cf., for example, Wunner, Contractus, pp. 204 sq.; Hans Josef Wieling, Testamentsauslegung im romischen Recht (1972), pp. 92 sq., 125 sq., 266. For details of the application and significance of this maxim cf., in particular, Ralph Backhaus, "In maiore minus inest", (1983) 100Z55136 sqq.

^{^[410]} Cf. e.g. Gai. Ill, 102; Giovanni Criscuoli, La nullità parziale del negozio giuridico (1959), pp. 27 sq.

⁴ Cf. e.g. Paul Kretschmar, "Kritik der Interpolationcnkritik", (1939) 59 ZSS 186 sq.

^{^[412]} This is the view, for instance, of Betti, Diritto Romano, pp. 333 sq.

Cf. Hans Hermann Seiler, "Utile per inutile non vitiatur", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 127 sqq.

⁴¹ Paul. D. 18. 1. 34 pr.: "Si in emptione fundi dictum sit accedere Stichum servum neque intellegatur, quis ex pluribus accesserit, cum de alio emptor, de alio venditor senserit, nihilo minus fundi venditionem valere constat."

® Paul. D. 13, 6, 17 pr.: "In commodato haec pactio, ne dolus praestetur, rata non est."

^{^[415]} Ulp. D. 28, 4, 2: "Cancellaverat quis testamentum vel induxerat et si propter unum heredem facere dixerat: id postea testamentum signatum est. quaerebatur de viribus

testameiiti deque portione cius, propter quern se cancellasse dixerat, dicebam, si quidem unius ex heredibus nomen mduxerit, sine dubio ceteram partem testamenti valere et ipsi soli denegari actiones...."

⁴ Gai, III. 103; the second part of this stipulation infringes the rule "alten stipulari nemo potest." Cf. supra, pp. 34 sqq. In the present context it is of interest to note that neither the Proculiani nor the Sabmiani advocated invalidity of the whole promise.

⁴³ For further discussion, see Seiler, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 128 sqq.

^{^[419]} Cf., for example, Marci. D. 18, 1, 44, as discussed by Seiler, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 130 sq.

³³ Criscuoli, op. cit., note 40, pp. 49 sqq.. Theo Mayer-Maly, "Uber die Teilnichtigkeit",

in: Privatrechtliche Beitrage, Gedenkschrift Franz Gschnitzer (1969), pp. 281 sq.

³ Accursius, gl. Per hanc inutilem, ad. D. 45, 1, 1, 5.

³² Cf. e.g. Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. I, § 124, 3.

³ Cf. Puchta, Pandekten, % 67.

Cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 82, n. 12.

^s For a comparative analysis, see Alexander Ligeropoulos, "Teilnichtigkeit des Rechtsgeschäfts unter Ausschluss der Gesamtnichtigkeit", (1971) 24 RHDI 1 sqq.

^ae Cf. e.g. art. 20 II OR; art. 1419 II codice civile (on which, see Criscuoli, op. cit., note 40, pp. 59 sqq.).

f Cf. art. 1172 code civil; Art. 181 Greek Civil Code.

^{^[428]} § 139 BGB. But see, more recently, §61 ABGB. dealing with partially invalid standard contract terms. Here the German legislator has returned to utile per inutile non vitiatur.

^5,1 Mayer-Maly, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nd ed., 1984), § 139, nn. 24 sqq.

^bn The German courts use this discretion to avoid invalidity of the whole transaction to a far greater extent than envisaged by the legislator. Thus, one might ask whether the presumption of utile per inutile vitiatur still reflects the practice of the courts.

^{^[431]} Seiler, Festschrift Kaser, p. 147; ct'. also Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 116.

⁽'² Cf. Christie, Contract, pp. 360 sqq.. 379 sqq.; Wessels, Contract, vol. I, nn. 605 sqq.

⁰³ The literature on this topic is abundant. The details of the development are controversial; see esp. (of the more recent literature) Kaser, RPr II, pp. 373 sqq.: Levy, Obligationenrecht, pp. 34 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "The Oral and Written Stipulation in the Institutes", in: Studies in Justinian's Institutes in memory ofJ.A.C. Thomas (1983), pp. 96 sqq.; Nicholas, (1953) 69 LQR 77 sqq., 233 sqq.; J.C. van Oven, "La stipulation a-t-elle degenere?", (1958) 26 TR409 sqq.; Fritz Pringsheim, in: Gesammeitc Abhandlungen, vol. II (1961), pp. 194 sqq.; Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 48 sqq., 55 sqq., 91 sqq.; Dieter Simon, Studien zur Praxis der Stipulationskiausel (1964), pp. 26 sqq.; Dietrich V. Simon, Konstantinisches Kaiserrecht (1977), pp. 93 sqq.

® Such cautio stipulatoria could contain all the elaborate details of the transaction which it would have been difficult to include m the oral question-and-answer form. To this document the parties could then simply refer in their stipulation ("Ea omnia, quae supra scripta sunt, dari?": Paul. D. 45. 1, 140 pr.; c(. also Paul. D. 17, 2, 71 pr.) and record the oral act in a stereotype clause appended to the cautio; cf. Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 12 ("... novissima parte pactorum ita solet imeri 'rogavit Titius, spopondit Maevius'...").

^{^[435]} Contra: Diosdi, pp. 51 sqq. ⁷¹ Cf. e.g. Gai. Ill, 134; Diosdi, pp. 62 sq.

⁷² Cf. Cicero (Topica, XXVI—96), who took stipulations to be res quae ex scripto aguntur.

⁷³ Kaser, RPr II, pp. 374 sq.

^{^[436]} Cf. supra, note 69, and especially Pringsheim, op. cit., note 68, pp. 194 sqq.; Dieter

Simon, op. cit., note 68, pp. 1 sqq.

^7r> The importance ot the constitutio Antoniniana for the degeneration of the stipulation is emphasized by Schulz (CRL, p. 476) in the following words: "With [this enactment] the

stipulation was doomed. It was too closely connected with Roman customs and the peculiar

Roman temperament and too alien to Eastern legal thought to be fully understood and properly applied by the vast mass of new Roman citizens."

It was appended in a curiously overcautious and tremulous way, not uncommon for notaries, to all sorts of contracts and even to wills or documents relating to a release from slavery.

^{^[442]} However, during the time up to Justinian, there seems to have been a shift from "promissorische Sanktionsklausel" to "konfirmatorische SanktionsklauseV; see the detailed analysis of the sources by Dieter Simon, op. cit., note 68, pp. 41 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 2. 14. 7. 12.

^{^[444]} C. 8. 37. 1 (Sev. et Ant.l. This rescript is dated April 200. At this time, as Tony Honore

has argued, Papinian was secretary a libellis: cf. Emperors and Lawyers (1981), pp. 56 sqq.

^5K) Cf. further, for example, Paul. D. 24, 1, 57; 45, 1, 134, 2.

^MI C. 8, 37, 10 (a. 472). Interpretation and evaluation of this Constitution provide a good

example of the disputes surrounding the later history of the Roman stipulation. On the one-

hand, it is held that late classical law had already gone the whole way from verba to

scriptura, so that Leo's Constitution merely (re-)states what was already recognized (cf. e.g. Jors/Kunkel/Wenger, p. 98). On the other hand, it is suggested that, up to the time of Leo,

the formality of oral question and answer reigned supreme. Leo dispensed with the necessity of

formal question and answer, but did not change the nature of the stipulation as an oral act. Only Justinian replaced the oral act by the written document (cf. e.g. Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 51 sqq.). Others, again, see this transformation as having taken place

with Leo's Constitution; according to them, each written contract was to be taken as a

stipulation (e.g. Levy, Obligationenrecht, p. 39). Nicholas, (1953) 69 LQR 63 sqq., 233 sqq. argues that even Leo still retained the form of (oral) question and answer; the purpose of C. 8, 37, 10 was only to do away with what he believes to have been the numerus clausus of the formal words (cf. Gai. Ill, 92 and supra, p. 72) and to allow the use of other than these

"sollemnia verba". According to van Oven, (1958) 26 TR 415 sqq., too, Leo's Constitution did not change very much. He sees the sollemnitas that was abolished in the correspondence of the verb used in question and answer. Also according to MacCormack, Studies Thomas, pp. 99 sq., the stipulation remained an oral act. He, however, takes the constitution to have been of a purely declaratory nature ("... fit] cannot have abolished any particular requirement") and argues that the correspondence requirement had already been watered down in classical law. For older literature, see Windscheid/Kipp, § 312, n. 2.

^s Inst. Ill. 19. 12; C. 8. 37. 14. 2.

^{^[456]} Inst. Ill. 19. 12.

⁸¹ C. 8. 37. 14. 2.

^{^[458]} To show his displeasure at these kinds of stories. Justinian used strong language

("improbis aliegationibus").

*⁶ Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, p. 57.

Differently, MacCormack, Studies Thomas, pp. 96 sqq.; to some extent also Diosdi, pp. 61 sq.

^8g As to the "two souls in Justinian's bosom" in this context, see, Levy, Obligationenrecht. p. 59.

^K9 For the later history of stipulation cf. infra, pp. 546 sqq.

^{^[463]} One of the best accounts is still that by R. von Jhering, Geist П, pp. 470 sqq.; cf. also Ludwig Mitteis. Romisches Privatrecht bis auf die Zeit Diokletians, I (1908"). pp. 225 sqq.

^yl Differently, for example, art. 1341 code civil, which prescribes that all transactions of more than 5 000 ffrs must take the form of private writing or of a notarial document. But non-observance of the form does not entail invalidity of the transaction. Only the testimony of witnesses is excluded; in other words, the informal transaction cannot be proved in court. Also, according to the Statute of Frauds (1677, England), transactions which do not observe the prescribed forms ("a note or memorandum of the agreement in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith") are nor void, but rather unenforceable; on the Statute of Frauds, Simpson, History, pp. 599 sqq. For alternative consequences of a lack of form in German law, cf. Rudolf Westerhoff, "Wie begründen wir Formnichtigkeit?", (1984) 184 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 376 sq.

⁹" "Zur Lehre vom Rechtsgeschäft im klassischen romischen Recht", in: Festschrift für Fritz Schulz, vol. I (1951), pp. 160 sqq. Cf. also Jors/Kunkel/Wcnger, p. 90; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 39 sq.

^y3 Cf. Kaser, Altromisches ins. pp. 301 sqq.; idem, RPr I, p. 28; Dulckeit, Festschrift Schulz. vol. I, pp. 162 sq.; contra: Geoffrey MacCormack, "Formalism, Symbolism and Magic in Early Roman Law", (1969) 37 TR 439 sqq., 447 sqq.; idem, "Hacgerstroem's Magical Interpretation of Roman Law", (1969) 4 The Irish Jurist 153 sqq.

^{^[464]} As to the pontifical nature of the ancient Roman jurisprudence, cf. Jhering. Geist II. pp. 390 sqq.; Kaser, Altromisches ins, pp. 345 sqq.; Schulz, RLS, pp. 6 sqq., 15 sqq.; Wieacker, RR, pp. 310 sqq. and passim.

^b Cf. E. Kaufmann, in: HRG, vol. I, col. 1163 sqq.; for grotesque extremes in the

® Gai. IV. 11; cf. also IV. 30.

13th/14th centuries cf., for example, 68, 7 of the Lehenrecht of the Sachsenspiegel, where Eike

von Repgow found it necessary to state: "Wenn der Mann im Lehengericht sich die is'ase putzt oder sich schneuzt oder spuckt oder gähnt oder wenn er hustet oder niest oder auj der anderen Seite seines

Vorsprechers steht, als er zunächst stand, oder wenn er sich schicklich umschaut oder Fliegen, Mucken oder Bremsen schicklich von sich scheucht, so hat er deswegen kein Strafgeld verwirkt, obwohl dies einige Leute glauben" (cf. the edition by C. Schott, 1984) (If, in the feudal court, the man blows his nose or spits or yawns or when he coughs or sneezes or stands on the other side of his prompt than he first stood, or if he turns around in gentlemanly fashion or brisks away in gentlemanly fashion flies, mosquitoes or horseflies, he does not on that account incur a penalty, although some people think so).

^{^[470]} The same applies to other early legal systems. Two examples from the Bible spring to mind: Jacob's marriage to Leah and Isaac's blessing given to Jacob instead of to Esau were both unquestionably valid despite Jacob's and Laban's deceit.

⁵⁵ Along the same line Celia Wasserstein Fassberg, "Form and Formalism: A Case Study", (1983) 31 American Journal of Comparative Law, 630: "Nothing had happened if the form was absent because only by means of form were the public, religious requirements of certainty and society fulfilled. For the same reason, just as nothing had happened in law, nothing had happened in fact."

"Jhenng, Geist II, p. 492.

'™ Wilhelm Ebel, Recht und Form (1975), pp. 13 sq.; Wieacker, Vom romischen Recht, p. 76; idem, RR, pp. 320 sqq.

^{^[474]} Cf. e.g. Jolowicz/Nicholas. pp. 414 sqq.

Kaser. RPr II. pp. 73 sqq.

“ Kaser. RPr II. pp. 76 sq.. 376 sq.

¹⁰¹ Cf. Heinrich Brunner. Zur Rechtsgeschichte der romischen und germanischen Urkunde (1880), pp. 44 sqq., 86 sqq.; H.-A. Schultze von Lasaulx, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Wertpapierrechts (1931), pp. 25 sqq.

^ir,> The notary in Germany is entrusted with the recording oflegal transactions; there is no comparable official in English law.

¹⁰ Cf. the comparative analysis by Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 53 sqq.

^{^[480]} Cf. § 313 BGB; s. 40 Law of Property Act (1925, England); Alienation of Land Act, 68/1981 (South Africa); for a thorough comparative discussion, see Bernd von Hoffmann, Das Recht des Grundstuckskaufs (19821. pp. Ill sqq.

^1UK Questioned by Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 51 ("... [this consideration] gives immovable property a special status not justified by modern conditions, but it is in any case unavoidable to require some degree of formality for transactions in land since otherwise there would be no clear basis for making entries in the Land Register"). Cf. also von Hoffmann, op. cit., note 107, pp. 4 sqq.

^{^[482]} S 766 BGB; Statute of Frauds.

^ш § 518 BGB, art. 931 code civil.

^{^[484]} Cf. supra, note 6.

^1E Writing required in the case of instalment sales (so that the purchaser's attention is drawn to the financing charges).

^B Cf., tor example, as to the provisions of the PrALR, the comment by Jhering, deist II, PP-483 sq.

"English Judges have done their best to restrict the area of application of the Statute of Frauds, helped in their tortuous construction by the remarkable opacity of the statutory text": Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 46. In France the courts have watered down art. 1341 code civil by means of a widely construed doctrine of "commencement de preuve par ecrit": testimony ot witnesses is admitted, whenever the leading of evidence can at least be started off with a written document. For the attitude of the German courts, see n. 119.

^{^[486]} This was the reason for the enactment of the Statute of Frauds: "For the prevention of many fraudulent Practices which are commonly endeavoured to be upheld by Perjury and

Subornation of Perjury", i.e. fraudulent plaintiffs bringing claims on non-existent contracts; the background is sketched by Simpson, History, pp. 599 sq.; cf. further esp. Ernst Rabel,

"The Statute of Frauds and Comparative Eegal riistory", (1947) 63 LQR 174 sqq. An amusing example of the evidentiary function of form is related by Paul Vinogradoff, Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence, vol, I (1920), p. 364: in early Bavaria and Alemannia transfers of land had to be performed in the presence of a certain number of" small boys who, after attending the ceremony, were treated to a box on the ear in order that they might keep a vivid remembrance of what had happened. Without such a box, the transfer was void.

^{^[489]} Cf. e.g. Karl Heldnch, "Die Form des Vertrages", (1941) 147 Archiv fur die civilistische

Praxis 91 sqq.; Eon L. Fuller, "Consideration and Form". (1941) 41 Columbia LR 799 sqq.

(who adds what he refers to as the "channeling function").

¹⁷ The law of (testate) succession is, of course, one of the main battlefields with regard to this problem. See, for instance, for Germany, the classic monograph by Fritz von Hippel, Formalismus imd Rechtsdogmatik (1935); for a recent comparative survey Fassberg, (1983) 31 American Journal of Comparative Law 627 sqq.; and for South Africa, see Ellison Kahn, "The Will that Won't", in: Hiddigingsbundel Paul van Warmelo (1984), pp. 128 sqq.

^11R On formal and formalistic reasoning in contract law, see P.S. Atiyah, "Form and Substance in Legal Reasoning; the Case of Contract", in: The Legal Mind. Essays for Tony Honore (1986), pp. 19 sqq.

⁹ The line of the Federal Supreme Court has varied; cf. the analysis by Joachim Gemhuber, "Formnichtigkeit und Treu und Glauben", in: Festschrift fur Walter Schmidt' Rimpier (1957), pp. 151 sqq.; Ludwig Hasemeyer, Die gesetzliche Form der Rechtsgeschafte (1971 i. pp. 36 sqq.

^{^[494]} On the advantages and disadvantages of form, see Jhering. Geist II. pp. 47U sqq.; on form and substance in legal reasoning cf. Atiyah. Essays Honore, pp. 19 sqq.. 33 sqq.

^a A frontal attack on the forma] requirements for wills has been launched by Gerhard Kegel. "Die lachenden Doppelerben". in: Festschrift ?ir Werner Flume (1978"). vol. I. pp. 545 sqq. In case of a failure of a will as a result of the testator's lawyer's negligence, the intended beneficiary, according to Kegel, may take directly under the will (and thus dethrone the intestate heir"). The Federal Supreme Court, on the other hand, has adopted the view that the intended beneficiary may claim damages from the negligent lawyer (as a result of which we would have, in actual fact, one person taking under the will, the other by way of claiming damages'). Against both solutions cf. Reinhard Zimmermann. "Lachende Doppelerben?— Erbfolge und Schadensersatz bei Anwaltsverschulden". 1980 Zeitschrift ?ir das gesamte Familienrecht 99 sqq. Cf. also John G. Fleming. "Comparative Law of Torts". 4 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 239 sq.; Owen Rogers. "The Action of the Disappointed Beneficiary". (19861 103 SALJ 583 sqq.

^E Asa negative example, cf. the formalities required for the holograph will before the Testamentsgesetz of 1938; a will was void, even if only the place where it had been drawn up had not been written by hand, because it was printed on the letter paper of a hotel.

^{^[496]} Cf. the English doctrine of part performance: on its evolution by the Court of Chancery, see Simpson, History, pp. 613 sqq.; cf. also the (American) Restatement Contracts 2d ^A1982), § 129.

^11,4 Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 189 sq. This development from self-assured primitivity to artistic perfection coupled with formal disintegration and depletion of meaning is usually well illustrated by the development of art; a comparison between the early Greek kouroi with their strictly mathematical and rectilinear frame of reference with the Hellenistic sculptures is particularly instructive.

^{^[498]} Cf. Cicero, De qfficiis 1, X—33, probably of Greek origin; cf. Georg Eisser, "Zur Deutung von 'summum ius summa iniuria' im romischen Recht", in: Summum ins summa iniuria (1963), pp. 1 sqq. Thus, Rudolf von Jhering could state, in a seemingly paradoxical way: "Die Form ist die geschworene Feindin der Willkür, die Zwillingsschwester der Freiheit" (Form is the archfoe of arbitrariness, the twin sister of freedom): Geist II, p. 471.

As to the "classicity" of classical Roman law, cf. also Schulz, RLS, pp. 99 sqq. As far as the concept "classical" is concerned, see generally, in the sense indicated in the text above, Fritz Schachermeyr, Forschungen und Betrachtungen zur griechischen und romischen Geschichte (1974), pp. 145 sqq.

^{^[500]} Cf. generally Schulz, Principles, pp. 66 sqq.; also jhering, Geist III, pp. 139 sqq., 178 ⁵tiq-

” Ernst Rabel. ''Nachgeformte Rechtsgeschäfte¹'. (19061 27 ZSS 29U sqq. ; (19071 18 ZSS 311 sqq.; cf. also Liebs, Sympotka Wieacker, pp. Ill sqq.

But see F. H. Lawson, "Analogues of the Stipulatio in English Law", in: XXth century

Comparative and Conflicts Law, Legal Essays in Honor ofHessel E. Yntema (1961), pp. 117 sqq.

However, Lawson does not deal so much with the form of the stipulation but highlights two other aspects: the fact that the promisee, if he is to be able to sue on the promise, must extract

it from the promisor, and that he must draft the terms that he wants, i.e. that the promisee must take the initiative.

^{^[506]} Cf. e.g. Riccobono/Kcrr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 26 sq.; Siber, Romisches Privatrecht, pp. 178 sq.

^{^[507]} Gai. IV. 136

^u" Gai. IV. 136.

³ Schulz. CRL, p. 478.

^{^[509]} Cf. infra, pp. 509 sqq.

¹³¹ Cf. infra, pp. 236 sqq.

^{^[511]} Kaser. RZ, pp. 335 sq.

^{^[512]} The unilateral nature of legal relationships in the old Roman law is stressed by Jhering, Geist III, pp. 199 sqq. and ties in with the principle of simplicity. "Der Gedanke der Gegenseitigkeit ist kein ursprünglicher Gedanke des romischen Zivilrechts, das spezifisch Romische ist die Einseitigkeit.... Die einseitige Obligation ist nicht bloss die einfachste Obligationsform im analytischen Sinne, sondern auch im praktischen Sinn, d.h. die am leichtesten zu handhabende” (The notion of reciprocity is not an original idea of Roman private law; unilaterality is the specifically Roman notion... The unilateral obligation is not only the simplest type of obligation from an analytical perspective, but also from a practical point of view, i.e. it is the one that can most easily be handled). Cf. also Wieacker, RR, pp. 327 sq.

~ As will be seen, the two reciprocal stipulations could also be connected by means of an exceptio (in this instance the exceptio mercis non traditae would have been applicable).

^{^[514]} Therefore the text has been regarded as spurious (Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 105 sqq.)- Wunner, Contractus, pp. 206 sqq., on the other hand, accepts the text as evidence for both the prevalence of voluntas over quod dictum est in the law of stipulation and for quantitative severability of contracts. Contra Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht. pp. 132 sq. On the principles governing interpretation cf. infra, pp. 621 sqq.

ⁿ Gai. IV. 116 a.

¹⁽¹ Ulp- D. 44. 4. 4. 16 (on which cf. e.g. Cimma. op. cit.. note 142. pp. 38 sqq.').

^11,3 Cf.. however. Levy. (19531 70 ZSS 219 sqq.

¹ ⁴ Cf. e.g. C. 4. 30. 4 (Ant.l; for a recent discussion, see Jean Philippe Levy. "A quels faits la 'querela non numeratae pecuniae' tendait-elle a remedier?", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. IV (1983), pp. 339 sqq.: Cimma, op. cit., note 142, pp. 60 sqq., 166 sqq.: Trofimoff, (1986) 33 RIDA 236 sqq.

^ICB C. 4, 30, 14 pr.; Inst. Ill, 21; generally, for Justinian's law on the topic, cf. C. 4, 30, 14-16 and Cimma, op. cit., note 142, pp. 171 sqq.

^{^[519]} On the usus modernus of the exceptio non numeratae pecuniae, see Coing, pp. 470 sq.;

for the 19th century, see Windscheid/Kipp, § 372 (concluding, de lege ferenda, on a very critical note). The exceptio has not been incorporated into the modern codifications. It is still in use in South African law (though usually renounced by the parties to the loan); cf. D.J. Jouberl, in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. 15 (1981), n. 293.

^{^[521]} Cf. "Motive", in: Mugdan. vol. If p. 275; Alfred Sotlner, in: MunchenerKommentar. vol. II (2nd ed., 1985), Vor § 339, n. 3; Detlev Fischer, Vertragsstrafe iind vertragliche Schqdensersatzpauschdliemng (1981), passim.

^{^[522]} Knutel, Stipulatio poenae. pp. 45 sqq. Early Roman law (like all early legal systems) had focused on the "in terrorem" function; the penalty was used as a sanction for a private wrong. In the course of time the compensatory function came to the fore; it was, in turn, to dominate the scene during the development of the ius commune. Classical Roman taw presents the model of a well-balanced bifunctional approach.

^{^[523]} A penalty could, however, also be added to one of the consensual contracts by way of a pactum adiectum. The penalty could then be claimed with the bonae fidei action arising from that contract.

^{^[524]} Inst. Hl, 15, 7.

^{^[525]} D. 46, 5, 11.

^{^[526]} C. 8, 38, 2 and today § 1297 II BGB. Differently § 113 II1 PrALR.

Vide infra, pp. 107 sq. In the Middle Ages penal bonds were very popular, but in theory their function was apparently compensatory. Even where—as was commonly done—the penalty was fixed at twice the sum owed, ir served to compensate the creditor for his loss of interesse. The practice of relieving defaulting debtors from forfeiture of the penalty "in equity" (that is, by the Court of Chancery) led to the decline of the penal bond and finally to the rejection of penalties by the common law. On the history of penal bonds, on their decline and on the establishment of the compensatory principle, see Simpson, History, pp. 90 sqq., 118 sqq., 123 sqq. Not dissimilar is the development that took place under the influence of canon law in the early ius commune. Cf. Andre Fliniaux, "L'evolution du concept de clause penale chez les canomstes du Moyen-Age", in: Melanges Paul Fournier (1929), pp. 233 sqq.

^{^[528]} Vide supra, p. 38.

^{^[529]}Ulp. D. 45, 1, 38 pr.

^b Mod. D. 4. 8. 38.

^B Knutel. Stipulatio poenae, pp. 62. 65 sqq.

² Gai. IV. 17 a.

³ The conditional promise was probably preceded, historically, by an alternative one ("Stichum aut decern dari spondes?"): cf. Kaser, RPr I, pp. 170, 519.

^{^[534]} The process was reversed in the interesting fragment Paul. D. 38, 1, 39 pr.: an invalid independent (!) penalty is reinterpreted (converted) into a valid promise of what had been in condicione. Cf. Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 76 sqq.

³ Simpson, History, p. 53.

²¹ Idem, History, pp. 90, 112 sqq.

^{^[537]} Idem, History, p. 112.

In many modern systems the concept of a "penalty clause" is confined to these cases. Cf., for example, Treitel, op. cit., note 14, p. 94:. the general principle that a penalty

clause contains a merely accessory obligation". Treitel also quotes art. 2117 of the Louisiana Civil Code, where the accessory nature of the penalty clause is expressed very clearly: "A penal clause is a secondary obligation entered into for the purpose of enforcing performance of a primary obligation." As to the consequences of the accessoriness (if principal obligation is invalid, penalty is invalid, as well; assignment of principal obligation involves assignment of the penalty, etc.), cf. § 344 BGB; Sollner, op. cit., note 1, § 339, nn. 6 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 219 sq.

^{^[539]} Cf. Pap. D. 45, 1, 115, 2; Paul. D. 17, 2, 71 pr.

^{^[540]} Cf., for example, lui. D. 19, 1, 28. Also settlements and other pacta on the basis of which the praetor would grant an exceptio pacti could be secured by penalties: cf. e.g. Scaev. D. 45, t, 122, 3; Paul. D. 23, 4, 12, 2.

^{^[541]} "On the problem of a penal stipulation combined with another, the sources are in a sad state of confusion": David Daube, "Slightly Different", (1961) 12 lura 91. But see Levy, Konkurrenz, vol. II, 1, pp. 117 sqq. and, more recently, the detailed discussion by Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 262 sqq. (double stipulations), pp. 291 sqq. (pacta), pp. 320 sqq. (bonae fidei contracts).

²⁰ Windscheid/Kipp. § 285. 4.

³ Paul. D. 44, 7, 44, 6.

^{^[544]} Even though, after forfeiture of the penalty, there were, strictly speaking, two obligations, both valid and enforceable, cumulation was generally regarded as inequitable by the Roman lawyers (Lab./Ulp. D. 44, 4, 4, 7; Sab./Ulp. D. 2, 14, 10, 1; Mela/Paul. D. 23, 4, 12, 2) and has been accepted only under exceptional circumstances.

^{^[545]} "Quasi novatio". Stricto sensu we cannot speak of a novatio, because "navem facere" and "centum" are nor "idem debitum". Cf. supra, p. 60 and infra, pp. 634 sq.

^{^[546]} Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, p. 269.

² See also art. 1229 code civil; § 1336 I ABGB and, for South African law, De Wet en Yeats, pp. 220 sq.

^{^[548]} § 340 II BGB, art. 161 II OR.

^{^[549]} On such agreements between the parties as to the concurrence of actions, see Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 281 sqq.

²⁶ Interpolated, according to. for example. Levy. Konkurrenz, vol. II. 1. pp. 126 sqq.; but see Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 320 sqq.; Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, p- 208.

^s Cf. e.g. Pomp. D. 19. 1. 6. 1.

^{^[552]} Vide infra, pp. 509. 667. 674.

Knutel. Stipulatio poenae, p. 363.

⁴² Cf., for example, Adolf Berger, Die Stra/klauseln in den Papyrusurkunden (1911), pp. 102 sqq.

* See e.g. Alf./Paul. D. 17, 2, 71 pr. On this fragment, see Daube, (1961) 12 lura 88 sqq.

^{^[554]} Cf. the "stipulatio ex bonis moribus concepta" in Pap. D. 45. 1. 121. 1. which had been promised by a husband in case he would fall back into "consuetudo concubinae". Otherwise penalty stipulations in the field of family law were often disapproved of for moral reasons:

cf., for example, supra, pp. 96 sq.

Restrictions of the freedom of testation by means of stipulationes poenae ("si heredem

me non feceris, tantum dare spondes?"") were regarded as invalid: lui. D. 45. 1. 61. The question was disputed in the later ius commune (cf. Windscheid/Kipp. § 529. n. 4"): the BGB

(§§ 2302. 344") has returned to the Roman solution.

⁴⁵ Vide supra, pp. 98 sq.. and infra, pp. 295 sq. and 526 sqq.

¹⁷ Gai. IV. 184.

^4a Cf. Kaser. RZ, pp. 167 sq.

^{^[562]} Cf. Pap. D. 45. 1. 115 pr.

® Cf. Gai. IV. 186.

³ Cf. the discussion by Kniitel. Stipulatio poenae, pp. 71 sqq.

³⁷ Lab./Ven. D. 45. 1. 137. 7: cf. also Ulp. D. 45. 1. 71.

^{^[566]} Pap. D. 45, 1, 124.

^M Paul. D. 45, 1, 8.

⁶ Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 347 sqq.; Jors/Kunkel/Wenger, p. 181; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 520 sq.; Pasquale Voci. "La responsabilità del debitore da stipulatio poenae", in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Votterra. vol. Ill (1971), pp. 319 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 285. 3. The question has now been comprehensively investigated by Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 195

' Pap. D. 45, 1, 115, 2. relating to "si Pamphilum non dederis, centum dari spondes?".

⁶ Cf., for example, lul./Afr. D. 44, 7, 23 (for poena traiecticiae pecuniae); on which cf. infra, p. 185.

^{^[571]} Lab. D. 22, 2, 9.

“ Cels./Ulp. D. 4. 8. 23. 3.

® Cf. infra, pp. 385. 730. 785 sqq.. 820. 822.

“ Serv./Ulp. D. 22. 2. 8; Pomp. D. 4. 8. 40.

^{^[575]} Kniitel. Stipulatio poenae, pp. 198 sqq.

⁷"Ulp. D. 2. 11.2. 3-8.

¹ Ulp. D. 2. 10. 1. 3.

" C(. § 339 BGB ("... the penalty is forfeit if he is in default": mora debitons (default) entails fault: § 285 BGB); implicitly also De Wet en Yeats, pp. 217 sqq. (breach of contract); cf. also Treitel, op. cit., note 14, p, 94 ("Thus iffault' on the part of a debtor is an essential ingredient of contractual liability, it must exist before the penalty can be exacted").

^{^[579]} For a comparative analysis, sec Treitcl, op. cit., note 14, pp. 90 sqq., 97 sqq.; James J. Cox, "Penal Clauses and Liquidated Damages", (1958)33 Tulane LR 180sqq.iJ.C- de Wet, Opuscula Miscellanea (1979), pp. 209 sqq.

⁴ Cf. artt. 1152 and 1231 code civil, amended, however, and brought into line with the other Continental systems in 1975. Cf. e.g. Fischer, op. cit., note 1, pp. 132 sqq.; Nicholas, PLC, pp. 229 sqq. '

^{^[581]} Comment a rius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLV, Tit. I, XII.

⁷⁵ Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. Ltd. v. New Garage and Motor Co. Lfd. [1915] AC 79 (HL) at 86.

^{^[583]} Cf., for example, Treitel, Contract, pp. 769 sqq.

^7H Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. Ltd. v. New Garage and Motor Co. Lid. [1915] JIC 79 (HL) at 87.

^{^[585]} Treitel, op. cit., note 14, p. 103. Strangely enough, the German courts have more recently cumbered themselves with very much the same problem. They have started distinguishing between penalty clauses (which, however, contrary to English law, are not invalid, but subject to the rules laid down in § 339 sqq.) and liquidated damages (which arc not subject to these provisions of the code). In the literature, too, attempts have not been wanting to confine application of the § 339 sqq. to "in terrorem" clauses. Cf. the critical discussion by Fischer, op. cit., note 1, pp. 42 sqq.

^H" § 343 BGB; cf. also § 1336 ABGB, art. 163 III OR, art. 1384 codice civile.

^S1 Cf. Heinrich Siber, in: Planck, Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch (4th ed.), vol. II, 1 (1914), § 343, 1: "anomales Recht" and Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 89 sq.

Cf. "Protokolle", in: Mugdan. vol. II, pp. 722 sqq.; cf. also Verhandlungen des 20. Deutschen Juristentages, vol. II (1889), pp. 23 sqq., 43 sqq.

^{^[589]} A notorious Constitution, the wording of which (according toJ.C. de Wet, Opusmla Miscellanea (1979), p. 205) is "so confused and obscure that it defies interpretation and even translation". Yet it became part and parcel of the ius commune. On C. 7, 47 in Roman law, see Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 288 sqq.; H.J. Erasmus, " 'n Regshistonese Beskouing van Codex 7, 47", (1968) 31 THRHR 213 sqq.; on the ius commune, see Coing, pp. 438 sqq. and H.J. Erasmus, "Aspects of the History of the South African Law of Damages", (1975) 38 THRHR 115 sqq.; for modern South African law, see Erasmus, (1968) 31 THRHR 237 sqq. For further details cf. also intra pp. 828 sqq.

⁴ Carolus Molinaeus, Tractatus de eo quod interest (Venetiis, 1574), n. 159.

^Hj As can be seen from this argument, the focus was very much on the purely compensatory function of penalty clauses. This attitude dates back to canon law empha-

(emphasizing, for moral reasons, [he protection of the debtor and arguing that whatever was beyond a reasonable pre-estimate of damages constituted an unjustified gain for the creditor) and prevailed down to the time of the natural-law codifications. Only the 19th century saw a renascence of the "in terrorem" function of penalty clauses; their character, as private sanctions for the wrong of breach of contract, was (re-)accentuated—conventional penalties as "eine durch Privatwiukur begründete Criminalanstalt im Kleinen" (Savigny).

’ Cf., for example, Pothier, Tratte des obligations, n. 345.

^{^[593]} § 301 I 5 PrALR.

^8H Cf., for example, Fachinacus, Controve rsiae iuris, vol. I, p. 50; Gluck, vol. IV, p. 532, n. 3.

Van Leeuwen, Censura Forensis, Pars 1, Lib. IV, Cap. XV, 2.

Conimentariits ad Pandectas, Lib. XLV, Tit. I. XII.

Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLV, Tit. I, XIII; cf. also Groenewegen, De legibus abrogatis, Cod. Lib. VII, Tit. XLVII, n. 10.

^y2Act 15/1962. Cf. De Wet en Yeats, pp. 211 sqq.; J.C. de Wet, Opuscula Miscellanea (1979), pp. 206 sqq.

⁵⁸ Cf. Steytler v. Smuts (1 833) 1 Menz 40; Mann and Hams v, Cohen 1902 TH 261.

^{^[597]} Otto v. Lategan (1892) 9 SC 250; Commissioner of Public Works v. Hills [19061 AC 368

(PC).

³ Pearl Assurance Co. Ltd. v. Union Government 1933 AD 277. ⁹⁶

Pearl Assurance Co. v. Union Government 1934 AD 560 (PC).

^{^[601]} Tobacco Manufacturers Committee v. Jacob Green and Sons 1953 (3) SA 480 (A) at 493F.

⁵⁸ Conventional Penalties Act 15/1962. Sec. 3 of this Act provides: "If upon the hearing of a claim for a penalty, it appears to the court that such penalty is out of proportion to the prejudice suffered by the creditor by reason of the act or omission in respect of which the penalty was stipulated, the court may reduce the penalty to such extent as it may consider equitable in the circumstances...."

® Cf. supra, pp. 104 sqq.

^IC0 It was specifically excluded by § 306 I 5 PrALR. As to modern German law, cf. Sollner, op. ci t., note 1, § 339, nn. 17 sqq.

ⁿ Rolf Knutel. "Verfallsbereinigung, nachträglicher Verfall und Unmoglichkeit bei der Vertragsstrafe", (1975) 175 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 44 sqq.

¹⁽² Cels./Ulp. D. 4, 8, 23 pr.; cf." also Gai. D. 21,2, 57, 1 and Voci, Studi Volterra, vol. Ill, pp. 335 sqq.

^1(B Cels./Ulp. D. 4, 8, 21. 12, Paul. D. 4, 8, 22, Cels./Ulp. D. 4, 8, 23 pr.: "Intra quantum autem temporis, nisi detur quod arbiter iusserit, committatur stipulatio, videndum est. et si quidem dies adiectus non sit, Celsus senbit libro secundo digestorum messe quoddam modicum tempus: quod ubi praeterierit, poena stamm peti potest: et tarnen, inquit, et si dedent ante aeeeptum iudicium, agi ex stipulatu non potent: utique nisi eins interment tunc solvi. Celsus ait, si arbiter intra kalendas Septembres dari iusserit nee datum

^{^[608]} On the relative importance of personal and real security generally, see John Gilissen, "Esquisse d'une histoire comparee des suretes personnelles", in: Les suretes personnelles. vol. 28, pp. 87 sqq.

* Pomp. D. 5U, 17, 25.

^J Cf. especially Schulz, CRL. pp. 400 sqq. and also Kaser, RPr I, pp. 660 sq.; Nicholas, Introduction, pp. 149 sqq.

^{^[611]} Schulz, Principles, pp. 233 sqq.; Karl Meister, "Die Freundschaft bei den Griechen und Romern", (1950)57 Gymnasium 5 sqq.

Cicero, Luelius de amicitia, XXII, 82.

^{^[613]} Schulz, Principles, p. 237.

^{^[614]} Laelhis de amicitia, XXIII 86.

¹¹¹ Cf. Justus Wilhelm Hedemann. Die Fortschritte des Zivilrechts im XIX. Jahrhundert, II. 2 (1935), pp. 6 sq. (the quotations (a real plague; something dreadful) are taken from Thibaut and Hugo).

¹ Schulz. CRL, p. 404.

^c Schulz. CRL, p. 404.

^B Justus Wilhelm Hedemann. Die Fortschritte des Zivilrechts im XIX. Jahrhundert. II. 1 (1930), pp. 42 sqq., 94 sqq.

^{^[619]} Cf. Hedemann, Fortschritte, II, 1, p. 98.

⁷¹ Cf. Wolfgang Hromadka, Die Entwicklung des Faustpfandprinzips im 18. und 19, Jahrhundert (1971), pp. 41 sqq.

^{^[621]} Cf. e.g. Andreas Wacke, Das Besitzkonstitut als Ubergabesurrogat in Rechsgeschichte und

Rechtsdogmatik (1974), pp. 59 sqq.

Details of the economically most important areas in Walther Hadding, Franz Hauser, Reinhard Welter, "Bürgschaft und Garantie", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. Ill (1983), pp. 584 sqq.

⁸ Gai. Ill, 116.

^B Cf- supra, pp. 71, 72.

²³ Cf. especially Ludwig Mitteis, "Uber die Herkunft der Stipulation. Eine Hypothese", in: Aus romischem und bürgerlichem Recht, Festschrift für Ernst Immanuel Bekker (1907), pp. 107 sqq.; also, for example, De Zulueta, Gaius II, pp. 145 sq., 152.

Cf e.g. Robert Feenstra, "Die Bürgschaft im romischen Recht und ihr Einfluss auf die mittelalterliche und spatere Rechtslehre", (1974) 28 Recueils (op. cit., note 2) 307 sqq.

^{^[627]} Cf. esp. Ernst Levy, Sponsio, fidepromissio, fideiussio (1907), pp. 1 sqq.

^{^[628]} Cf. Jean Triantaphyllopoulos," "Sponsor", (1961) 8 RIDA 373 sqq.

²⁴ Boggling at this discrepancy in meaning between verb and agent noun, many writers have attempted to harmonize the two. While some authors have imputed the wide range o( "spondere" to "sponsio" (cf., for example, Levy, loc. cit.), others have argued that the verb was originally used in the same narrow sense as the noun (cf, for example, Mitteis, loc. cit.). Both views have been criticized by David Daube (Roman Law, Linguistic, Social and Philosophical Aspects (1969), pp. 4 sqq.), who finds any argument based on the assumption of absolute agreement between a verb and its agent noun "utterly unconvincing". Daube shows that the agent noun "tends to be confined to the striking" (p. 2) and gives the following illustration: "Merere or mereri means to earn, meretrix, literally, the earneress.

Was the noun at one time wide, including a schoolmistress? Or was the verb narrow and there is no profit and no merit but goes back to the example set by the call-girl? In reality the noun is from the outset confined to a sector of the verb. The lady is called earneress because she makes a profession of earning, because she sets about earning in a rather special fashion, and indeed because the very fact that a woman earns is striking—there were not at the time many other ways, this kind of woman is the earneress" (p. 10). In the same way. according to Daube, the agent noun sponsor describes him "whose promise stands out" (P-5)-

‘ Cf. supra, p. 72, furthermore, especially, Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz. "'Sponsio' e 'stipulatio' nella terminologia romana", (1962) 65 BIDR 193 sqq., who shows that the terms "stipulatio" and "sponsio", at least as far as we can trace them back, have always indicated the two sides of one and the same transaction. For a brief summary of the discussion relating to the origins of stipulatio, cf. also Jolowicz/Nicholas, pp. 280 sq.

^{^[631]} Cf. Kaser, AhrOmisches ins, pp. 270 sqq.; Wesener, RE, Suppl. vol. XIV, pp. 447 sqq.; Teresa Gimenez-Candela, "Notas en torno al 'vadimonium'", (1982) 48 SDMI 126 sqq.

"Gesteiiungsbiirgschafi" by means of vades or praedes had been turned into the promise of vadimonium or cautio pro praede (both in the form of stipulations). The old praedes survived only in exceptional cases; cf. e.g. Jolowicz/Nicholas, p. 299.

;^kGai. Bl,'119.

²⁴ This would be the case of joint debtors (plures rei promittendi): see Inst. Ill, 16 pr.

^3U Frezza, Garantie, vol. I, pp. 23 sqq.

^{^[636]} Cf. Peter Apathy, "Zur Abgrenzung von Novation und Bürgschaft", (1971) 18 RIDA 381 sqq., 399 sqq., 409 sqq., 427 sqq.

- For a general outline, see Jean Triantaphyllopoulos, "La legislation romaine sur 1c cautionnement", (1961) 39 RH 501 sqq.; Frezza, Garantie, vol. I, pp. 14 sqq.

^{^[638]} Gai. III. 122.

" Gai. III. 121.

^{^[640]} Gai. IV. 22.

^3,1 Gai. III. 121 a.

^{^[642]} Gai. Ill. 123.

^3M Gai. Ill. 120.

^{^[644]} Cf. supra, p. 72 and Kaser. RPr I. pp. 168 sq.. cf. further Levy. Sponsio, pp. 45 sqq.

⁴¹¹ De Zulueta. Gaius II. p. 161.

⁴ As to fidepromissio. see Jean Triantaphyllopoulos. "Peregrinus fidepromissor (Gai.

inst. 3. 120’)". in: Melanges d'histoire ancienne offerts a William Seston (1974"). pp. 473 sqq. and

also Franz Wieacker. "Zum Ursprung der boiiae fidei iudicia". (19631 80 ZSS 13 sq.

³ That fideiussio was developed mainly in order to evade the suretyship legislation is the

prevailing opinion: see e.g. De Zulueta. Gaius II. p. 161: Fcenstra. op. cit.. note 21. p. 315: Jolovvicz/Nicholas. p. 300. Contra: Levy. Sponsio, pp. 124 sqq.: Werner Flume. Studien ~ur Akzessoritat der romischen Burgscha?sstipuhtionen (1932). pp. 36 sqq.

On the notion of "fides" as part of the declarations required for "fide-iussio", see Flume, op. cit., note 42, pp. 52 sqq.

⁴¹ A lex Cornelia (81 B.C.), limiting the sum for which one person could stand surety for the same debtor to the same creditor in any one year to 20 000 sesterces, did, however, apply to all three types of suretyship promises: Gai. Ill, 124.

¹⁶ Gai. Ill. 120.

⁴⁽¹ Gai. Ill. 119 a.

^{^[652]} Gai. Ill. 118.

⁴ Wilhelm Girtanner. Die Burgschaft nach gemeinem Civil reche (1850-519. pp. 20 sqq.; Flume, op. cit., note 42, pp. 64 sqq.; Schulz, CRL, pp. 495 sqq.

^4y Cf. e.g. John Gilissen, "Esquisse d'une histoire comparee des suretes personnelles", (1974) 28 Recueils (op. cit., note 2) 100 sqq.; Albert Kiralfy, "History of the Law of Personal Guarantee in England since 1500", (1971) 29 Recueils (op. cit., note 2) 411 sqq., 421 sqq.; L.R. Caney, CF. Forsyth, The Law of Suretyship in South Africa (1982), p. 28; Burge, Suretyship, p. 3.

^5K This text is discussed by Fritz Schulz. '"Condictio indebiti' und die Accessor !etat der 'sponsio' und 'fideiussio' (D. 12. 6. 47.)", (1952) 3 lura 15 sqq. and Max Kaser, "Celsus D. 12. 6. 47 und die Akzessorietät der Bürgschaft", in: Festgabe fur Arnold Herdliti'zka (1972), pp. 143 sqq.

"^A The most important of the unjustified enrichment claims. For details, see infra pp. 848 sqq.

'■"Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 17, 1, 29 pr.; Pap. D. 46, 1, 49 pr.; lui. D. 46. 1, 15 pr.; Ulp. D. 36.

[656] 1 pr.

ⁿ Kaser, RZ. pp. 316 sq.

Inst. IV, 14, 4.

*'³ Kaser. Festgabe HerdUtczka, pp. 154 sqq.

' Gai. Ill, 119 a. As far as the example of the woman or ward is concerned. Gains conhncs his statement (III, 119) to sponsio and fidepromissio; it is very unlikely, however, that stipulations of these persons, incurred without auctoritas tutoris, should have provided a sufficient basis for sponsio and fideprornissio, but not for fideiussio; here it did not even matter whether the woman or ward had engaged (sine auctoritas tutoris) in a stipulation (cf. esp. Francesco de Martino, Legaranzie personali deU'obbligazione 1 (1940), pp. 86 sqq.; Frezza, Garatizie, vol. I, pp. 43 sqq.). In late classical law they were regarded as naturales obligationcs: Pap. D. 46, 3. 95, 4; Ulp. D. 46, 2, 1, 1.

^{^[659]} Gai. Ill, 119 a.

¹ For exceptions (based, again, on the creditor's security interest), see Kaser, RPr 1, p. 664. n. 44; Buckland/Stein. p. 446. n. 1.

^{^[661]} Schulz, CRL, pp. 500 sq.

® Ner./Iul./Pap. D. 4,3. 19; Paul. D. 45, 1, 49 pr.; Flume, op. cit.. note 42, pp. 105 sqq.; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 87 sqq.

⁵ Cf. e.g. Levy, Konkurrenz, vol. I, pp. 190 sqq.: Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, p. 250.⁷⁶ Quintilianus, Declamations. 226; cf. Levy. Sponsio, pp. 48 sqq.; Kaser, Altromisches ius. pp. 115 sqq.

Hence the old saying (Gai. III. 180): "Ante litem contestatam dare debitor oportet, post litem contestatam condemnari oportet, post condemnationem iudicatum facere oportet." For a discussion, see Detlef Liebs, "Die Klagenkonsumption des romischen Rechts", (1969) 86 ZSS 169 sqq.

^{^[665]} Gai. Ill, 180 sq., IV, 106 sq.; in the case of all other actions, consumption was effected by granting to the defendant the exceptio rei Indicatae vel in indicium deductae.

As to the barring effect of litis contestatio. cf. Kaser, RZ. pp. 229 sqq.; Buckland/Stcin, pp. 695 sqq.; cf. also suprap. 61, note 195.

¹ This is the Hue of argument adopted by William Warwick Buckland, '"Principal and Fideiussor. Consumptio litis", (1941) 53 juridical Review 281 sqq.

But see Buckland, (1941) SiJuridical Rexdew 281 sqq., who disputes eadem res as far as fideiussio vas concerned. His view, shared e.g. by Schulz, C.RL. p. 501, has been refuted by Ernst Levy, "Principal and Surety in Classical Roman Law", (1951) 14/15 BIDR 207 sqq.; cf. also Fr'zza, Qaranzie. vol. I, pp. 129 sqq. Schulz, incidentally, comes to the same conclusion for sponsio and fidepromissio (p. 497); if the creditor sued the principal debtor, so he argues, the obligation of the sponsor/fidepromissor remained intact. This is a consequence of his view that sponsio was not accessory. ⁸² Konkurrenz, passim. ^H3 According to Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp. 183 sq., 251, 252 sq., the reciprocal process consumption in classical Roman law was a relic from the days when personal execution held sway. Where personal liability was the ultimate and only consequence, it did not matter that all other (security) rights fell away once proceedings had been instituted: execution was always possible and could never turn out to be unsuccessful (because ot insolvency).

^{^[668]} Cf. Buckland, (1941) 53 Juridical Review 285.

⁸⁵ Cf. infra, pp. 139 sqq.

⁸⁵ "Quanto minus a Titio debitore exegissem, tantum dari spondes?" (c{. LJip. D. 46, 2,

6 pr.); sec Levy, Sponsio, pp. 149 sqq.; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 136 sqq.; Rolf Knutel,

"Zur Frage der sog. Diligenzpflichten des Gläubigers gegenüber dem Burgen", in: Festschrift

für Werner Flume (1978), vol. I, pp. 568 sqq.

^{^[674]} (1951) 14/15 BIDR 216.

^m Cf. e.g. Gai. Epitome II, 9, 2: "Creditor autem, qui pecumam dedit, in potestate habet ad reddendam pecuniam, quern velit tenere, utrum ipsum debitorem an fideiussorem. Sed si debitorem tenere elegerit, fideiussorem absolvet: si vero hdeiussorem tenuerit, debitorem absolvet; quia uno electo, quern idoneum creditor iudicavit, alterum liberat"; Levy,

Obligatiotienrecht, pp. 199 sqq.

^8y C. 8, 40, 28 pr. and 1. This reform, according to Justinian, had been prompted by an increasingly popular practice of the parties to set aside the effects of litis consumptio by special agreement: "Si enim pactis conventis hoc fieri conceditur et in usu quotidiano semper hoc versari adspicimus, quare non ipsa legis auctoritate hoc permittatur, ut nee simplicitas suscipientium contractus ex quacumque parte possit ius creditoris mutilare?" (C. 8, 40, 28, 3). Cf. Levy, Obligationetirecht, pp. 204 sq.

® C. 8. 40. 28. 2. As to the structure of the whole enactment contained in C. 8. 40. 28 (pieced together in various stages), cf. Fritz Schulz, "Interpolationen in den Justinianischen Reformgesetzen des Codex Justinianus vom Jahre 534", in: Studi in onore di Pietro Bonjantt, vol. I, pp. 357 sqq.; Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp- 38 sqq.; c{. further Giuseppina Sacconi, Studi sulle obbligazioni solidali da contralto in diritto romano (1973), pp. 4 sqq.

⁹ Cf. supra, p. 118.

^{^[679]} Overview in Kaser, RPr I, p. 657; Sacconi, op. cit., note 90, pp. 51 sqq.

⁹⁵ Cf. e.g. the interpolations discussed by Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp- 60 sqq.

¹⁾⁴ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 11, 1, 8 (Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp- 71 sq.) and the references in Kaser, RPr I, p. 658.

^{^[682]} Pap. D.46, 1,52, 3; lui. D. 26,7, 18, l;Ulp. D. 16,3, 1,43; Up. D. 13,6,5, 15; Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp- 184 sqq.; Sacconi, op. cit., note 90, pp. 51 sqq.

⁹ Jors/Kunkel/Wenger, p. 210 ("Fur das klassische Recht haben wir ein Trümmerfeld vor uns. Die justinianischen Kompilatoren haben tiefgreifende Interpolationen vorgenommen und durch Spezialgesetze neue Grundsätze eingefiihrt, aber einen einheitlichen, in sich gefestigten Neubau nicht zu schaffen vermocht").

^{^[684]} Each of the several debtors is liable for the whole ("in solidum"); hence the term "solidarity".

^9H This term has been derived from "correus" (conreus), which, however, appears only once in our sources (Ulp. D. 34, 3, 3, 3).

^{^[686]} "Excussionis" from "excutere", in the sense of bringing action and attempting execution against one debtor before another debtor could be sued; "ordinis" because an order was established in which the creditor had to pursue his remedies. Cf. e.g. Burge, Suretyship, pp. 332 sq. Sometimes, too, the term "benefidum discussionis" is used.

^IIb Unless the suretyship stipulation had been drafted accordingly; cf. e.g. lui. D. 46, 1,

16, 6 (fideiussio indemnitatis).

' Quintilianus, Dedamationes, 273. Cf. also Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, 16, 15, § 2, and, generally, Levy, Sponsio, pp. 41 sqq. The Cicero text, incidentally, has recently been

subjected to a detailed analysis by Berthold Kupisch, "Cicero ad Atticum 16, 15, 2", (1979) 96 ZSS 43 sqq.; it provides the basis for his argument that litis contestatio was not an essential element of classical formulary procedure. The traditional doctrine has, however, in

the meantime, been reasserted by Max Kaser, "Cicero 'ad Atticum' 16. 15. 2. Formularprozcss ohne 'litis contestatio'?", in: Sodalitas, Scritti in onore di Antonio Guarino,

vol. VII (1984), pp. 3151 sqq.

^{^[693]} Gai. D. 47. 1U. 19. Cf. further Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 32 sq.; Mod. D. 47. 10. 20.

^1(B Cf. e.g. Kelly. Roman Litigation, p. 21.

“ Cf. Schulz. CRL, p. 496.

^{^[694]} Raber. Injurienanspruche, pp. 150 sqq.

^{^[695]} Gai. IV. 182. On infamia cf. infra, p. 207.

J. Macqueron. "Le cautionnement moyen de pression". (19571 5U Annales de la Faculte

de droit d'Aix-en-Provence 97 sqq.

‘ Gai. III. 121. For the background cf. Liebs. Klagenkonkurrenz, PP- 186 sqq.

^1M Inst. Ill. 20. 4.

^1B Gai. D. 46. 1. 26.

^{^[700]} Cf. supra, p. 119.

^{^[701]} Inst. HI, 20, 4.

^{^[702]} Gai. HI. 121.

^1B Gai. Ill. 127; IV. 22. For a recent discussion, see Max Kaser. '"Unmittelbare

Vollstreckbarkeit' und Burgenregress". (19831 100 ZSS 106 sqq.

^{^[705]} For the following, see Kaser. RPr I. p. 153; idem. Altromisches ins, p. 131 sq.; idem. (19831 100 ZSS 100 sqq.

^a Cf. supra, pp. 4 sqq.

^{^[706]} See Kaser, RPr I, p. 172; idem, AltrOmisches ius, pp. 240 sqq.; Rolf Knutel, "Zum Prinzip der formalen Korrespondenz im romischen Recht", (1971) 88 ZSS 75.

^{^[707]} However, litiscrescence (infitiando lis crescit in duplum) remained a characteristic of this action: sec Gai. IV, 9; 171 and Kaser, Altromisches ius, pp. 118 sqq.

^{^[708]} "Depensi", because the action arose where payment had been effected by the third party by means of an act per aes et libram, in the course of which the sum had originally been weighed out. In classical law, solutio per aes et libram was used only for the purpose of release and took place nummo uno: see Gai. Ill, 173-5, and infra, p. 756.

¹² Paul Koschacker, (1916) 37 ZSS 361 sqq.; differently e.g. Francesco de Martino, Studi sulle oaranzie personali II (1938), pp. 42 sqq.

¹² And also of fidepromissm. The applicability of the actio depensi and lex Publilia were the only questions in regard to which there was a significant difference between the rules relating to sponsio and fidepromissio. As far as the redress of the fidepromissor against the principal debtor was concerned, see Watson, Obligations, pp. 7 sq.

^{^[711]} Gai. Ill, 127; Ulp. D. 50, 17, 60; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 162 sqq.; Gunter Wesener, "Die Durchsetzung von Regressanspruchen im romischen Recht", (1965) 11 Labeo 343 sqq.; cf. also Roger Vigneron, "Fideiussor, qui pecuniam deposuit, confestim agere mandati potest", (1974) 77 BIDR 443 sqq.; Kaser, (1983) 100 ZSS 124 sqq.

^I2H The surety, however, must not have failed to set up exceptiones which were available against the debtor and of which he was aware, and he generally had to have been diligent in conducting the case: cf. Ulp. D. 17, 1, 29 pr., 2-4.

^{^[713]} Paul. D. 17, 1, 20, 1; Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 120 sqq.

¹²⁰ Cf. Paul. D. 17. 1. 40. This is in accordance with the prevailing opinion (C. 2. 18. 24) that there was no claim for reimbursement of outlays for the gestor who had acted against the will of the principal; cf. Seiler, Negotiorum gestio. pp. 86 sqq.; also Wessels, Contract. §§4155 sq.

Frezza, Garanzie. vol. I, pp. 18U sqq.; Wesener, (1965) 11 Labeo 346 sqq.; Giuseppe Provera, "Riflessioni sul beneficium cedendarum actionum", in: Studl in onore di Cesare Sanfippo. vol. IV (1983), pp. 609 sqq.

¹² Cf. e.g. the case on which the decision C. 8, 40, 2 is based.

^{^[717]} A further problem could arise where the creditor had sued the surety: litis contestatio would then (even before solutio) have destroyed not only the surety's but also the main debtor's obligation (both were for eadem res). Here, the Roman lawyers seem to have helped by means of in integrum restitutio: cf. Levy, Konkurrenz. vol. I, pp. 225 sqq.

¹³⁴ Cf. e.g. Fritz Schulz. Rückgriff und Weitergriff {\9Q7f p. 27.

^{^[719]} Cf. esp. Dieter Medicus. ''Der fingierte Klagenkauf als Denkhilfe für die Entwicklung

des Zessionsregresses", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 391 sqq.; 396 sqq. On the use

officiions generally, ci. the references quoted supra, p. 64, note 219.

^{^[722]} Cf. Paul. D. 46, 1, 36: "quodammodo"; Mod. D. 46. 3, 76: "magis -.. videatur".

⁰⁷ This is one of the great dangers of developing the law by means of fictions.

⁰⁸ It was still used by the German legislator to justify the cessio legis of § 774 BGB: cf. "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 376.

¹³⁵ Medicus, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 402 sqq.

¹⁴³ Payment was supposed to discharge the actio venditi and thus to leave the claim for

which the surety had made himself liable intact. If no contract of "sale" had been made at the time of solutio, solutio could be taken only to have discharged the main debtor's (and the surety's) obligation.

^M Cf. Mod. D. 46, 3, 76: "Modestinus respondit, si post solutum sine ullo pacto omne, quod ex causa tutelae debeatur, actiones post aliquod intervallum cessae suit, nihil ea cessione actum, cum nulla actio superfuerit: quod si ante solutionem hoc factum est vel, cum convenisset, ut mandarentur actiones, tunc solutio facta esset mandatum subsecutum est, salvas esse mandatas actiones, cum novissimo quoque casu pretium magis mandatarum actionum solutum quam actio quae fuit perempta videatur."

^IL C. 5. 58. 1 (Sev. et. Ant.l; 8. 40. 11 (Alexi.

“ C. 8. 40. 2 pr. (Sev. et. Ant.).

¹¹¹ Nov. 4. 1 in fine. a creditore actionibus sibi cessis").

^IS Supra, pp. 119 sq.

^{^[731]} Gai. HI. 122. referring to the lex Appuleia.

^w "Fideiussoribus succurri solet, ut stipulator compellatur ei. qui solidum solvere paratus

est. vendere ceterorum nomina." On this text, see Medicus. Festschrift Kaser, pp. 394 sqq.; Proverà. Studi San?iippo, vol. IV. pp. 636 sqq.

^{^[734]} As to the interpretation of this text, I follow Andreas Wacke, "Ofilius D. 44, 4, 4, 6.

Ein Forderungskauf zu Burgschaftszwecken", (1970) 17 RIDA 345 sqq.; cf. also Dieter Non, "Bemerkungen zur spatrepublikanischen Kautelarpraxis", in: Eranion in honorem G.S. Maridakis (1963), vol. I. pp. 204 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "Dolus' in Republican Law",

(1985) 88 BIDR 35 sq. and (differently) Watson, Obligations, pp. 261 sqq.

“ Paul. D. 17. 1. 22. 2; cf. also Inst. Ill. 26. 2.

® Cf. G. Bortolucci. "Ilmandatodicredito". (19151 27 BIDR 129 sqq.. (19161 28 BIO51 191 sqq.; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 199 sqq.; Antonio Guariiio, Mandatum credendi (1982); Buckland/Stcin, pp. 519 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 666; II, pp. 460 sq.; Schulz. CRL, p. 558; Girtanner. pp. 60 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 412, 2; 476, n. 3.

¹³⁵ A practical disadvantage of the mandate was that it had to be undertaken before the principal obligation (cf. Ulp. D. 17, 1, 12, 14: "Si post croditam pecuniam mandavero crediton credendam, nullum esse mandatum rectissime Papmianus ait"), whereas the fideiussor could accede beforehand or (as is the usual case) afterwards. As to the question of ratihabitio, see Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 212 sqq.

^{^[738]} Gai. Ill, 156.

Jolowkz/Nicholas, p. 301 even say "extremely common"; cf. also Watson, Mandate, p. 84.

® Pap. D. 46, 1, 52, 3; Just. C. 8, 40, 28 pr. (by implication).

“ lui. D. 46. 1. 13; Gai. D. 17. 1. 27. 5; Mod. D. 46. 1. 41. 1; Wesener. (19651 11 Labeo 347. Of course, the difficulties encountered with regard to fideiussio (that solutio or litis contestatio consumed both actions) did not arise in this case.

^1S Bortolucci, (1915) 28 BIDR 239 sqq.; cf. also Liebs, pp- 41 sq.;

Guarino, op. cit., note 155, pp. 21 sqq.

^{^[741]} There was a third strand in the form of constitutum debiti alieni, a praetorian pact

which served the function of suretyship; Justinian was the first to subject it to the rules pertaining to suretyship (by extending the beneficia divisionis, excussionis and cedendarum actionum). In contrast to fideiussio, constitutum could be made "in durior causa". Cf. Caney/Forsyth, op. cit., note 49, pp. 18 sqq.; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. 1, pp. 229 sqq., 282 sqq.; Girtanner, op. cit., note 48, pp. 47 sqq.; Jolowicz/Nicholas, p. 301; Kaser, RPr II, p. 461.

^{^[743]} Cf. Windschcid/Kipp, §§ 412, 2; 476, n. 3; Franz Philipp von Kubel, "Recht der Schuldverhaltnisse, Teil 3", in: Werner Schubert (ed.), Vorentwurfe, pp. 89 sqq. § 778 BGB reads: "A person who gives a mandate to another to give credit to a third party in the person's own name and for his own account is liable to the mandatary us a surety for the obligation of the third party arising from the giving of credit." Constitutum debiti alieni, on the other hand, has disappeared as a separate institution on its own; cf. e.g. Girtanner, op. cit., note 48, pp. 373 sqq. On constitutum debiti in general, cf. also infra, pp. 511 sqq.

¹⁶⁵ This has practical consequences, for instance, regarding the question whether the creditor owes a duty of care towards the surety (cf. supra, p. 140). Such a duty was widely recognized in 19th-century legislation and literature. In the BGB, however, we find a strange relapse into the old Roman law of fideiussio; its §§ 765 sqq. are based on the assumption that, in accordance with its nature as a unilaterally binding contract, suretyship can give rise only to rights and not to duties in the person of the creditor. Thus the creditor is perfectly free to watch his debtor become insolvent without being barred, later on, from claiming from the surety that which can then no longer be claimed from the debtor. The courts have tried to remedy this situation to the best of their ability and have reintroduced, through the back door, and in a very limited way, the more equitable principle of the ius commune. Cf. the analysis by Knutel, Festschrift Flume, pp. 559 sqq. This, incidentally, is a development that can be observed in many cases where a legislator has rather tried to break with tradition. The approach of the BGB, in this particular instance, may have to be seen in the context of the economic crisis of the 1870s and the increasing importance, for the banks, of transactions on credit; hence the desire to make suretyship more attractive/viable from the point of view of the creditor: cf. Knutel, pp. 564 sq.

^{^[745]} Cf. e.g. Fleetwood Charnock (16291 Nelson 10; Derm? v. Ear! of Winchehea (17871 1 Cox 318 at 320.

^I7T> As far as the right of recourse against the principal debtor is concerned, an (automatic) "subrogation" is unknown in South African law; cf. e.g. J.E. Scholtens. (1959) 76 SAL]166 sqq-

⁷⁶ 1954 (3) SA 94 (T); the decision of the Appellate Division of the South African Supreme Court is to be found sub nom. Gerber v. Wolson in 1955 (1) SA 158 (A).

^1,1 Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLVI, Tit. I, XXIX.

De Actionum Cessione, Cap. VI. 33.

^ro Perezius. Praelectiones, Lib. VIII. Tit. LIX. 41 (p. 4981.

Traite des obligations, n. 281 ; cf. also the references in Berlichius. Conclusiones practicales secundum ordinem Constitutionum Dit'i Augusti, Hlecloris Saxom'ae (4 ed.. Leipzig. 16701. Pars II. Cond. XXII, nn. 88 f.

^1H1 This solution was adopted by Burge, Suretyship, p. 417 and in the code civil (artt. 1214, 2033).

^E Van den HeeverJA. in Gerber v. Woison 1955 (11 SA 158 (Al at 170H-171 A. Similarly. Steyn J in Woison v. Gerber 1954 (3) SA 94 (T) at 99 sq. Differently Fagan JA, in Gerber v. Woison 1955 (1) SA 158 (A) at 183. On the influence of Pothier on South African law, in theory and in actual practice, see generally Reinhard Zimmermann, "Der Einnuss Pothiers auf das romisch-hollandische Recht in Südafrika", (1985) 102 ZSS (GA) 176 sqq.

^{^[754]} Cf. Zimmermann. (19851 102 ZSS (GAI 200 sqq.

^1H4 Cf. §§ 767. 768. 770 BGB and "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II. pp. 369 sqq.

^{^[756]} § 774 I BGB.

® §§ 412. 401 BGB.

^{^[758]} §§ 774 II. 426 I BGB.

^1HM Albert Kiralfy. "History of the Law of Personal Guarantee (Suretyship! in England since 1500", in: (1971) 29 Recueils (op. cit., note 2) 400.

^IH9 Cf. Kiralfy, op. cit., pp. 410 sqq.; for details of the English law in this regard, see Johan Steyn, "Guarantees: The Co-extensiveness Principle", (1974) 90 LQR 246 sqq.

'*■’ Burge, Suretyship, pp. 352 sqq., 384 sqq.

¹⁴⁷ Heinrich Vogt, Studien zum Senatus Consultum Velleianum (1952), pp. 2 sqq. ^19M Cf.,

however, Peter Noll, Gesetzgebungslehre (1973) (by now a classic); now also Jurgen Rodig, Studien zu einer Theorie der Gesetzgebung (1976); Hans Schneider, Gesetzgebung (1982).

[764] ?-? ?)i_eter Medicus, Zur Geschichte des Senatus Consultum Velleianum (1957), p. 19. As to the style and structure of senarus consulta in general, cf. David Daube, Forms of Roman Legislation (1956). pp. 78 sqq. ("... as a senatusconsult is addressed not to the people at large but to a magistrate..., its language is much freer and more general than that of statutes or edicts. It is not intended as a precise guide for the ordinary man, but as advice for an official, who will be quite capable of judging exactly how far and in what way to follow it out. A great deal, that is, must be left to the discretion of the recipient").

CRL, p. 569.

¹¹ Cf. e.g. Schulz, CRL, pp. 180 sqq.; Johannes Georg Fuchs, Die rechtliche Stellung der Frau im alien Rom (1960), pp. 9 sqq.; cf. also, more recently, the studies by Suzanne Dixon, "Infirmitas scxtus: Womanly Weakness in Roman Law", (1984) 52 TR 343 sqq; Leo Peppe, Posizione giuridica e ruolo sociale delia donna romana in eta repubblicana (1984); Jane F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society (1986), and O.F. Robinson, "The Status of Women in Roman Private Law", \9S7 Juridical Review 143 sqq.

²² That the senatus consultum was a measure directed against the women has been asserted, especially, by Vogt, op. cit., note 197, pp. 6 sqq.; cf. also J.E. Spruit. "Het Raets-besluit van Burgemeester Velleius", in: Huldigingsbundel Paul van Warmelo (1984), pp. 197 sq. and 194 sq. with quotations from Philips van Leyden (14th century): "muliercs vagari non convenu nee se virorum coetibus immiscere", "mulieres commodius domesticorum curam gerunt." During the Middle Ages, women were denounced not only for being too earthbound to give due thought to matters of business but also for being unable to devote themselves to divine things. Woman was, in the words of Vincent de Beauvais, "the confusion of man, an insatiable beast, a continuous anxiety, an incessant warfare, a daily ruin, a house of tempest, a hinderance to devotion" (cf. Gerald R. Owst, Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England (2nd ed., 1961, p. 378)).

^{^[768]} Itileiding, III, III, XV; cf. also Girtanner, op. cit.. note 48, pp. 135 sq., 335 sq.; Medicus, op. cit., note 199, pp. 18 sqq. and passim; Dixon, (1984) 52 PR 356 sqq., 363 sqq.; as to the older literature, see Gluck, vol. 14, pp. 447 sqq.; Spruit. Huldigingsbunde! van Wannelo. pp. 200 sqq. By implication, then, the necessity of enacting the senatus consultum Vellaeanum shows the decay, at that time already, of the other protective devices, especially the tutela mulierum.

²¹¹⁴ "Et ems generis obligationibus obstringi non sit aequum": it is not the activity of the woman but the fact that she is bound that is considered inequitable.

¹⁸ C. 4. 29. 9 (Gord.l; Medicus, op. cit.. note 199. pp. 30 sqq.

²⁸⁶ Cf. Schwarz. Condictio, pp. 65 sqq.

²¹¹⁷ Ulp. D. 16. 1. 2. 2.

^{^[773]} Ulp. D. 16. 1. 2. 3.

^2m C. 4. 29. 22 (Just.). On these topoi cf. Dixon. (19841 52 TR 343 sqq.

^21,1 Schulz. CRL, p. 183.

^{^[776]} Gai. I. 190.

^{^[777]} Schulz. CRL, p. 184.

^J3 For a slightly different analysis, see Dixon. (19841 52 TR 356 sqq.. 363 sqq. She argues that the senatus consultum was in line with the Augustan legislation preventing the husband from selling dotal land in Italy without the permission of his wife (cf. Gai. Il, 63; Inst. II. 8 pr.) and that it was thus intended to protect her fortune from inroads by the husband. The wording of the enactment as it has come down to us "is concerned with the proper sphere of women rather than their intrinsic character" (p. 369). Dixon admits, however, that the notion of female weakness soon began to play its part in the application of the senatus consultum.

[779] "jT_ne European countries] adopt a method which they call m English by strange words—at any rate they were strange to me—the 'schematic and teleological' method of interpretation. It is not really so alarming as it sounds. All it means is that the judges do not go by the literal meaning of the words or by the grammatical structure of the sentence. They go by the design or purpose which lies behind it. When they come upon a situation which is to their minds within the spirit — but not the letter—of the legislation, they solve the problem by looking at the design and purpose of the legislature—at the effect which it was sought to achieve. They then interpret the legislation so as to produce the desired effect. This means that they fill in gaps, quite unashamedly, without hesitation. They ask simply: what is the sensible way of dealing with this situation so as to give effect to the presumed purpose of the legislation? They lay down the law accordingly": Lord Denning MR injames Buchanan & Co. Ltd, v. Babco Forwarding & Shipping (UK) Ltd. [1977] QB 2U8 (CA) at 213F-H.

³⁵ Afr. D. 16. 1. 17. 2.

^{^[781]} Ulp. D. 16. 1. 8 pr.; Pomp. D. 16. 1. 32. 1.

³⁷ C. 4. 29. 1 (Ant.); 4. 29. 4 pr. (Alex.).

~'^M This case is mentioned in the text of the senatus consultum. but nevertheless disputed by Vogt, op. cit.. note 197, pp. 43 sqq. Contra: Medicus, op. cit., note 199, pp. 101 sqq.

Pomp. D. 16. 1. 32. 2.

²¹¹ C. 4. 29. 1U (Phil.).

²³ Pomp. D. 16. 1. 32. 3. If the fourth party had incurred expenses as a result ot having interceded (because he was called upon to pay), he could claim reimbursement from the woman by way of the actio mandati contraria. Thus, from the point of view of the rationale of the senatus consultum, the woman was in very much the same position as when she had interceded herself.

²² For a detailed analysis, see Medicus, op. cit., note 199, pp. 34 sqq.; c(. also e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVI, Tit I. XI.

^{^[788]} Call. D. 16, 1, 21. 1; cf. also Ulp. D. 16, 1, 4 pr.

^{^[789]} Gai. D. 16. 1. 13 pr.; cf. also Pomp. D. 16. !. 32 pr.. Mod. D. 16. 1. 25 pr.. Pap. D. 16 1. 27. 2. ^22:1 Ct. also e.g. supra, pp. 148 sq.

^{^[790]} That exceptio was (probably") inserted by the praetor ex officio (i.e. even invita

muliere): cf. Medicus, op. eit., note 199. pp. 30, 48.

^{^[792]} Ulp. D. 16, 1, 8. 7 sqq.; cf. further Arthur Hartkamp, "Die Drittwirkung der 'in integrum restitutio'", in: Daube Noster, Essays in Legal History for David Daube (1974), pp. 150 sqq.

^22W Ulp. D. 16, 1, 8, 14; cf. further Giovanni Bortolucci, Actio quae instituit obligationem (1915), pp. 9 sqq.

^{^[794]} Cf. e.g. Pap. D. 16. 1, 27 pr., Scaev. D. 16, 1, 28, 1; Mcdicus, op. cit., note 199, PP, 54 sqq.

-“Paul. D. 16, 1, 11.

³¹ For the details, see Medicus, op. cit., note 199, pp. 66 sqq., 77 sqq.; Kreller, op. cit., note 195, pp. 9 sq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 462; Antonio Diaz Bautista, "L' intercession des femmes dans la legislation de Justinien", (1983) 30 RIDA 81 sqq.

^{^[797]} C. 4. 29, 22 pr.

"- C. 4, 29, 23, 1 ("Sed si quidem in ipso instrumenta intercessionis dixerit sese aliquid accepisse et sic ad intercessionem venisse et hoc instrumentum publice confectum inveniatur et a tribus testibus consignatum, omnimodo esse credendum eam pecuniam vel res accepisse, et non esse ei ad senatus consulti Velleiani auxilium regressum....").

^2MNov. 134. 8.

-¹’ Cf. e.g. Spruit. Hiddigingsbundel van Wartneb, pp. 200 sqq.

j³⁶ Ulp. D. 16. 1. 2pr.

^{^[802]} Van Rmshurg v. Mmnie 1942 OPD 257 at 259.

²⁸ Suretyship Amendment Act 57 of 1971. On its history, see Ellison Kahn. "Farewell Senatus consultum Velleianum and Authentica Si Qua Mulier", (1971) 88 SALJ 364 sqq. As late as 1965 the Law Revision Committee had urged not only that the benefits should be retained but, preferably, that they should be made more effective.

' On the history and the application of the senatus consultum Vellaeanum since the Middle Ages, see Girtanner, op. cit., note 48, pp. 258 scjq.. 335 sqq.; Gluck, vol. 14, pp. 433 sqq., vol. 15, pp. 1 sqq.; Spruit, Huldigingsbundel van Warmelo, pp. 210 sqq. For Roman- Dutch law, see Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVI, Tit. I; Caney, The Law of Suretyship in South Africa (2nd ed., 1970), pp. 163 sqq.; Spruit, Huldigingsbundel van Warmelo, pp. 204 sqq.; Oskar Lehner, "Senatus Consultum Velieianum—Die Wiederkehr einer antiken Rechtsfigur im fruhnenzeitlichen osterreichischen Recht", (1988) 105 ZSS (GA) 270 sqq.; Wessels, Contract, §§ 3815 sqq.; for the pandectists, see Windscheid/Kipp, §§ 485 sqq. As in the case of suretyship, the widespread use of renunciation clauses since the Middie Ages ("... renuncians... et specialiter beneficio Velleiani"—on these Spruit, Huldigingsbundel van Warmelo, pp. 201 sqq.) reveals a certain reaction of indigenous practice against the received rule of Roman law. The renunciation of the exceptio senatus consulti Vcllaeani was generally regarded as admissible, because of the nature of this remedy as being "in favorem mulieris".

^2l" So, incidentally, has the "artificial" (Schulz, CRL, p. 570) conception of "intercedere", "intercessio" as a terminus technicus.

^{^[806]} Gai. Hl, 90.

^{^[807]} Cf. also Paul. D. 12, 1, 2, 2.

On its origin, see von Lubtow, Darlehensbegriff, pp. 1 sqq., 19 sq.

^{^[809]} A. Walde, j.B. Hofmann, Lateinisches etymologisches Worterbuch (3rd ed.), vot. II (1954), pp. 137 sq.; cf. also J.M. Kelly, "A Hypothesis on the Origin of Mutuum", (1970) 5 The Irish Jurist 155 sqq. with further speculation.

^{^[810]} For this central requirement of mutui datio cf. V. Stanojevic, "La 'mutui datio' du droit romain", (1969) 15 Labeo 311 sqq.

^{^[811]} Cf., for example, Pomp. D. 12, 1, 3.

^{^[812]} Inst. Ill, 14 pr.

^{^[813]} Cf. supra, pp. 32 sq., 89 sq.

153

²⁰ Paul. D. 44, 7, 3, 1. On this text, see Fritz Raber, "Hoc animo dare", (1965) 33 TR 58 sqq

ⁿ Pringsheim, (1961) 78 ZSS 79 sqq.; O. Stanojcvic, (1969) 15 Labeo 311 sqq., 317.

^{^[816]} For a detailed analysis, see Kaser, Er anion Maridakis, pp. 171 sqq.; also Raber, (1965) 33 TR 58 sqq. and Giuseppina Sacconi, " 'Conventio' e 'mutuum'", (1987) 15 index 423 sqq.

^{^[817]} Flor. D. 2, 14, 57 pr.; Ulp. D. 44, 4, 2, 6. Cf. von Lubtow, Condictio, p. 135.

²¹ Cf. Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, 3: "... ut eleganter dicac Pedius nullum esse contractum, nullam obligationem, quae non habeat in se conventionem, sive re sive verbis fiat."

^{^[819]} lui. D. 12, 1, 22; Gai. D. 13, 3, 4; Kaser, Er anion Maridakis, p. 162; but see also Stanojevic, (1969) 15 Labeo 318: "... Se consensus, la volonte des parties, est reste jusqu'a iafin dans I'ombre projete par I'acte materiel—la datio"

^2e As to the law of Justinian, see Kaser, RPr II, pp. 369 sqq. ²⁷

Institutiones, Lib. 3, Tit. XV, pr., 1.

-^H Cf. a.so Paul. D. 2. 14. 17 pr.

^{^[823]} Cf. supra, p. 74.

The ^fact that, as to the eleventh coin, no datio had taken place, and that no valid mutuum had therefore come into existence with regard thereto, does not have the consequence that the whole transaction is invalid: utile per inutile non vitiatur (cf. supra, pp. 75 sqq. ). As far as the ten coins are concerned, the condictio can be granted.

³ Paul. D. 12. 1. 2. 3.

^{^[826]} lul./Afr. D. 17. 1. 34 pr.; also Ulp. D. 12. 1. 9. 9.

^{^[827]} Von Liibtow, Darlehensbegriff, pp. 25 sq. On argentarii, see infra, pp. 514, 764 sq.

" Paul D. 1, 3, 16: "Ins singulare est, quod contra tenorem rationis propter aliquam utilitatem auctoritate constituentium introductum est."

^{^[829]} Uip. D. 12, 1, 15.

■^v>Iul./Afr. D. 17, 1, 34 pr.

^{^[831]} Cf- Ulp. D. 24, 1, 3, 9-13; von Lubtow, Darlehensbegriff, pp. 30 sqq.; Max Kaser, "Zur Frage einer condictio aus gutgläubigem Erwerb oder gutgläubiger Leistung im romischen Recht", in: Festschrift für Wilhelm Felgentracger (1969), pp. Tl~l sqq., 289 sqq.; Hans Julius Wolff, "Julian und die celsinische 'Durchgangstheorie'", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan. vol. I (1963), pp. 409 sqq.

³⁸ Cf., for example, Lieb, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. Ill 2, (2nd ed., 1986), § 812, nn. 30 sqq.; Reinhard Zimmermann, "A road through the enrichment-forest?", 1985 Cilsa

14 sqq.

^{^[834]}Mul./Afr. D. 17, 1, 34 pr.

Ulp. D. 12. 1. 15.

^{^[835]} Cf. e.g. Ph. E. Huschke. Die Lehre des Romischen Rechts vom Darlehn (1882"). pp. 57 sqq.

^{^[836]} Cf. also Ulp. D. 19. 5. 19 pr.

Cf. von Lubtow, Darlehensbegriff, pp. 81 sqq., 156 sqq.; idem, "Ulpians Konstruktion des sogenannten Vereinbarungsdarlehens", in: Synieieia Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, vol. II (1964), pp. 1212 sqq.

¹⁸ lul./Afr. D. 17. I. 34 pr.

^{^[838]} Windscheid/Kipp. § 261. n. 5.

⁴⁵ C. 4, 2, 8. What the borrower owed was the value of the objects as estimated by the parties. If. in actual fact, he could only sell them for less, that was his risk; it did not affect his obligation. In the case of Ulp. D. 12, 1, 11 pr., on the other hand, the borrower would have been liable only for the sum that he had in actual fact received from the sale.

^{^[840]} Ulp. D. 12, 1, 11 pr. See Max Kaser, "Die Verteilung der Gefahr beim sogenannten 'contractus mohatrae'", in: Synteleia Arangio-Ruiz. vol. I (1964), pp. 74 sqq.

⁴⁷ Pufcndorf. De jure naturae el gentium, Lib. V. Cap. VII. § 12.

⁴⁵ Cf. infra, pp. 170 sqq.

- On the contractus mohatrae. see. for example. Stryk. Usus modernus pandectarum.

Lib. XXII. Tit. I. § 21; Gustav Kiemens Schmelzeisen. Quellen zur Neueren Privatrechts

geschichte Deutschlands, vol. II. 1 f 19687. p. 85.

⁷¹¹ Von Lubtow. Condictio, pp. 139 sqq.; idem. Darlehensbegriff, pp. 95 sq.

⁵* But cf. infra, p. 218. note 226 and p. 538. note 189.

³ Cf. infra, pp. 542 sqq.. 576.

⁵¹ Cf. e.g. Stryk. Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XII. Tit. I. §§ 3. 5. 9: Van der Kcessel. Praelectiones ad Gr. Ill, X, 4 and 8; Windscheid/Kipp, § 370, 2 (n. 18), § 371. n. 6.

⁵ Rudolph Sohm, The Institutes (trans, by James Crawford Ledlie, 3rd ed., 1907), p. 380.

^5(j Philipp Heck, Schuldrecht, (1929), pp. 248, 327.

^{^[851]} But see Andreas von Tuhr, Der Allgemeine Teil des Deutschen Bürgerlichen Rechts, vol.

II 2 (1918), p. 70.

^s Cf. e.g. Plautus, Persa, Act I, 1. 118, "nummos... mutuos utendos".

® Cf., for example, RGZ 161, 52 (53 sqq.), dealing with the tricky problem of the

application of the "in pari turpitudine" rule in cases of usurious loans.

® Ennccccrus/Lehmann. Recht der Schuldverhaltnisse (15th ed.. 1958). § 142 I.

^a Cf. §610 BGB.

^e This view still prevails in France (on the basis of art. 1892 code civil) and in Italy (art. 1813 codice civile): cf. the comparative survey by Dieter Henrich. Vorvertrag. Optioinv ertrag. Vorrechtsvertrag (1965). pp. 78 sq.

See especially Gustav Boehmer. "Realvertrage im heutigen Recht". (1913) 38 Archiv ?ir bürgerliches Recht 314 sqq.: but see Carlo Alberto Maschi. La categoric dei contratti reali (19731. pp. 1 sqq.

^M Von Lubtow. Darlehensbegriff, pp. 89 sqq.: Karl Larenz. Lehrbuch des Schuldrechts, vol. II (12thed„ 1981), § 51.

^{^[859]} As to the possibility of a contrarium indicium, i.e. a claim by the borrower against the lender in case the latter had given the money in foreign currency, so that the borrower had to exchange it at a loss, cf. already Savigny, System, vol. V, p. 509. A similar problem can arise, for instance, in the case of a loan of seed corn, if the seed com is of a bad quality and causes damage (cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 371, n. 2). In modern German law, § 493 BGB is taken to cover this situation, provided the loan was at interest ("The provisions relating to the obligation of the seller in respect of warranty against defects of quality apply mutatis mutandis to other contracts which are for alienating..., for value").

^sfl In South African law, according to D.J. Jouberl in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. 15 (1981), sub titulo "Loan", loan is a consensual contract. In view of the fact that the authors of the ius commune used to emphasize the rei interventio as a requirement for the contract of mutuum, this statement seems to rest on a somewhat shaky basis, namely a statement by De Vilhers AJA in Conradie v. Rossouw 1919 AD 279 at 310 sq. ("the promise of a loan which formerly could only be effected by means of the stipulatio de mutuo dando... could now [sc.: in classical Roman-Dutch law] be validly made by means of a simple promise"). Lee, Introduction, p. 312 simply remarks: "Loan for Consumption—Loan for Use. All this is Roman law." See further the detailed treatment by Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XR Tit. I, on which Sir Percival Gane in his translation (The Selective Voet. vol. II (1955), p. 750) remarks: "Even at the present day this title may serve almost in detail as an accurate and exhaustive treatment of the law of the loan of fungibles, since no dissent has as yet been expressed from its principles in any of the more than thirty decided South African cases in which it has figured."

Cf.. for instance, the comparative analysis by Eike von Hippel. Verbraucher schlitz (3rd ed.. 1986"). pp. 214 sqq.

^{^[861]} The terms "usury" and "usurious" are used here to refer to situations where the interest rate is unreasonable/illegal; etymologically, they are derived from "usura". which means "interest" generally. In the Middle Ages, when the taking of interest was prohibited, both meanings actually amounted to the same thing.

Cf. esp. Schulz. Principles, pp. 140 sqq.

¹¹ Tacitus. Annales, Lib. VI. 16; Cato. De agri cultura, praefatio.

¹ Cf. Gustav Billeter. Geschichte des Zinsfusses im griechisch-romischen Altertum bis auf Justinian (1898), pp. 157 sqq.; Fritz Klingmuller, "Streitfragen um die romische Zinsgesetzgebung", (1902) 23 ZSS 68 sqq.; C. Appleton, "Le taux du 'fenus unciarium'", (1919) 43 NRH467 sqq.; Francesco De Martino, "Reformedel IV Secolo A.C.", (1975) 78 BIDR 62 sqq. The latter two figures seem to be surprisingly high; however, they are not atypical for archaic legal systems dominated by a primitive barter economy; also, one has to take into account the general distrust prevailing in an agrarian society not well versed in economic affairs-

[862] pp. 46 sqq. Only Justinian prohibited anatocism: C. 4. 32, 2K; 7, 54, 3 pr. O. also Gluck,

vol. 21, pp. 115 sqq.. Windschtnd/Kipp, § 261. and § 24S I BGH: "An agreement made in

advance to the eftect that arrears ot interest shall again bear interest is void." (For details,

see Karsten Schmidt, "Das 'Zinseszinsverbot"". 1982 Jurinenzeituii* 829 sqq.) Neither,

incidentally, could arrears of interest be charged to the extent that they exceeded the amount

" Cf. also Nov. 136, 4. as tar as bankers are concerned. For further special rates ct., tor example, C. 5, 12, 31, 5: C. 5, 13, 1.7 b and C. 7, 54. 2 sq.

^M4 In the same way Roman law dealt with unconscionable bargains relating to the sale of corn and with syndicates formed in order to push up the corn price (societatem eoire quo annona canor fiat). However, the State had started, at an early stage, to take over responsibility for providing the Roman people with gram; towards the end of the Republic, this culminated in a free corn supply tor everybody; later on tor the underprivileged classes only. At the time of Augustus, the number of recipients was 320 000. For all this, tee e.ij. Stephan Brasslot f. Sozialpolitische Motifc in der romischen Recht sentwickUtug (1933), p. 16 sqq.,.SO sqq. Some 150 000 tons ot corn travelled annually from Alexandria to Rome during the first three centuries A.D., involving "probably the most ambitious maritime enterprise oi the ancient world" (Lionel Casson, "The Alexandria—Rome Sailing Schedule", in: Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World (197 1). pp. 297 sqq.).

^8jl Kaser. Verbotscesctzi¹. pp. 13 sqq.. 18 sq.

^A Cf. infra, pp.'697 sq., 700 sq.

^M; Interest on interest (usurac usurarum) could not be charged; see Ulp. D. 12. 6, 26, I; Mod. D. 42. 1. 27; C. 4, 32. 28. An easy way of evading this restriction consists in capitalizing the accrued interest, i.e. including it m the capital sum, on which m turn an increased amount of interest has to be paid (anatocism, anatocismus coniunctus), This could be achieved by way of a transaction called versura, an act either litteris or verbis (usually a n-n- yypcHpTi was drawn up) which had the effect of a novation. For details, see Wille, op. cit., note

of the capital that had been borrowed: Ulp. D. 12. 6, 26. 1 ("supra duplum autem usurae"); C

4. 32. 10 (Ant.); Laura Solidoro, "Ultra sortis summum usurac non exiguntur", (19512) 28

Labco 164 sqq.; Bianchini, Stndi Bixardi, vol. II. pp. 399 sqq. In post-classical times the

accrual of interest also ceased, rather strangely, when the amount ^A interest paid had

reached the amount of the capital sum: Nov. 121, 2: 138; 160 pr. Cf. Kaser. RPr II, p. 342.

^HK Marei. D. 22. 1. 29.

⁸⁹ Paul. O. 22. 1. 20; C. 4. 2. 8.

^9,1 Paul. Sent. II. XIV. 2 and 4; cf. further Ulp. D. 12. 6. 26 pr.

⁹ Cf. the Decretates Gregorü IX.. Lib. V. Tit. XIX. especially the decree of the third Lateran Council in Lib. V, Tit. XIX, Cap. III.

® St. Luke 6, 35 (but see also St. Luke 19, 11 sqq. - St. Matthew 25, 14 sqq., the parable of the talents!); from the Old Testament cf. Exodus 22, 25; Deuteronomy 23, 19; Leviticus 25, 35 sqq.; Nchemiah 5, 6-11; Ezekiel 18, 17 (usury forbidden against "poor" and "brother"; cf. also Psalm 15, 5 (innocent)); it was, however, allowed against strangers (Deuteronomy 23, 20: ",.. unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury; but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury"). "Stranger" is the translation of "Kanaanite", the word that was used in the old Hebrew language for "businessman", "banker", "trader".

⁵⁸ The doctrine that money is "sterile" goes back to Aristotle's Politika, Book I, III, 16 (1257 b) and has been built upon by St. Augustin and St. Thomas Aquinas.

^{^[876]} On the "scholastic analysis of usury", see the comprehensive work, thus entitled, by John T. Noonan, (1957), furthermore especially the classic work by Wilhelm Endemann, Studien in der romanisch-kanonistischen Wirtschafts- und Rechtslehre bis gegen Ende des 17.

Jahrhunderts, 2 vols. (1874 and 1883); also Raymond de Roover, La pensee economique des

Scolastiques. Doctrines et methodes (1971); Winfried Trusen, Spatmittet alt eriiehe Jurisprudenz und

Wirtschajtsethik, dar gestellt an Wiener Gutachten des 13. Jahrhunderts (1961).

^{^[880]} Cf Decretum Gratiani, Prima Pars, Dist. LXXXVIII, c. 11. Cf., too, Henri Pirenne, A History oj Europe, vol. II (1958), p. 229: men "could hardly imagine the merchant's strongbox without picturing the devil squatting on the Hd".

⁹⁵ Cf., for example, Constitutionen dementis V., Lib. V, Tit. V, § 1, threatening those who enact statutes providing for the possibility of charging interest with excommunication.

^{^[882]} Cf. e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 260, n. 3; cf. also Wolfgang Kunkel, Quellen zur neueren Privatrechtsgeschichte Deutschlands, vol. I, 2 (1938), p. 4U9 sub "Wucher", fur the local laws during the time of the reception of Roman law. Generally on the history of usury in the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, see Max Neumann, Geschichte des Wuchers in

Deutschland bis zur Begründung der heutigen Zinsgesetze (1654) (18651: cf. also Wieimg. Interesse und Priyi.itstri.jje. pp. 197 sqq. Hndcmann. Studien, vol. I. p. 2 sums up the influence of the canonical usury doctrine in the following words: "Die Darstellung der Wucherlehre ergibt, dass sich die Konsequenzen jenes Dogma's allmählich über das gesummte Wirthseltaftsieben, und über Handel und Verkehr erstreckten.... Die Rechtshistorie des Verkehrsrechts jener Zeiten kann nichts Anderes sein, als die Geschichte der Herrschaft der Wucherlehre in der Rechtslehre " (I he analysis of the usury doctrine shows that its consequences gradually extended over the entire economic sphere, over trade and commerce in general.... The history ot [he law relating to commercial transactions of those times cannot be but the history of the ascendancy of the usury doctrine in contemporary jurisprudence).

¹⁽⁸ Molina, De iustitia et hire. Tract. 11, Disp. 334.

" Henry Pirenne. Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte Europas im Mittelalter (2nd ed.. 1471). pp. 156 sqq., 199 sqq.

^ln" Berman, Law and Revolution, p. 338.

" "Sed ita mores avarorum et pessimorum hominum sunt comparati, ut semper novas vias, et artes avantiam exercendi mveniant": Stryk. Usus modernus pandectariuii. Lib. XXII, Tit. I, § 1.

^{^[884]} For details about transactions for the purpose of evading the prohibition of interest

cf. e.g. Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarwn. Lib. XXII. Tit. I, §§ 19 sqq.; Molina, De iustitia

et jure. Tract, n, Disp. 303 sqq.; §§ 1-7 of the XVII. title of the Rei di spoilzeiordnmig (1577);

Neumann, op. cit.. note 97, pp. 440 sqq.; Trusen, op. cit., note 94. pp. 60 sqq. As to the

casuistic approach adopted in the usury legislation of the time, ct. Helmut Schmidt, Die Lehre

von der Sittenwidrigkeit der Rechtsgeschäfte in historischer Sicht (19731. pp. 33 sqq. On the practice

of medieval English Church courts, cf. R.H. Helmholz, Canon Law and the Law of England

(1987), pp. 323 sqq.

For the difference ct.. for example. Pothier. Tratte du contrat du pret de consomption, n. 53.

" Cf. Lange. Schadensersatz und Pvivatstrajc, pp. 10 sqq.

^{^[893]} W. Ogris. Der mittelalterliche Leibrentenvertrag (1461). pp. 104 sqq.: Coing, pp. 378 sq.: Winfried Triiicn. '"Zum Renrenkaut im Spatmittelalter", in: festschrift fur Hermann Heimpel, vol. II (19721. pp. 140 sqq.

Feliciano de Solis. Commentant de cemibus quatuor Ulms (Francofurti. 10051. Lib. I. Cap. IV. 8.

'⁷ Cf. the details in John Gilchrist. The Church and Economic Activity in the Middle Ages (19691. pp. 62 sqq.: Noonan, op. cit.. note 94. pp. 100 sqq.: Hndemann. Studien, vol. II. pp. 366 sqq.: Neumann, op. cit.. note 97. pp. 109 sqq.

^1IIW As to the social, economic and legal position ot Jews, cf Justus Henning Bochmer. Ins ecclesiasticum protestandum. Lib. V. Tit. 6; Guido Kisch. The Jews in Medieval Germany (1949); idem, Jewry-Law in Medieval Germany (1У59); idem, Trafen zur Recht:,- und Sozialgeschichte der Juden in Deutschland wahrend des Mittelalters (1955); cf, also the eminently readable account by Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (1987), pp. 169 sqq. (passim). According to Talmudical theology, usury is a sin (ct. the texts from the Old Testament, referred to in note 92 supra), but only it it is committed against another Jew ("Kanaanite" was now (mis-)understood in the sense ot '"stranger", "non-Jew"; hence the rule that no interest is to he extracted from Jews, even it they are businessmen. On the other hand, the taking of interest from Gentiles is allowed even it they are not businessmen or it they are poor). Ct. e.g. Eberhard Klingenberg. Das israelitische Zinsverbot in Torah, Misnah und Talmud (VTTD.

^{^[894]} Cl'. Endemann, Studien, vol. I. pp. 431 sqq.; Raymond de Roovcr, Money. Banking.»id Credit in Medieval Bruges (194H); Winfried TnitcH, "Die Anfinge offentlicher Banken und das Zinsproblem, Kontroversen im Spatmittelalter", in: Recht und Wirtscha? in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Festschrift für Johannes Barmann (1975). pp. 113 sqq.

" Based on the Roman deposition irreguläre (ct. e.g. Johann Marquard. Trcictatus politico-juüdicus de jure mercatonini et conmierciorum.mCuiaei (Francofurti. 1662). Lib. II. Cap. IX, nn. 21 sqq.), which could thus be used as yet another avenue to sidestep the canonical usury rule; the transaction, in effect, was a loan ot money for investment purposes on interest. Transactions involving bills of exchange were another means ot creating credit, which came to be handled by the montes and which entailed, de facto, an infringement ot the prohibition ot interest. On the history ot bills of exchange, see Endemann. Studien, vol. I. pp. 75 sqq.: Raymond de Roovcr. L'evolution de 1» Lettre de C/MH^Ar, X! 1'—Will siecles (1953); Coing, pp. 537 sqq.

The first montes pietatis were constituted in 1461 and 1462 in Perugia and Orvieto. They were public pawnshops, normally financed by charitable donations and run not tor profit but for the service of the poor. They charged a small fee tor their care ot the pawns and for the expenses of administration (usually 6 %). At the end ot the !8th century, there were 80 montes pietatis in Italy. But gifts alone did not provide sufficient funds. Thus, the montes were soon permitted to raise money by paying interest. Several 16th-century pontiffs authorized the montes to accept deposits and pay interest upon them. On the montes pietatis, see Endemann, Studien, vol. I, pp. 460 sqq. The Popes also actively supported the Medici Bank in Florence: cf. Raymond de Roover, The Rise mid Decline of the Medici Bank 1397-1494 (1963), pp. 194 sqq.

¹¹² Max Weber, "Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus", in: Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Reiigionssoziologic (5th ed., 1963), pp. 56 sqq.

^m Gilchrist, op. cit.. note 107. p. 107.

^{^[896]} Berman. Law and Revolution, pp. 378 sq.

"Some Thought;.'", in: hirst and Second Tilings (1985). p. 91. '^A Op. cit., note

115, p. 95. ' Endemann, Studien, vol. I. pp. 62 sqq.; Noonan, op. cit., note 94, pp.

365 sqq.

Tractiitns lomnierciorum et usurarum redituumqite pecuniae et monetiirum (Parisiis. 1546). ""

De usnris (Lugduni Batavorum. 1638).

" Like Calvin and Molinaeus, Salmasius drew a distinction between (illegal) mutuum

and (lawful) foenus.

^{^[904]}' Op. cit., note 119, Cap. 5.

liincsur Reichsabscliied, § 174 (' Cf. e.g. Ulp. 1). 14. 6, 3. 3: "... nam pecuniae datio peminosa parentibus eorum visa est."

Daube, (1947) 65 ZSS 308. Cf. also, in a broader context. Daube. Roman Law, pp. 87

Cf.. too. Kaser. RPr I. p. 532.

^I3fl Ct. the compilation in Buckland/Stein, pp. 465 sq.; cf. also Windscheid/Kipp pp. 583

^B Marci. D. 12. 6, 40 pr.

[927] Ct. also Pomp. D. 12, 6, 19 pr.: "Si poaiae causa ius cui debetur debitor hberatus est, naturalis obligatio manet...." The senatus consultum, incidentally, did not apply if the moneylender had had no reason to think that his prospective debtor might be ahem iuris: cf. Ulp. D. 14. 6, 3 pr.-2.

¹⁹ He is. as Paulus puts it, under a naturalis obligatio; cf. also Pomp. D. 12. 6, 19 pr. and Pierre Cornioley. Xatitralis obligatio (1964). pp. 243 sqq.

"^>M Daube, (1947) 65 ZSS 2H0.

Ulp. IX 14, 6. 3, 3. Cf., too, C. 4, 28, 3: "Si filius familias aliquid mercatus pretium stipulanti venditori cum usiirarum accessione spondeat, non esse locum senatus consulte.), quo tenerare fihib tamilias prohibitum est. nernini dubium est: origo enim potius obligation^A quam titulus actionis considerandus est."

^I7('(1947) 65 XSS2lVsq.

^{^[929]} For this example, see Ulp. D. 14, f>, 7 pr.

Cf. Ulp. D. 14, 6. 3, 3. as quoted supra, note 153.

^1/1 Ulp- D. 14, 6, 3, 3: "quod ita denmm erit dicendum, si non traus senatus consulto sit cogitara, ut qui credere non potmt magis ei venderet, ut ille rei pretium haberet in mutui vicem."

^{^[932]} Ct. e.g. the detailed treatment by Windscheid/Kipp, § 373.

¹⁷¹ Groenewcgcn, De legibus abrogJtis, Cod. Lib. IV. lit. XXVIII; cf. also Voet CotmieuTaritts ad Pandectas, Lib. XIV. lit. VI, II. But see Haber, Hedenddeyse Rethtsye-lecttheyt, III. Hock, XVI. Kap., 23 sqq.

"U [■) 22 2.

" C. 4. 33. As to the Roman terminology, cf. Wicslaw Litewski. "Romisches Seedarlehen". (1973) 24 Iura 113 sqq.; Hans Ankiim, '"Tabula Pompeiana 13: ein Seefrachtvertrag oder em S ce da riehen?", (1978) 29 Iura 170 sq.

During the time ot the Roman Republic, piracy posed a grave danger tor all sea voyages. Cf., for example, Plutarch, Vitae. Pompeius 25-28; Theodor Mommsen, Romische Geschichte, vol. II (14th ed., 1933), p. 64: "... die Piratenflotte fwar] die einzige ansehnliche Seemacht im Mittclmecrc, der Menschenjang das einzige daselbst blühende Gewerbe. Die romische Regierung sah den Dingen zu, die romischen Kaufleute aber standen als die besten Kunden auf dem Skhwenmarkt mit den Piratenkapitanen als den bedeutendsten Grosshändlern in diesem Artikel auf Delos und sonst in regem und freundlichem Geschäftsverkehr." Pompeius, in his war against the pirates (67 B.C.), largely eradicated piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. For details, see Henry JI. Ormerod, Piracy in the Ancient World (1924); Friedrich Berber, '"Von der Piraterie in der Antike", in: Recht uber See. Festschrift fur Rolf Stodtcr (1979), pp. 147 sqq. and Kar] Heinz Ziegler, "Pirata communis hostis omnium", in: De iustitia i't iure, Festgabe fur Ulrich von Liibtow (1980), pp. 93 sqq.

^{^[936]} C. 4. 33. 2 (Diocl.); C. 4. 32. 26. 2 (Just.); Paul. Sent. II. XIV. 3 ("Traiecticia pccunia propter pcricLilum creditons, quamdiu navigat navis, infinitas usuras reeipere potest"). Justinian fixed the maximum rate of interest at 12 % (cf. e.g. Arnaido Biscardi, Actio pecuniae traiecticiae (2nd ed., 1974), pp. 54 sqq.; Bianchmi. Studi Biscardi, vol. II, pp. 418 sqq.). Already in (late) classical law, interest no longer had to be specifically stipulated for. A mere pactum was sufficient. Cf. Paul. 1.). 22, 2, 7 and Kaser, RPr I, p. 409! n. 37; Luewski, (1973) 24 lura 165 sqq.; contra: Arnaido Biscardi, "'Pecunia traiecticia' e "stipulatio poenae'", (1978) 24 Labeo 282 sqq.

^,HI> Cf. Scaev. D. 22. 2. 5 pr.; cf. also Paul. Sent. II. XIV. 3.

Consequently, the high interest rate had to be paid only for the days the ship was at sea, not when it was in port (cf. e.g. Mod. D. 22,2. l;Mod. D. 22. 2. 3: Paul. Sent. II. XIV, 3). On the other hand, the debtor was released from the duty to repay the loan only it the merchandise was lost due to a typical risk of the sea (marina tempestas: C. 4. 33, 4; nautragium: C. 4, 33, 5; also piratarum insidiae: et. Gai. D. 13, f>, 18 pr.), not in case of other accidents or carelessness on the part of the debtor. For details of the penculum creditons, see Litewski. (1973) 24 lura 125 sqq.; idem, "Bemerkungen zum romischen Seedarlehen", in: Studi in on ore di Gesäte Sau?lippo. vol. IV (1983), pp. 384 sqq.

^,H2 Bilieter, op. cit., note 71, pp. 303 sqq.

“ Livius, Ab urbc condita. ub. XXVI, III, 10.

^{^[939]} Fritz Pringsheim, Der Kaut mitfremdem Geld (1916), pp. 4 sqq.

" Until the time ofjustinian their aim was never to introduce new rules, or to change the Greek custom, but merely to understand and incorporate it into their legal system, Cf. e.g. Nov. 106 and Pringsheim, op. cit.. note 184, p. 146.

^111,1 Mod, D. 22.2, 1.

^IM7 But see Litewski. (1973) 24 lura 120 sqq. He contends that it was. in fact, originally the money that was transported overseas, in order to buy and then import the merchandise; only later was the fenus nauticum used for both import and export purposes.

^>m Pringsheim, op. cit., note 184, pp. 143 sqq. On the relationship between maritime loans in Greek and Roman practice sec, most recently, Giantranco Purpura, "Ricerche in tema di prestito manttimo". (1^A87) 39 Annali Palermo 202 sqq.

¹⁴³ In the end, of course, Callimachus did not start his return journey in time; he left Brentesium only after 13 September, even though he had already loaded the freight before that date. Eros, however, had agreed to this belated departure. On this case and the problems raised by it, see von Liibtow, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 329 sqq.; Purpura, (1987) 39 Annali Palermo 212 sqq.. 301 sqq.

^!"⁴ As to the stipulationes poenac that were usually attached to fenora nautica. see Kiroly Visky, '"Das Seedarlehii und die damit verbundene Konventionalstrafe im romischen Recht", (1969) 16 RIDA 389 sqq.; Litewski, (1973) 24 lura 173 sqq.; Arnaldo ?iscardi, Actio pecuniae traiecticiae (2nd ed.. 1974), passim; Knutei, Stiptilatio poenae. pp. 39 sq.; ?iscardi, (1978) 24 Labco 216 sqq.; Litewski, Studi San?lippo. vol. IV, pp. 390 sqq.; Уіьку, Spuren, pp 85 sqq.

Ct. Plutarch, I 'itac. Cato Maior 21, 5-7. See Ulrich von Lubtow, "Catos Seedarlehen", in: Festschrift fur Erwin Seid! (1975), pp. 103 sqq.; Purpura, (1987) 39 Annali Palermo 235 sqq.

"" He is reported to have said that he made three mistakes in his lite; he told a secret to his wife, he took a boat when he could have walked, and he spent an entire day without a will: Plutarch, I'itui', Cato maior, 9, 9.

^v" Ab urbe condita. Lib. XXXII, XXVII. 2-4.

^{^[948]} Cf., concerning Cato, the analysis by Von Liibtow, Festschrift Seidl, pp. 108 sqq. Cato must have been a very wealthy man (D. Kienast, Cato, Der Zensor (1954), pp. 33 sqq.). Reused to say that аь a young man he had had only two sources ot income: agriculture and frugality. Later on, he increased his property by investing his money in various commercial enterprises. He regarded his wealth as the material basis for his independence; it enabled him to devote his time to the Roman political life. On Cato as jurist and politician cf., most recently, Richard A. Bauman, Lawyers in Roman Republic Politics (1983), pp. 148 sqq.; Wieacker. RR, pp. 538 sq.

v;z^> f_{or ехат}рі_е, (h_{e ra}ther tortuous analysis by Huschke, op. cit., note 41, p. 223.

inexplicabilcquc esse quod utrimquc diccbatur rati, ne sententia sua, utracumquc in partem dicta esset, ipsa sese rescinderet, rem iniudicatam relinquerunt causamque in diem longjssimam distulerunt."

¹ Cf. Mario Amclotti, "La posizionc degli atleti di fronte al diritto romano", (1955) 21 SDHI 123 sqq.; Henri W. Pieket, "Zur Soziologie des antiken Sports", in: (1974) 36 Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituat te Rome 57 sqq., 74 sqq.

^A ' The Greek word ciXiiiric usually referred to professional athletes, as opposed to an lSlcottic (amateur; literally: idiot).

On sport in Greek and Roman antiquity generally, see e.g. Julius Juthner, Die athletischen Leibesubungen der Griechen. 2 vols (1965-68); Harold Arthur Harris. Sport in Greece and Rome (1972); Edward Norman Gardiner, Athletics of the Ancient World (1967); Ingomar Weiler, Der Sport bei den Volkem der Alien Welt (2nd ed., 1988).

²"* Henri W. Pieket, "Games, Prizes, Athletes and Ideology", (1975) 1 Stadion 49 sqq. > In this specific instance the parties had agreed that the creditor should get "insuper aliquid praeter pecuniarn", i.e. a lump sum by which the repayable capital was increased ("ad augendam obligarionem"). The state of dependence upon his sponsor which an athlete could get into, under these circumstances, is illustrated by the case in Ulp. D. 4, 2, 32, 2.

^{^[953]} Cf. Scaev. D. 22, 2, 5. 1.

On bribery scandals in ancient sport c(. Clarence A. Forbes, "Crime and Punishment in Greek Athletics", (1952) 47 Classical Journal 169 sqq., 202 sqq. Revealing, too, C. 10, 54, 1 (Diocl.) ("non aemulis corruptis ac redemptis").

^2E Wacke. (19781 44 SDHI 446 sq.

^;u Cf. infra, pp. 730 sq.

^{^[957]} "Commodare" has been defined by Donellus in the following terms:. rem quae usu non consumitur, seu mobilem seu immobilem utendam gratis dare certo praescripto utendi fine aut modo": Commentant de Jure Civili. Lib. XIV, Cap. II, II).

■ Cf., for example, the case in Scaev. D. 39, 5, 32.

^{^[959]} Cf., for example, Inst. Ill, 14, 2.

^{^[960]} Ulp. D. 13, 6, 3, 6.

^s Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fail of the Roman Empire. 1962 sqq., vol. IV, chap. 44, pp. 427 sqq.

188

^{^[962]} History, vol. II, 170.

^{^[963]} Art. 1874 code civil; cf. also Pothier, Traite du pret a usa$>e et du precaire.

* N. 64.

^{^[965]} Cf. A. W.B. Simpson, "The Rise and Fall of the Legal Treatise: Legal Principles and the Forms of Legal Literature". (1981) 48 The University of Chicago LR 658 sqq.

^D § 598 BGB.

¹ §607 BGB.

^E W. Ogris, "Darlehen", in: HRG. vol. I (1971), col. 662 sqq.

® Cf. further Schulz, CRL. pp. 508 sq.

Pierluigi Zannini, Spunti criticiper una storia del commodatum (1983), pp. 115 sqq.; Michel. Gratuite. n. 140.

^{^[971]} As Story, Bailments, § 285, puts it: "[Gratuitous loans have] furnished very little occasion for the interposition of judicial tribunals, for reasons equally honorable to the parties, and to the liberal spirit of polished society."

^lr'Cf., for example, Carlo-Maria Tardivo, "Studi sul 'commodatum'", (1984) 204 Archh'io Giuridico 225 sqq.; but see Zannini, op. cit., note 14, pp. 67 sqq., 138 sqq. and passim (according to whom the legis actio per condictionem was available).

^{^[973]} Kaser, RPr I, p. 533; cf. also Zannini, op. cit., note 14, pp. 127 sqq.

^B Cf. Ulp. D. 13, 6, 1 pr.

^B Lenel, EP, p. 252; for a derailed discussion, see Maschi, Contratti reali. pp. 15U sqq.; Tardivo, (1984) 204 Archivio Giuridico 234 sqq.

Gai. IV. 47.

[977]

This is essential for a variety of questions: whether pacta adiecta or a dolus in contrahendo could be taken into consideration, whether the exceptiones doli or pacti had to be raised or were inherent in the iudicium, etc.

^{^[978]} Cf. on the one hand Ernst Levy, "Zur Lehre von den sog. actiones arbitrariae", (1915) 36 ZSS 1 sqq. (formula did not contain ex bona fide clause), on the other hand, for example, Schulz, CRL, pp. 513 sq. The various arguments are discussed by Max Kaser, "Oportere und ius civile", (1966) 83 ZSS 30 sqq. But see, more recently, Maschi, Qontratti reali, pp. 218 sqq., 231, offering a reconstruction of the formula in ius concepta with the ex bona fide clause; cf. also Tardivo, (1984) 204 Archivio Giuridico 240 sqq.

³ Lenel. EP, p. 252.

These strict and objective principles of estimation could sometimes be of advantage to the plaintiff; cf. Max Kaser, Quanti ea res est (1935), pp. 65 sqq. * Cf. Ulp. D. 43, 26, 1 pr. and 3.

^{^[981]} Cf. e.g. Max Kaser, "Zur Geschichte des precarium", (1972) 89 ZSS 94 sqq.

²⁷ Even if it suddenly turned out that the lender needed the object himself? On this

problem, see Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 446 sq.

^2K Either by raising an exceptio doli (in the case of the formula in factum concepta and also under the formula in ius concepta, provided it did not contain the ex bona fide clause) or on account of the bona fide clause.

^{^[985]} For details and references cf. Kaser, (1972) 89 ZSS 100 sqq., 113 sqq.; contra: Pierpaolo Zamorani, Precario habere (1969).

³⁶ Cf. Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 12.

³ For a detailed analysis, see Klaus Slapmcar, Gratis habitare, Unentgeltliches Wohnen nach romischem und geltendem Recht (1981), pp. 41 sqq.; cf. also Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 450 sqq.

^{^[988]} Ulp. D. 13, 6, 1, 1.

^{^[989]} Ulp. D. 13, 6, 1, 1.

³¹ Ulp. D. 19, 5, 17 pr. ("... et Vivianus ait posse"). Cf. also Ulp. D. 13, 6, 1, 1 in fine: "Vivianus amplius etiam habitationem commodari posse ait."

² Pomp. D. 39, 5, 9 pr.

^{^[991]} Cf. infra pp. 482 sqq.

^3| Cf. also Pomp. D. 24, 1, 18, dealing with the prohibition of donation between spouses ("valet donatio").

¹⁸ Slapnicar, op. cit., note 31, pp. 82 sqq., 185 sqq.

³⁵ BGH, 1970 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 941; BGH 1970 Wertpapier-Mitteilungen

1247.

⁴³ BGHZ 82, 354 sqq.; for an evaluation of this decision from a historical point of view, see Klaus Slapnicar, "Unentgeltliches Wohnen nach geltendem Recht ist Leihe, nicht Schenkung—Dogmengeschichtliches zu BGHZ 82, 354", 1983 Juristenzeitung 325 sqq.

⁴ Pomp. D. 13. 6. 8 and Ulp. D. 13. 6. 9.

^{^[997]} Gai. D. 13. 6. 18 pr.

“B Gai. D. 44. 7. 1. 4. On exactissima diligentia, see De Robertis. Responsabilite

contrattttaie, pp. 323 sqq.; Tardivo, (1984) 204 Archivio Giuridica 296 sqq.

⁴¹ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 10. 2. 25. 16; Paul. D. 19. 1. 54 pr.

^{^[1001]} Cf. Accursius. gl. Diligentissimus ad D. 19. 2. 25. 7; Bartolus. D. 13. 6. 18 pr.. § In rebus; cf. also e.g. Pothier, Tratte du pret a usage et du precaire, nn. 48 sqq.

⁴⁵ For details of the development, cf. Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, passim.

^{^[1003]} Cf. Hawkins v. Coulsdon and Parley Urban District Council [19541 1 QB 319 at 341.

^4H On the (justinianic) concept of diligentia and the yardstick of the diligens paterfamilias, see Wolfgang Kunkel. "Diligentia", (1925) 45 ZSS 266 sqq., 301 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz. ResponsabiHta contrattualc, passim; De Robertis, Responsibility contratniale, passim, e.g. pp. 171 sqq.; Tafaro, Regula, pp. 218 sqq. Cf.. m our context, Inst. Ill, 14, 2 ("exacta diligentia custodiendae rei").

■ "Both Gai. D. 13. 6. IS pr. and Gai. D. 44, 7, 1, 4 are, in so far, interpolated. Cf. e.g. Kunkel. (1925) 45 ZSS 271 sq.; Aramjio-Ruiz, ResponsabiHta contratttuh¹, pp. 66 sqq.

*' Gai. III. 206; Ulp. D- 13, 6, 5, 5.

^{^[1007]} CRUp. 515.

T Cf. also Inst. III. 14. 2 and Ulp. D. 50. 17. 23.

"^A Theo Mayer-Maly, "Hohere Gewalt: Falltypen und Begriffsbildung", in: Festschriftjur Artur Slt'ittweitter (1958), pp. 58 sqq.; Giuseppe Ignazio Luzzatto, Om> fitortuito e jorza million' come Utilite alia responsabilite contratiuale, vol. I (1938); Inire Moltiar, "Die Ausgestaltung des Begriffes der vis maior im romischen Recht". (1981) 32 Iura 73 sqq.

"^a4 Or, to quote Hcineccius, F.lemenia Iuris Civilis, Lib. MI, Tit. XIV. § 784: "Casus est eventus a divina providentia profectus. cui resisti non potest."

" Schulz, CRL, p. 515.

^b2> First put forward byj. Baron, "Die Haftung bis zur hoheren Gewalt", (1892) 78 Archiv für die civilistisch? Praxis 203 sqq. and Emil Seckel, in: Heurmnn/Seckcl, pp. 116 sqq. Cf. today e.g. Antoiiino Metro, L'obbligaziotie di custodire fiel diritto rotnano, passim; Cannata. Responsabilite (ontruttuiilr, Kaser, RPr I. pp. 506 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 233 sqq.

^{^[1012]} RGZ 106, 272 sqq.; BAGE 3, 346 sqq. If an employee is unable to perform his services,

See, however, Schulz, CRL, p. 515.

^s Cf. e.g. Walter Wilburg, Die Elemente des Schadensrechtes (1941), pp. 112 sqq., 124 sqq.

the decision whether or not he can demand remuneration depends on whether this inability has its origin in the sphere of the employer (breakdown of electricity supply, unavailability of raw materials, fire, defects in the machinery, etc.) or of the employee (strike in his own or in other factories). Cf. for details Schaub, in: Munchener Kommentar, vol. HI 1 (2nd ed.,

1988), § 615, nn. 93 sqq.; for a most interesting historical analysis, see Eduard Picker,

"Richterrecht oder Rechtsdogmatik—Alternativen der Rechtsgewinnung?—Teil 2", 1988 Juristenzeitung 62 sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPr I, p. 511; Joachim Rosenthal, "Custodia und Aktivlegitimation zur Actio furti", (1951) 68 ZSS 258 sqq.

® Ulp. D. 13, 6, 10 pr.; cf. also § 602 I BGB. What if during a fire the borrower saved his own property in preference to what he had borrowed? "... si incendio vel ruina aliquid contigit vel aliquid amnum fatale, non tenebitur, nisi forte, cum possit res commodatas salvas faccre, suas praetulit" (Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 4). This case, "which is somewhat nice and curious" (Story, Bailments, § 245), has been interpreted in various ways, usually as indicating that to prefer one's own property in a dangerous situation amounts to negligence; cf. e.g. Voet, Ccwioitan'iG ad Pandectas, Lib. XIII, Tit. VI, IV; Pothier, Traite du pret a usage et du precaire, n. 56; Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 438 sqq.; Story, Bailments, §§ 245 sqq.

^{^[1019]} Gluck, vol. ]3. pp. 430 sqq. Cf. also e.g. supra, note 1.

^6R Gai. Ill. 196. If the borrower believed that the lender would have approved of this deviation from the contract, he was not liable: "Qui re sibi commodata... usus est aliter atque accepit, si existimavit se non invito domino id facere, furti non tenetur" (Pomp. D. 47, 2, 77 pr.). Further on furtum and furtum usus, cf. infra, pp. 922 sqq.

® Cf. Pomp. D. 13. 6. 23; Ulp. D. 13. 6. 5. 7.

^{^[1022]} Cf. Gai. D. 13. 6. 18 pr.; Gai. D. 44. 7. 1. 4.

^{^[1023]} Cf. Ulp. D. 13. 6. 5. 7.

⁷⁷ Cf. e.g. Gai. D. 44. 7. 1. 4: "sed et in maioribus casibus, si culpa eius interveniat, tenetur"; Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 4: "... nisi aliqua culpa interveniat. " Cf. also Lord Holt in Coggs v. Bernard (1703) 2 Ld Raym 909 at 915 ("... as if a man should lend another a horse, to go westward...; if the bailee go northward..., if any accident happen to the horse in the northern journey,... the bailee will be chargeable; because he has made use of the horse contrary to the trust he was lent to him under, and it may be if the horse had been used no otherwise than he «was lent, that accident would not have befallen him”, quoting Bracton for this proposition); Lilley v. Doubhday [1881] 7 QB 510 at 511 (per Grove j); Jones, Bailments, pp. 67 sq.; Story, Bailments, §§ 232 sq., 241 sq.

^{^[1025]} Cf. e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 375, n. 10 a, on the one hand, Van Leeuwen, Censura Forensis, Pars I, Lib. IV, Cap. V, 4 ("De casu forcuito commodatarius numquam tenetur. Nisi expresse ita convenerit, ant si culpa casui occasionem aut causam dedcrit") on the other. One could also think of restricting the liability of the borrower to cases where his wrongful act has increased the risk of this specific vis maior, e.g. if the silver plates, which the borrower was supposed to have used at home, had been lost in a shipwreck; not so if they had been struck by lightning (which could just as well have happened at home). For further examples, see Story, Bailments, §§241 sqq,

^{^[1026]} Cf. Van Leeuwen, loc. cit.: "Sed hoc casu, non tarnen propter casum, quam propter culpam lenetur."

⁵ For details, see Horst Kollmann, "Die Lehre vom versari in re illicita im Rahmen des Corpus juris canonici", (1914) 35 ZS7W46 sqq.; H.L. Swanepoel, Die leer van "versari in re illicita" in die strajreg (1944). For a legislative realization of this doctrine, see art. 146 CCC.

^{^[1027]} As far as modern private law is concerned, liability for accidental loss continues to be imposed on the borrower who exceeds his right of use, by art. 1881 code civil, art. 1805 II codice civile and many other modern codifications. The German BGB is silent on the point; hence the dispute in modern literature (cf. e.g. Kollhosser, in: Munchener Kommentar, vol. Ill

1 (2nd ed., 1988), §§ 602, 603, n. 3). For a discussion of the problem in modern law and its historical ramifications, see Andreas Wacke, "Gefahrerhohung als Besitzverschulden", in: Festschrift fur Heim Huhner (1984), pp. 689 sqq.

^{^[1029]} Ulp. D. 50. 17. 23.

^{^[1030]} Cf. e.g. C. 4. 23. 1.

^{^[1031]} Cf. Ulp. D. 13. 6. 5. 10.

^m That is, he could insure the lender against accidental loss, even where it originated in an incident of vis maior. Cf. Paul Kruckmann, "Versicherungshaftung im romischen Recht", (1943) 63 ZSS 1 sqq. Cf. also Story, Bailments, § 252.

^a Cf. art. 1883 code civil and art. 2901 Louisiana Civil Code, discussed by Alan D. Ezkovitch, (1983-84) 58 Tuiane LR 359 sqq.

^{^[1034]} Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 3; cf. also Ulp. D. 19, 3, 1, 1 and Pothier, Traite du pret a usage et du precaire, nn. 62 sqq.; Jones, Bailments, pp. 71 sq.; Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 434 sqq.

^{^[1035]} Cf. esp. Bernhard Kubier, "Das Utilitatsprinzip als Grund der Abstufung bei der Vertragshaltung im klassischen romischen Recht", in: Festgabe der Berliner juristischen Fakultät ?ir Otto v, Qiercke (1910), vol. II, pp. 235 sqq.; Dietrich Norr, "Die Entwicklung des Utilitatsgedankens im romischen Haftungsrecht", (1956) 73 ZSS 68 sqq.; Michel, Gratuite, pp. 325 sqq.; Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, pp. 16 sqq.; Tafaro, Regula, pp. 123 sqq., 207 sqq.; for Justinian's time, see Afr. D. 30, 108, 12; Ulp. D. 50, 17, 23 (both spurious) and De Robertis, Responsibilita contrattuate, pp. 13 sqq. Cf. also Coggs v. Bernard (1703) 2 Ld Raym 909 at 915.

⁸¹ Story, Bailments, § 17.

^{^[1037]} Stair, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1832), I, 11,9.

⁸⁵ Gai. Ill, 206.

^H7 Jones, Bailments, p. 72.

^{^[1040]} Stair, loc. cit.

® In later times usually for gross negligence also; cf. e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XIII, Tit. VI, IV; "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 250 and D.J. Joubert, in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. 15 (1981), n. 281.

⁵⁰ Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 10.

" Ulp. D. 13. 6. 10. t.

® Gai. D. 13. 6. 18 pr.: on this text cf. Norr. (19561 73 ZSS 82 sqq.

Bailments, § 23; cf. also § 238 and Pothier, Traite du pret a usage et du precaire, nn. 50 sq. ; Jones, Bailments, p. 72.

^{^[1043]} Reasons: on the one hand custodia liability was not incorporated into the BGB. On the

other hand, those cases where the loan is in the interest of the lender alone are too rare to

warrant special consideration; furthermore, it is doubtful, under those circumstances,

whether the parties really intend to contract a commodatum.

^{^[1047]} Story, Bailments, § 23.

⁹⁵ Cf., for example, Heineccius, Elementa luris Chilis, Lib. Ill, Tit. XIV, § 788: "In contractibus, in quibus penes unum commodum, penes alterum incommodum est, ille ordinarie culpam et levissimam; hic non nisi latam praestat. Ubi par utriusque contrahentis commodum atque incommodum est, culpa etiam levis ab utroque praestanda est. Qui sua sponte se contractui obtulit, vel obligationem suscepk, in qua personae industria summa requiritur, quamvis solum incommodum sustineat, tarnen ad culpam levissimam tenetur. Qui alteri rem ultro obtulit, ex qua ei soli commodum obveniat, non nisi latae eulpae praestationem exigere potest"; Vinnius, Institutions, Lib. Ill, Tit. XV, n. 12 (sub "commodatum"); Pothier, Traite des obligations, n. 142. Cf. further Michel, Gratuite, pp. 355 sqq.

^{^[1049]} Bailments, % 18.

^{^[1050]} For details c(. infra, pp. 932 sqq.

^w Paul. D. 47. 2. 47; Paul. D. 47. 2. 67. 1; Pap. D. 47. 2. 81. 1.

“ Gai. Ill. 203.

ⁿ Gai- III. 205 sq.; Mod. Coll. X. II. 6.

¹⁽¹ D. 13. 6. 17. 1.

¹⁽⁸ In classical law. the contrarium judicium could be brought irrespective of whether the lender had sued the borrower with the actio directa. Originally, the borrower's claims could probably be taken into consideration only by way of compensatio or retentio, later also by

way of a counterclaim stricto sensu, i.e. only when the actio directs had already been instituted by the lender. For details, see Giuseppe Provera, Contribua alia teoria det indicia contraria (1951), pp. 20 sqq.; Fritz Schwarz, "Die Kontrarklagen", (1954) 71 ZSS 189 sqq.

^1M Kaser, RPr I, p. 528.

¹⁽⁵ Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 4, pp. 285 sqq.

^{^[1057]} For details, see Provera, loc. cit., passim and Schwarz, (1954) 71 ZSS 111 sqq.;

Pothier, Traite du pret a usage et du precaire, nn. 81 sqq.; Story, Bailments, §§ 273 sqq.

^{^[1059]} Gai. D. 13, 6, 18, 2: "Possuni iustae causae intervening ex quibus cum eo qui commodasset agi deberet: veluti de impensis in valetudinem servi factis quaeve post fugam requirendi reducendique eius causa faetae essent.,."; Mod. Coll. X, II. 5.

^nR Gai. D. 13, 6, 18, 2: "... nam cibariorum impensae naturali scilicet ratione ad eum pertinent, qui utendum accepisset"; Mod. Coll. X, II, 5 in fine. Reason: qui habet commoda ferre debet onera; cf. infra, pp. 290 sq.

^{^[1061]} Cf. also Pothier, Traite du pret a usage et du precaire, n. 81, Story, Bailments, § 256, and, today, § 601 BGB.

Schwarz, (1954) 71 ZSS 127; Alfons Burge, Retentio in romischen Sachen- und Obligationenrecht (1979), pp. 176 sqq.

On the ius retentionis in general, see Kaser, RPr 1, pp. 521 sq.; Burge, loc. cit., passim.

^{^[1064]} Paul. D. 47. 2. 15. 2. On this text cf. Rosenthal. (19511 68 ZSS 251 sq.; Schwarz.

(19541 71 ZSS 124 sq.

® Gai. D. 13, 6, 18, 3.

^M For a discussion of these and further texts, see Schwarz, (1954) 71 ZSS 129 sqq.; cf. also Provera, op. cit., note 103, pp. 103 sqq.

^{^[1067]} Cf infra, pp. 916 sq., 1118.

^{^[1068]} Cf. e.g. Vinnius, Institutions. Lib. Ill, Tit. XV, 11 (sub "commodatum"); Pothier, Traite du pret a usage et du precaire. nn. 80, 84; cf. also § 599 BGB ("The lender is responsible only for wilful conduct and gross negligence"). But see § 600: "If the lender fraudulently conceals a defect in title or in quality in the thing lent, he is bound to compensate the borrower for any damage arising therefrom." Cf. further the "melancholy case" (Erie CJ) of Bldkemore v. Bristol and Exeter Railway Co. (18581 8 El & Bl 1035 (obiter").

^{^[1069]} For a review of the relevant texts, see Norman S. Marsh. "The Liability of the Gratuitous Transferor: A Comparative Study", (1950) 66 LQR 51 sqq.

^na Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 310 sqq.; Vangerow, Pandekten, § 681, Anm. 3, n. II; Windscheid/Kipp, § 455, n. 12.

^{^[1071]} Cf. e.g. BGH, 1974 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 234 (235); KoUhosser, op. cit., note 76, § 599, n. 4. For a full analysis of this and similar problems arising from the concurrence of delictual and contractual liability, see Peter Schlechtriem, Vertragsordnung und ausserver- traglkhe Ha?ung (1972), pp. 27 sqq. Cf. also infra, pp. 904 sqq.

^?2° D. 13, 6, 17, 3.

^Q Especially in cases of an "importune repetere" of the object lent. Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 13, 6, 17, 3.. si ad fuiciendam insulam tigna commodasti, deinde protraxisti..."). For a

discussion of this and further cases, see Schwarz, (1954) 71 ZSS 157 sqq.

^{^[1074]} This is different in South African law, where the borrower is still regarded as detentor.

¹³ Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, p. 169.

^{^[1076]} Cf. Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 169 sqq.

¹² Jones, Bailments, p. 1; cf. also Blackstone, vol. II, p. 452 ("a delivery of goods in trust,

upon a contract expressed or implied, that the trust shall be faithfully executed on the part

of the bailee”).

¹² This is how Lord Holt {Coggs v. Bernard (1703) 2 Ld Raym 909 at 919) argued: "But

secondly it is objected, that there is no consideration to ground this promise upon, and therefore the undertaking is but nudum pactum. But to this I answer, that the owner's trusting him with the goods is a sufficient consideration to oblige him to a careful management." But the borrower has not given his promise because the lender was parting with his goods; the delivery cannot be regarded as the "price" for the promise. Cf. Aliyah, Rise and Fall, pp. 177, 186 sq., who tries to expose the fallacy of reading the decision ahistorically in the light of modern doctrine.

^{^[1082]} Cf. M.P. Furmston, in: Cheshire, Fifoot and Furmston, Law of Contract (11th ed. 1986). p. 83.

^12f*(1703)2LdRaym909.

^{^[1084]} Blackstone, vol. II, p. 453.

⁰³ (1703) 2 Ld Raym 909 at 912 sqq. On the influence of civilian jurisprudence on Sir John Holt, see Daniel R. Coquillette, The Civilian Writers of Doctors' Commons (London, 1988), pp 271 sqq.

And Bracton, who has in turn drawn from Roman law.

Cf. further Winfield, Province, pp. 92 sqq. Story and especially Jones, however, do not find much favour with modern common-law writers such as Tyler and Palmer, Crossley Vaines on Personal Property (5th ed., 1973), pp. 70, 86.

⁰³ Gai. D. 44, 7, 1, 5. A mere pactum de deponendo (unlike today) was unenforceable.

^m Flor. D. 16, 3, 17, 1.

¹² Ulp. D. 16, 3, 1 pr.: "Depositum est, quod custodiendum alicui datum est." Ulpian carries on to provide an etymological explanation: "dictum ex eo quod ponitur: praepositio enim 'de' auget positum.. but cf. also Paul. Sent. II, XII, 2 ("depositum est quasi diu positum") and Giuseppe Gandolfi, // deposito nella problematical della giurisprtidenza romana (1971), pp. 107 sqq.

¹¹⁶ Cf. Gai. Ill, 196; Inst. IV, 1, 6.

⁰⁷ Vinnius, Institutions, Lib. Ill, Tit. XV (sub de deposito), 2: "... totum hoc negotium ex utilitate deponentis aestimetur"; 3: "In deposito nullum commodum est depositarii."

^{^[1087]} Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 2; cf. also Ulp. D. 50, 17, 23 and Tafaro, Regula, pp. 242 sqq., 259

sqq.

Gai. Ill, 207: "Sed is apud quern res deposita est custodiam non praestai, tantumque in

eo obnoxius est, si quid ipse dolo malo fecerit, qua de causa si res ei subrepta fuerit, quia

restituendae eius nomine depositi non tenetur nee ob id eius interest rem salvam esse, furti

agere non potest, sed ea actio domino competit"; Mod. Coll. X, II, 6.

^{^[1093]} Again, there was a praetorian action with a formula in factum concepta ("... [rem] doto malo № № A° A° redditam non esse", introduced in the days of ehe early Republic) to which a formula in ius concepta ("... quidquid ob earn rem N^UTn N^UTn A° A° dare facere oportet ex fide bona") was later added. Cf. Gai. IV, 47 for the full formulae. For a discussion of both formulae cf. e.g. Gandolfi, op. cit., note 135, pp. 69 sqq.; on the characteristic features of the actio in factum, see, however, more recently, Robin Evans-Jones, "The penal characteristics of the 'actio depositi in factum'", (1986) 52 SDHl 105 sqq.

^M The depositor could claim his object back at any time, even if he had originally deposited it for a specific time. Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 16, 3, 1, 46: "Proinde et si sic deposuero, ut post mortem meam reddatur, potero et ego et heres meus agere depositi, ego mutata voiuntate", and Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 188 sqq. (Could the depositary hand back the deposit at any time and thus terminate the—for him often burdensome—contractual relationship? On this question, see Wieslaw Litewski, Studien zur Verwahrung im romischen Recht (1978), pp. 31 sqq.) If the depositary did not hand the thing back at the depositor's request, he normally acted in bad faith. Cf, however, Marcellus (Ulp. D. 16, 3, 1, 22), who rhetorically asks: "... quid enim si in provincia res sit vel in horreis, quorum aperiendorum condemnationis tempore non sit facultas?" Answer: "[N]on semper videri posse dolo facere eum, qui reposcenti non reddat." The actio in ius, of course, was available for the recovery of id quod interest (i.e. the actual damage suffered by the plaintiff). As far as the measure of damages in the actio in factum was concerned, cf. the discussion by Robin Evans-Jones, "The Measure of Damages in the actio depositi in factum", (1987) 55 TR 261 sqq. He argues that, in spite of the "quanti ea res erit" clause, condemnation was not confined to vera aestimatio rei but involved his id quod interest. This was advantageous for the plaintiff, where the action was brought because the deposit had not been returned at all, for the plaintiff could claim certain categories of consequential loss over and above the value of the object. Where the property was, however, returned in a deteriorated state (for this extension of the ambit of the actio, see e.g. Ulp. D. 16, 3, 1, 16: "Si res deposita deterior reddatur, quasi non reddita agi depositi potest: cum enim deterior redditur, potest dici dolo malo redditam non esse"), the plaintiff's loss was usually less than the full value of the object.

Mod. D. 16. 3. 23; Schwarz. ''Die Kontrarklagen". (19541 71 ZSS § 121; Story. Bailments, § 121; Windscheid/Kipp, § 378, 2.

¹⁴³ Cf. today § 694 BGB: "The depositor shall compensate the depositary for any damage caused by the nature of the thing deposited, unless at the time of the deposit he neither knew nor should have known of the dangerous nature of the thing..." (reversal of onus of proof!).

According to the prevailing opinion, the (earlier) actio depositi in factum was a penal remedy, whereas the (later) actio in ius concepta performed a purely reipersecutory function; the history of depositum is therefore seen, essentially, as a development from delict to contract. This view has recently been challenged by Evans-Jones, (1986) 52 SDHI 105 sqq., tying in with the ideas developed by Geoffrey MacCormack. "Gift, Debt, Obligation and the Real Contracts", (1985) 31 Labeo 131 sqq'

^{^[1095]} Tab. 8, 19; d. Paul. Coll. X, VII, 11; von Lubtow, Condictio, pp. 91 sq.; Watson, Evolution, pp. 10 sqq.; MacCormack, (1985) 31 Labeo 145 sq.; Robin Evans-Jones, "The Action of the XII Tables 'ex causa depositi"', (1988) 34 Labeo 188 sqq.

* Ulp. D. 16. 3. 1. 1.

Ct. e.g. Seneca, De beneficiis. Lib. IV, X. 1: "Depositum reddere, per se expetenda

est." Cf. also Plinius, Epistulae, Lib. X, 97. 7. praising the Christians of his time in the following way: "... se sacramento non in scelus aliquod obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinium, ne adulteria committerent, ne fidem fallerent, tie depositum appeiLUi abneqarent." ¹⁴* Gai. IV, 182; lui. D. 3, 2, 1.

^I4y On infamia in general, see Kaser, RPr I, pp. 274 sq.; idem, "Infamie und ignominia in den romischen Rechtsquelten", (1956) 73 ZSS 220 sqq.; Peter Garnsey, Social Status and Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire (1970). pp. 185 sqq.

⁵⁰ Cf. Savigny, System, vol. II, § 83; Windscheid/Kipp, § 56 and, today, for instance §§ 45 sqq. StGB.'

Cf. Pothier, Traite du contrat de depot, n. 76; Groenewegen, De legibus abrogeais, Digest. Lib. XVI, Tit. III. 1. 1.

^{^[1102]} Cf. Stryk, Usus modernus pandeaarum. Lib. XVI. Tit. Ill, § 1; Windscheid/Kipp, § 378, 1 (in fine); §§ 43, 58 I 14 PrALR.

^ISH Story, Bailments, § 82.

^{^[1104]} Am.' 1927, 1928.

¹⁶⁽¹ Am. 2908, 2909.

^{^[1106]} Cf. De Robertis, Responsabilite contrattuale, p. 396; Gluck, vol. 15, p. 178. The same applied, of course, if the depositary had sold the object: "Si rem depositam vendidisti eamque postea redemisti in causam deposit!, ctiamsi sine dolo malo postea penerit, tenen te deposit!, quia semel dolo fecisti, cum venderes" (Ulp. D. 16, 3, 1, 25). Again, the idea of versari in re illicita; cf. supra, p. 197.

⁶ For a Roman definition, see Ulp. D. 50, 16, 213, 2 ("Lata culpa est nimia neglegentia, id est non intellegere quod omnes intellegunt").

^IS Kaser, RPr I, p. 535, n. 10; Buckland/Stein, p. 468. Dolus did not yet have a fixed, technical meaning (evil intention), but was merely the opposite of bona fides. Under the bonae fidei iudicia, the judge was instructed to condemn, if the defendant's behaviour had infringed the standards of good faith. Such a breach of good faith was called dolus malus. In the course of time, a more and more refined interpretation and application of the precepts of good faith and honest behaviour was bound to lead to an extension of the debtor's liability to cases of (as we would describe it) negligent behaviour. To a large extent, this development was, however, impeded by the fact that quite a few bonac fidei iudicia were actiones famosae. The Romans were highly sensitive in questions of honour and social reputation, and thus the sanction of infamia was not to be imposed too lightly.

161

i®

[1111]

[1112]

Responsabilita contrattuale, pp. 251 sqq.; Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, pp. 4 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "Culpa", in: (1972) 38 SDHI 176 sqq.; Cannata, Responsabilita contrattuale, pp. 5 sq.

^{^[1113]} C. 4. 34. 1 (Alex.); but cf. also Paul. Coll. X. VII. 6. Cf. further De Robertis. Responsabilite contrattuale, pp. 373 sqq.; Maschi, Contratti reali, pp. 376 sqq.; Francesco Sitzia, "Sulla responsabilità del depositario in diritto bizantino", (1971) 13 BIDR 189 sqq.; Vinnius, InstitHtiones, Lib. Ill, Tit. XV (sub de deposito), 3 ("Qui autem dolum dick, latam culpam non excludk"); Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 171 sqq.; Arndts, Pandekten, § 285: Brinz, Pandekten, § 137, 2.

¹⁽¹⁹ Cf. e.g. §§ 1266 Sachs- BGB; for South African law. see Bester, in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. 8 (1979), n, 74.

^ro Cf. further, for example, § 11 I MPrALR; art. 1927 code civil; Herbert Hausmamnger. "Rcchtsvergleichende Notizen zur diligentia quam in suis", in: Festchri? fur Hennann Bait! (1978), pp. 283 sqq.

Cf. Bernhard Kubier. "Die Haftung für Verschulden bei kontraktsahnlichen und deliktsahnlichen Schuldverhaltnissen", (1918) 39 ZSS 179 sqq.: Arangio-Ruiz, Responsabilità contrattuale, pp. 257 sqq.; De Robertis, Responsabilità contrattuale, pp. 65 sqq.; Herbert Hausmamnger, "Diligentia quam in suis", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 265 sqq.

D. 16, 3, 32, On this text, see especially Walter Selb, "Das Problem des relativen 'dolus' in D. 16, 3, 32", in: Synteleia Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, vol. II (1964), pp. 1173 sqq.; Hausmaninger, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 267 sqq., and the authors quoted in the previous note.

^ra Hausmaninger, Festschrift Kaser, p. 268.

ⁿ D. 44, 7, 1, 5. Cf-, in nearly the same terms, Inst. Ill, 14, 3 (which has, incidentally, in turn been adopted nearly verbatim by Bracton, as cited by Lord Holt in Coggs v. Bernard (1703) 2 Ld Raym909 at 914).

¹⁵ Inst. Ill, 25, 9. Cf. also Gai. D. 17, 2, 72, usually taken to be interpolated.

^{^[1116]} Kaser, RPr II, 355; Franz Wieacker, "Haftungsformen des romischen Gesell

schaftsrechts", (1934) 54 ZSS sqq. The same idea, incidentally, prevailed in the old

Germanic law: the debtor remained liable, if only the bailor's property and not his own as

well had been affected by (e.g.) a fire that had been raging at his place: cf. Planitz, Grundzuge des Deutschen Privatrechts (3rd ed.. 19491. p. 162.

^{^[1120]} Cf. Ulp. D. 27. 3. 1 pr.. Paul. D. 23. 3. 17 pr.. Paul. D. 20. 2. 25. 16. For details, see Hausmaninger. Festschrift Kaser, pp. 276 sqq.

C/., on the one hand. Kaser. RPr II. p. 355. on the other. De Robertis. Responsabilita contrattuale, pp. 386 sqq. Further Hausmaninger. Festschrift Kaser, p. 282: Hoffmann. Fahrlässigkeit, p. 8: MacCormack. (19721 38 SDH1 176 sqq.

^ra Cf. e.g. Inst. Ill. 14. 3.

^1!I° Brunnemann. Corumentarius in Pandectas, Lib. XVI. Tit. Ill. ad L. Quod Nerva. 32: Grotius. Inleiding, HI. VII. 9: Domat. Les loix civiles. Lib. I. Tit. VII. Sec. Ill. Ill: Pothier. Traite du contrat de depot, n. 23: see. too. Story. Bailments, §§ 63 sqq.. Hoffmann. Fahrlässigkeit, pp·'⁵⁴ sqq·

For details, see Hausmaninger, Festschrift Balti, pp. 283 sqq., 286. 293 sqq. He also points out that the concept of diligentia quam in suis has filtered through into English law

(via Lord Holt in Coggs v. Bernard, who refers, in this context, to Bracton) and has been

employed, though only occasionally, by some American courts.

^1K2 Cf. § 688 as opposed to § 690 BGB.

^1K3 This is in accordance with old Germanic law: Planitz. op. cit.. note 176. p. 162. The same situation prevails in South African law today: Bester, op. cit., note 169, n. 70; cf. also R.H. Christie, "What is a Contract of Depositum", 1981 Zimbabwe LJ 98 sq.

¹⁸¹ Ulp. D. 16. 3. 1. 8.

^{^[1128]} Cf. e.g. Alf. D. 19. 2. 30. 1: Scaev. D. 32. 35. 3.

Ulpian mentions, among the criteria by which to establish a person's domicile, the place where he goes to the bath: D. 50, 1, 27, 1.

Daily Life, pp. 277, 279, 280. Cf. also Ralph Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (1988), pp. 48 sqq.

Not everybody overindulged to the extent of Emperor Commodus, who was said to have taken up to eight baths a day: Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Commodus, 11,5. For a comprehensive account of Roman baths, their management, financing and staffing, terms and conditions for users (opening hours, the question of mixed bathing), amenities provided, maintenance (fuel- and water-supply), etc., see Olivia Robinson, "Baths: An Aspect of Roman Local Government Law", in: Sodalitas, Scritti in onore di Antonio Guarino, vol. HI (1984), pp. 1065 sqq.

^№ Cf. Michel, Gratuite, p. 27. For further interesting details and anecdotes, see Carcopino, pp. 277 sqq.; Robinson, Scritti Guarino, vol. Ill, pp. 1065 sqq.

^№ Nevertheless, it seems to have been a profitable occupation. Juvenal (Satura, VII, 4 sqq.) warns young poets that without the patronage of the emperor, they might be forced by the threat of imminent starvation to take up some prosaic occupation, such as that of bathkeeping. In the later empire, the costs of running baths rose; fuel was the heaviest charge. The provision of firewood became one of the regular munera civilia (cf. also the

^{^[1134]} Cf., for example, §§ 120-126 Codex Hammurabi; Exodus 22, 9. For an interesting analysis of the ancient Mesopotamian law and practice, see Raymond Bogaert, Les origines antiques de la banque de depot (1966). pp. 41 sqq.

Cf. e.g. the story related by Herodotus, Hisioriae, Lib. VI, Cap. 86.

™ Paul. D. 47, 2, 21, 1.

Afr. D. 46, 3, 39.

^{^[1138]} As to the vindicatio nummorum, see Hannu Tapani Klami, Mutua magis videtur quam deposita (1969), pp. 174 sqq.; Max Kaser, "Das Geld im romischen Sachenrecht", (1961) 29 TR 173 sqq.

^JB Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 15. p. 157.

^21,1 Pap. D. 16. 3. 25. 1.

^21ACf. e.g. Paul. Coll. X. VII. 9.

^{^[1141]} Pap. D. 16. 3. 24. Cf. also Paul. D. 16 3. 26. 1. eum contractum de quo quaeritur

depositae pecuniae modum excedere").

“ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 16. 3. 26. 1.

^J1 For a very radical view, see Carlo Longo. "Appunti sul deposito irregolare". (19061 18 BIDR 121 sqq.': Schulz. CRL, pp. 519 sqq.

^{^[1145]} Wieslaw Litewski. "Le depot irregulier". (1974") 21 RIDA 215.

^J6 William Μ. Gordon. "Observations on 'depositum irreguläre'", in: Studi in onore di Amaido Biscardi, vol. Ill (1982"). pp. 363 sqq.

Cf.. for example. Paolo Frezza. IlapaKaTaoTiKTi. in: Symbolae Raphaeli Taubenschlag, vol. I (19563. pp. 139 sqq.: Hannu Tapani Klami. Depositum und HapaKaTa-ÄTiKTi. in: Iuris Professio, Festgabe fur Max Kaser (19863. pp. 89 sqq. Cf. also, generally. Wieacker. RR, pp. 347 sqq.

³¹⁸ Arnold Ehrhardt. "Parakatatheke". (19583 75 ZSS 32 sqq.: Dieter Simon. "Quasi- HAPAKATAeHKH". (19653 82 ZSS 39 sqq.

⁸ Raymond Bogaert. Banque et banquiers dans les cites grecques (Leiden. 19683.

~~° Fritz Pringshcim, "Zum romischen Bankwesen", in: Gesammelte Abhandlungen, vol. II (1961), pp. 114 sqq.; Laum, Bankwesen, RE Suppl., vol. IV, pp. 68 sqq.

²¹ Cf. e.g. C. 12. 57. 12. 3 and Ludwig Mittels. "Trapezitika". (18981 19 ZSS 198 sqq. Tp12, 1, 9, 9; Paul. Coll. X, VII, 9; on these texts, see, most recently, Burge, (1987) 104 ZSS 548 sqq.

^{^[1156]} Especially where the parties had agreed on interest by way of a formless pactum (cf. Pap. D. 16, 3, 24 in fine; Paul. D. 16, 3. 26, 1), but also in other cases (cf. Scaev. D. 16, 3, 28: "respondi deberi ex bonae fidei iudicio usuras, sive percepit sive pecunia in re sua usus est") Cf. further Klami, op. cit., note 208, pp. 118 sqq.; Litewski, (1975) 22 RIDA 304 sqq.; Gordon, Studi Biscardi, vol. Ill, pp. 369 sqq. ; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 303 sq. ; Burge, (1987) 104 ZSS 536 sqq., 542 sqq. As to the law of Justinian in general, see Maschi, Contratti reali, pp. 390 sqq.

^{^[1157]} The first modern (critical) monograph was that of Theodor Niemeyer, Depositum irreguläre (1898). For an overview and critical discussion of the quite formidable amount of literature, see Klami, Mutua magis i/idetur quam deposita (1969); Gandolfi, op. cit., note 135, pp. 149 sqq.; Litewski, (1974) 21 RIDA 215 sqq. and (1975) 22 RIDA 279 sqq.

^{^[1158]} Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPr I, p. 536; Vigneron, (1984) 32 RIDA 307 sqq.; Burge, (1987) 104 ZSS 536 sqq., 552 sqq.; contra: Klami, Festgabe Kaser, pp. 89 sqq.

²⁹ Coined, apparently, by the commentator Jason de Mayno (1435-15191: cf. Niemeyer, op. cit., note 227, p. 110.

^{^[1160]} Cf., for example, Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 139, 157 sqq.; Vangerow, Pandekten, § 630; Windscheid/Kipp, § 379. For a contrary view, see e.g. Ex parte Smith 1940 OPD 120 at 126 sq.

^{^[1161]} The fathers of the BGB, however, deviated from what they perceived to be the Roman law (and thus, in reality, returned to the position in classical Roman law) by treating the transaction as a loan: "if fungibles are deposited in such manner that the ownership is to pass to the depositary, and he is to be bound to return things of the same kind, quality and quantity, the provisions relating to loan for consumption apply...." Cf. also §§ 83, 84 I 14 PrALR; differently, artt. 484, 445 OR. The code civil is silent on this point (adopting, probably, the opinion of Pothier, Traite du contrat de depot, n. 83, that In modem law there is no practical difference between the two views).

^{^[1162]} On the renaissance of deposit banking in the 12th century, see A.P. Usher, "The Origins of Banking: the Primitive Bank of Deposit, 1200-1600", (1932-34) 4 The Economic History Review 399 sqq.; on the relationship between medieval banking and banking practice in antiquity, see Raymond Bogaert, Les origines antiques de la banque de depot (1966), pp. 159 sqq. On the history of deposit banking in general, see Endemann, Studien, vol. I, pp. 423

D. 16, 3, 17 pr.

³¹ For details, see Pothier, Traite du contrat de depot, nn. 90 sqq. ; Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, "Studi sulla dottrina romana del sequescro", in: Scritti di diritto romano, vol. I (1974), pp. 59 sqq., 89 sqq.; Gerardo Broggini, "Introduction au sequester", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan, vol. I (1963), pp. 43 sqq.; Litewski, Studien, op. cit., note 141, pp. 47 sqq. Cf. also Maschi, Contratti reali, pp. 408 sqq. (according to whom only Justinian regarded the conventional sequestration as a case of deposit. This view is based on excessive textual criticism).

⁵ Cf. also Paul. D. 16, 3, 6: "Proprie autem in sequestre est depositum, quod a pluribus in solidum certa condicione custodiendum reddendumque traditur."

^{^[1166]} Cf. Heumann/Seckel, p. 535; Windscheid/Kipp, § 380, n. 2. For the Romans, the

word was derived from "sequi" (cf. e.g. Mod. D. 50, 16, 110 and Broggini, Melanges Meylan,

p. 54).

~~ Flor. D. 16. 3. 17. 1; Litewski. Studien, op. cit.. note 141. pp. 71 sqq. “^MCf.. for

example, Ulp. D. 16,3,5, l;Pomp. D. 16,3, 12, 2; Litewski, Studien, op. cit., note 141, pp. 78 sqq.

²⁹ Forjudicial sequestrations (i.e. those made by order of a court in the course of judicial proceedings), see, however, § 938 ZPO.

^{^[1170]} Gai. D. 44, 7, 1, 6.

²⁸ See, for instance, Heinrich Demburg, Das Pfandrecht nach den Grundsätzen des heutigen romischen Rechts, 2 vols. (1860, 1864); Rabel, Grundzuge, pp. 157 sqq.; Rodger J. Goebel, "Reconstructing the Roman Law of Real Security", (1961—62) 36 Tulane LR 29 sqq.; Paolo Frezza, Legaranzie detle obligazioni, vol. II: Legaranzie reali (1963); Kaser, RPr I, p. 463 sqq.; idem, "Studien zum romischen Pfandrecht", (1976) 44 TR 233 sqq.

^{^[1172]} On the conventio pignoris Max Kaser, "Besitzpfand und 'besitzloses' Pfand" (1979) 45 SDHI 29 sqq.

²⁸ For details, sec Kaser, (1979) 45 SDHI 1 sqq.

™ Cf. Kaser, (1976) 44 TR 262 sq.

²⁶ For details, see, most recently, Max Kaser, "Nochmals zu 'in bonis habere'", in: Huldigingsbundel Paul van Warmelo (1984), pp. 144 sqq.; Hans Ankum, Marjolijn van GesseUde Roo, Eric Pool, "Die verschiedenen Bedeutungen des Ausdrucks in bonis alicuius esse/in bonis habere im klassischen romischen Recht", (1987) 104 ZSS 238 sqq. and (1988) 105 ZSS 334 sqq.

^{^[1175]} Max Kaser, "Studien zum romischen Pfandrecht II", (1979) 47 TR 229, 234.

²⁴⁷ Lenel, EP, pp. 231 sqq., 254 sqq.

® EP. p. 255.

²⁸ Kaser, (1979) 45 SDHI5 sq.

⁵ Ulp. D. 13, 7, 9, 4: "Is quoque, qui rem alienam pignori dedit, soluta pecunia potest pigneraticia experiri." Cf. further e.g. Ulp. D. 21, 2, 38; Paul. D. 13, 7, 16, 1; Marci. D. 13, 7, 32; C. 8, 15, 6(Diocl.).

^{^[1180]} Schwarz, (1954) 71 ZSS 138 sqq.; F.B.J. Wubbe, Res aliena pignori data (1960), pp. 128 sq., 168 sqq.

^{^[1181]} Ulp. D. 13, 7, 9, 3. Q. further Uip. D. 13, 7, 11, 2; C. 8, 32, 1; and Kaser, (1979) 47 TR 201 sqq.

“ Cf. Kaser. (19791 47 TR 221. This formula was probably not contained in the edict. According to Rene Robaye, "Sanction judiciaire du contrat de gage en droit romain classique", (1987) 34 RIDA 309 sqq., the actio in ius concepta is of post-classical origin.

^№ For a discussion of cases in which the in factum formula did not lead to satisfactory results and a more flexible instrument was needed, cf. Kaser, (1979) 47 TR 216 sqq.

¹⁶⁽¹ C. 8, 27, 20 (Diocl.); cf. e.g. Ulrich von Lubtow, "Catos leges venditioni et location! dictae", in: Symbolae Raphael! Taubenschlag, vol. Ill (1957), pp. 329 sqq.

^{^[1183]} Cf. A. Manigk, RE, 20, 1 (1941), col. 1248 sqq.; von Lubtow, Symbolae Taubenschlag, vol. Ill, pp. 314 sqq.; Kaser, (1976) 44 TR 244 sqq.; but see, for example, Frezza, Garanzie, vol. II, pp. 82 sqq.

~ Kaser, (1976) 44 TR 254 sqq.; but see, for instance, Gyorgy Diosdi, Ownership in Ancient and Predassicdl Roman Law (1970), pp. 118 sqq.; Gerhard Schlichting, Die Ver?igungsbeschrankung des Verpfänders im klassischen romischen Recht (19731. pp. 124 sqq.

²³ Cf. Arangio-Ruiz. Responsabilite contrattuale, pp. 138 sqq.; Luzzatto. op. cit.. note 53. pp. 233 sqq.; Alvaro d'Ors, "Observaciones sobre el 'edictum de rebus creditis"'. (1953) 19 SDHI 196 sqq.; Norr, (1956) 73 ZSS 84 sqq.; Frezza, Caranzie, vol. II, pp. 241 sqq.; Kaser (1979) 46 SDHI 70 sqq.; idem, " 'Furtum pignons' und 'furtum fiduciac, (1982) 99 ZSS 249 sqq.; Hans Ankum, "La responsabilita del creditore pignoratizio nel dineto romano classico", in: Stndi in onare di Amaido Biscardi. vol. IV (1983), pp. 587 sqq.; Laura Rota, "Contrast! dottrinari e ipotesi di studio in tema di responsabilita del creditore pignoratizio", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi, vol. V (1984), pp. 329 sqq.; Robaye, (1987) 34 RIDA 311 sqq. On the closely related question of who could bring the actio furti (and thus receive duplum: the pledgee/creditor—on account of his custodia liability or for some other reason—or the pledgor as owner), cf. the recent contributions by Hans Ankum, "Furtum pignons und furtum fiduciae im klassischen romischen Recht". (1979) 26 RIDA 127 sqq. (1980) 27 RIDA 95 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Furtum pignons: a commentary on the commentaries", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. I (1982), pp. 585 sqq.; G.C.j.J. van den Bergh, "Custodiae and turtum pignoris", in: Studi in onore di Cesare San?iippo, vol. I (1982), pp. 601 sqq.; Kaser, (1982) 99 ZSS 249 sqq.; most recently cf. Rene Robaye, L'obligation de garde. Essai sur la responsabilite contractuelle en droit romain, (1988).

^{^[1185]} Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 2; Paul. D. 13, 7, 30 (on this text Watson, Obligations, pp. 182 sqq.); Pap. D. 20, 1, 2: Ulp. D. 44, 4, 4, 8; Ulp. D. 47, 2, 14, 6.

~^7r> Differently Bertha Bergsma-van Krimpen, "Eine neue Interpretation von D. 13, 7, 13", (1979) 26 RIDA 163 sqq.

^{^[1187]} Cf. also Ulp. D. 47, 2, 14, 16; C. 8, 13, 19 (Diocl.).

^2/7 Cf. Franz Haymann, "Textkritische Studien zum romischen Obligationenrecht", (1919) 40 ZSS 213 sqq.

^{^[1189]} For custodia liability as the general rule in classical law, cf. especially Ankum, Studi Biscardi, vol. IV, pp. 587 sqq.; at least for late classical law now also Kaser, (1982) 99 ZSS 249 sqq.; cf. also Rota, Studi Biscardi, vol. V, pp. 329 sqq. Contra, most recently, Robaye, (1987) 34 RIDA 311 sqq., 321 sqq.

^{^[1190]} Cf. further Ulp. D. 13. 7. 9 pr.: Marci. D. 13. 7. 32: C. 8. 15. 6 (Diocl.l; Schwarz.

(19541 71 ZSS 142 sqq.: Stein. Fault, pp. 128 sqq.: Kaser. (19791 47 TR 223 sqq.

^{^[1192]} Ulp. D. 13. 7. 36 pr.

²⁸⁵ Schwarz. (19541 71 ZSS 136: Stein. Fault, pp. 137 sq.

The actio de dolo has probably been cut out by the compilers; Ulpian originally wrote

this text in the course of a commentary on the actio de dolo (11 ad ed.).

²³³ Cf. also Ulp. D. 13. 7. 1. 2.

^a Cf. further Paul. D. 46. 1. 54.

^{^[1198]} Pomp. D. 13. 7. 3. On this text Schwarz. (19541 71 ZSS 160 sq. and especially Kaser. (1979) 47 TR 227 sq., vindicating it for classical law against a variety of interpolation hypotheses (e.g. Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, p. 295; d'Ors, (1953) 19 SDHI 191).

* De Zulueta, Sale, p. III.

^{^[1200]} Cf. Ulp. D. 14, 3, 5, 15; Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 6; on the history of arrha, see Pringsheim, Sale, pp. 335 sqq.

^{^[1201]} The German term "Draufgabe" is misleading in view of what is set out infra, note 8. The term "Handgeld" (Windscheid/Kipp, § 325) is more apposite.

^{^[1202]} For a recent overview, see M. McAuley, "One Thousand Years of Arra", (1977) 25 McGitl LJ 693 sqq.

230

^{^[1203]} Gai. Ill, 139.

⁰ Gai. D. 18, 1, 35 pr.

^{^[1205]} Cf., in this sense, also § 336 IBGB.

^B Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 6; Knutel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 37 sqq. Cf. also § 337 I BGB: "The earnest shall, in case of doubt, be credited to the performance due from the giver, or when this cannot be done, shall be returned on performance of the contract."

^{^[1207]} Cf. esp. Pnngsheim, Sate. pp. 333 sqq.

^{^[1208]} De Zulueta, Sate. pp. 22 sq.

¹ Cf. esp. Mario Talamanca, L'arra delta compravendita in diritto greco e in diritto romarw

(1953), pp. 47 sqq.; Philippe Meylan, "Des arrhes de la vente dans Plante", in: Melanges

Henri Levy-Bmhl (1959), pp. 205 sqq.; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 299 sqq; Watson,

Obligations, pp.46 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "A Note on Arra in Plautus", (1971) 6 The

Irish Jurist 360 sqq.

^E Cf. Curmlio. Act V. 1. 612; Psendolns, Act IV, Sc. VH 1. 1183, where the seller is given the choice of delivering the object sold or returning the arrha; further, for example Rudens. Act II, Sc. VI, 1. 554 sq.; Mostellaria. Act V, Se. n, 1. 1099.

® For the date of origin of consensual sale (3rd century) cf. Fritz Pringsheim, "E'origine" des contrats consensuels", (1954) 32 RHAlb sqq.; Alan Watson, "The Origins of Consensual Sale: A Hyphothesis", (1964) 32 TR 253; Kaser, RPr I, p. 526.

¹¹ Duckworth, The Nature of Roman Comedy (1952), p. 82.

^B McAuley, (1977) 23 McGiU LJ695.

^B Watson.' Obligations, pp. 49, 51.

^{^[1215]} On the rise in the use of writing in post-classical sales law, cf. Wulf Eckart Voss, Recht

und Rhetorik in den Kaisercesetzen der Spatantike (1982), pp. 195 sqq.

^B Inst. III, 23 pr.

inst. Ill, 23 pr.

²³ Cf. e.g. Talamanca, op. cit., note 11, pp. 79 sqq.; Gerard Chalon-Secretan, Les arrhes de lafente sous Justinien (1954); J. A.C. Thomas, "Arra in Sale in Justinian's Law", (1956) 24 TR 253 sqq.; idem, "Arra reagitata", (1956) Butterworth's South African LR 60 sqq.; idem, "A Postscript on Arra", (1959) 10 lura 109 sqq.; Alan Watson, "Arra in the Law of Justinian", (1959) 6 RIDA 385 sqq.; T.H. Tylor, "Writing and Arra in Sale under the Corpus Juris", (1961) 77 LQR 77 sqq.; A.M. Honore, "Arra as You Were", (1961) 77 LQR 172 sqq.; Mario Talamanca, "Osservazioni sull'arra nel dirilto Giustinianeo", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan, vol. I, pp. 325 sqq.; Joseph M. Thomson, "Arra in Sale In Justinian's Law", (1970) 5 The Irish jurist 179 sqq.; M.L. Marasinghe, "Arra —Not in Dispute", (1973) 20 RIDA 349 sqq.; Henryk Kupiszewski, "Quelques remarques sur les vocabula ANTIXPHXI2, APPA, HAPAONPHA dans le digeste", (1974) ISJJP 235 sqq.

² Fachinaeus, Controversiae iuris. Lib. II, Cap. XXVIII.

^{^[1220]} Cf. e.g. Pothier, Traite du contrat du vente, nn. 508 sq.

³ Except that the value forfeited might have counted towards damages. This was disputed, too. Cf., today, § 338 BGB: "If the performance due from the giver becomes impossible because of a circumstance for which he is responsible, or if the rescission of the contract is due to his fault, the holder of the earnest is entitled to retain it. If the holder of the earnest demands compensation for nonperformance, the earnest shall, in case of doubt, be credited, or if this cannot be done, it shall be returned upon payment of the compensation." The earnest, in this instance, represents a minimum amount of liquidated damages; the function of the earnest is that of a penalty clause.

³ Gai. Ill. 147.

^{^[1223]} Cf. also Pomp. D. 18. 1. 20; lav. D. IS. 1. 65.

³ Pomp. D. 18, 1, 20 in fine; Paul. D. 19, 2, 22, 2.

■ In the case of the building contract, ownership passed to the "purchaser" on account of accessio (superficies solo cedit) and not on account of delivery. Where the goldsmith made the ring from the "purchaser's" gold, we are dealing with a case of specificatio. According to the Sabinians, the "purchaser" continued to be the owner, whereas the Proculians saw the goldsmith as acquiring ownership. Only according to this latter opinion would the "seller" have had to (re)transfer ownership.

De Zulueta, Sale, pp. 15 sq.

^{^[1227]} Cf. "Protokolle"., in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 919. § 651 BGB therefore reads as follows: "If the contractor binds himself to produce the work from material provided by him, he shall deliver the thing produced to the customer and convey ownership in the thing. The provisions applicable to sale apply to such a contract; if a non-fungible thing is to be produced, the provisions relating to contract for work, with the exception of §§..., take the place of §§.... "

^{^[1228]} De Zulueta, Gaius If p. 174. Cf. also the detailed analysis of Gai. DI, 146 by A.M. Prichard, in: Studies in the Roman Law of Sale in niemoiy of Francis de Zulueta (19591. pp. 1 sqq.: Antonio Guarino, "II leasing dei gladiatori", (1985) 13 Index 461 sqq.

¹⁶ Cf. e.g. Gai. D. 18, 1, 35, 5.

^{^[1230]} Gai. D. 18, 1, 35, 7; Paul. D. 18, 6, 5 (second part).

We find it in none of our sources. Cf. Emil Seckel, Ernst Levy, "Die Gefahrtragung beim Kauf im klassischen romischen Recht", (1927) 47 ZSS 122 sqq.; Buckland/McNair, p. 282; De Zulueta, Sale, p. 16; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 122 sqq. Contra: Franz Haymann, "Haben die Romen den Gattungskauf gekannt?", (1928-29) 79 Jhjb 95 sqq.; Honscli/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 305 sqq.

^{^[1232]} For what follows, see De Zulueta, Sale, pp. 2 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compra vendita, pp. 4 sqq.; Kaser, RPr\, pp. 545 sq. Cf. alsojoseph Georg Wolf, "Barkaufund Haftung",

(1977) 45 TR 12 sq.

⁴³ "From the beginning of the second century B.c. the pulse of trade began to beat too

fast for the leisurely methods which had suited the cautious Roman peasant well enough":

De Zulueta, Sale, p. 5. Hypotheses on the origin of consensual sale and of the origins of the bonae fidei iudicia in general abound; sec, for instance, Philippe Meylan, "Le role de la bona

fides dans le passage de la vente au comptant a ia vente consensuelle a Rome", in: Aequitas und Bona Fides, Festgabefiir August Simonins (1955), p. 247 sqq. ; Filippo Cancelli, L'origine del contratto consensuelle di compravendita nel diritto romano (1963), passim; Franz Wieacker, "Zum Ursprung der bonae fidei iudicia", (1963) 80 ZSS 1 sqq. (cf. also idem, RR, pp. 441 sqq., 453 sq., 457 sq.); Alan Watson, "The Origins of Consensual Sale: A Hypothesis", (1964) 32 TR 245 sqq.; Luigi Labruna, "Plauto, Manilio, Catone: Premesse alio studio dell' 'emptio' consensuale", (1968) 14 Labeo 24 sqq.; Jolowicz/Nicholas, pp. 288 sqq.; Diosdi, pp. 44 sqq. The most recent contribution is Watson, Evolution, pp. 12 sqq.

The transferee still had to assert that he had bought the object ("Hunc ego hominem ex iure Quintium meum esse aio isque mihi emptus esto hoc aere aeneaque libra"), which was as fictitious as the "price" paid, a copper coin which he handed over to the transferor after he had used it to knock at the scales which the libripens held.

^{^[1238]} Seckel/Levy. (19271 47 ZSS 137 sqq.; Buckland/McNair. pp. 282 sq.

“B For instance, as far as liability for latent defects is concerned; cf. e.g. Seckel/Levy.

(19271 47 ZSS 136 sq. and. today. § 480 BGB. read together with § 243 BGB.

^{^[1241]} Cf. e.g. Rabet, 'Warenkauf. vol. I. p. 65.

^4l> Cf. e.g. Zweigert/Kotz, Einführung in die Rechtsvergleichung (1st ed.(!), 1971), vol. I, pp. 214 sqq.; Gerhard Kegel, "Verpflichtung und Verfügung", in: Festschrift fur F.A. Mann (1977), pp. 57 sqq.; Reinhard Zimmermann, "SittenWidrigkeit und Abstraktion", (1985) Juristische Rundschau 48 sqq. The principle of abstraction goes back to Friedrich Carl von Savigny; cf. his Obligationenrecht, vol. R pp. 254 sqq. and Wilhelm Felgentraeger, Friedrich Carl v, Savignys Einfluss auf die Obereignungslehre (1927).

* Cf. e.g. Fritz Schulz. (19321 52 ZSS 544 sqq.

^{^[1244]} Max Kaser."Zur 'iusta causa traditionis'". (19611 64 BIDR 61 sqq.; Gunther Jahr. "Zur iusta causa tradionis", (1963) 80 ZSS 141 sqq.; Uwe Wesel, "Zur dinglichen Wirkung der Rücktrittsvorbehalte des romischen Kaufs", (1968) 85 ZSS 100 sqq.; Robin Evans-Jones, Geoffrey MacCormack, "Iusta causa traditionis", in: New Perspectives in the Roman Law of Property, Essays for Barry Nicholas (1989), pp. 99 sqq.

Sec, for this argument, Frank Peters, "Die Verschaffung des Eigentums durch den Verkäufer", (1979) 96 ZSS 189.

⁴⁴ Pomp. D. 18. 1. 8 pr.

Voci, L'errore, pp. 154 sqq., goes even further and argues that the sale was valid in classical Roman law.

D. 11, 7, 8, 1. For a different interpretation of the text, see Stein, Fault, pp. 68 sqq.

^{^[1248]} D. 18, 1, 62, 1. Cf. Stein, Fault, pp. 75 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 107 sq. Contra ("ex empto" interpolated) e.g. Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 132 sq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 164 sq.; Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit, pp. 104 sqq.

hist. Ill, 23, 5: "Loca sacra vel religiosa, item publica, veluti forum basilicam, frustra quis sciens emit, quas tamen si pro privatis vcl profanis deceptus a venditore emerit, habebit actionem ex empto, quod non habere ei liceat, ut consequatur, quod sua interest deceptum eum non esse, idem iuns est, si hominem liberum pro servo emerit." Decipere indicates that the seller must be guilty of dolus, i.e. the action was granted only where the vendor was sciens, the purchaser ignorans. In decreeing the same as far as the sale of a liber homo was concerned, Justinian changed the law; according to classical law, in this instance, the purchaser could sue even where the seller had also been ignorans.

^{^[1250]} Cf. Rudolf von Jhering, "Culpa in contrahendo, oder Schadensersatz bei nichtigen oder nicht zur Perfektion gelangten Vertragen", (1861) 4JhJb 16 sqq.; Windschcid/Kipp, § 307, n. 5.

^{^[1251]} Cf. e.g. § 122 I: "If a declaration of intention is... rescinded under the

declarant shall... compensate (the other) party... for the damage which the other... party sustained by relying upon the validity of the declaration, not, however, beyond the value of the interest which the other... party has in the validity of the declaration" (i.e. positive interest as the limit for the negative interest). Cf. also §§ 179 II, 307, 309 BGB and Lange, Schadensersatz, pp- 44 sqq.

^6SCf. Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 87 sqq., 108 sq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 549.

^f19 In his article referred to supra, note 66.

Hans Dolle, "Juristische Entdeckungen", in: Verhandlungen des 42. Dattschen Juristentages, vol. II (1959), pp. Bl sqq.

¹ For a detailed analysis, see Erich Schanze, "Culpa in contrahendo bei Jhering", (1978) 7 lus Commune 326 sqq.

^{^[1256]} On fault in the formation of contract in Roman law generally, see Karl Heidrich, Das Verschuldeti beim Vertragsabschtuss im ktassischen romischen Recht und in der spiiteren Rechts entwicklung (1924); Stein, Fault, passim.

^{^[1257]} "What is right with regard to the degree of fault for which (a debtor") is responsible when performing his contractual obligation, is also applicable if one of the contracting parties has neglected the duties incumbent on him in concluding the contract."

^{^[1258]} Cf., for example, Hans Stoll, "Tatbestände und Funktionen der Haftung fur culpa in contrahendo", in: Festschrift für Ernst von Caemmerer (1978), pp. 435 sqq.; Dieter Medicus, "Verschulden bei Vertrags Verhandlungen", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge гиг Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. I (1981), pp. 479 sqq.; Peter Gottwald, "Die Haftung für culpa in contrahendo", (1982) Juristische Schulung 877 sqq.

^{^[1259]} This is § 831 BGB, dealing with vicarious liability. See infra, pp. 1125 sq.

^{^[1260]} Cf., in particular, Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, Die Vertrauenshaftung im deutschen Privatrecht (1971); idem, "Schutzgesetze—Verkehrs pflicht en—Schutzpflichten", in: (Zweite) Festschrift

fUr Karl Larenz (1983), pp. 27 sqq.

^{^[1261]} Cf. e.g. § 45 of the Czech BGB (1950): "A party who has negligently or intentionally caused a legal transaction to be invalid, is bound to compensate for the damage suffered by the other party in relying on the validity of the contract"; artt. 1337 sq. codice civile. For comparative views on culpa in contrahendo, see Rudolf Nirk, "Rechtsvergleichendcs гиг Haftung fur culpa in contrahendo", (1953) 18 RabelsZ 310 sqq.; Friedrich Kessler, Edith Fine, "Culpa in Contrahendo, Bargaining in Good Faith, and Freedom of Contract: A Comparative Study", (1964) 77 Harvard LR 401 sqq.; Friedrich Kessler, "Der Schutz des Vertrauens bei Vertrags Verhandlungen in der neueren amerikanischen Rechtsprechung", in: Festschrift für Emst von Caemmerer (1978), pp. 873 sqq.; Stoll, Festschrift von Caemmerer, pp. 435 sqq.

Nicholas, Introduction, p. 173.

^{^[1263]} But cf. Dennis Paling, "Emptio spei and emptio rei speratae", (1973) 8 The Irish Jurist

178 sqq.

⁸¹ Cf. esp. Pomp. D. 18, 1, 8, 1.

^a5 But cf. the famous case submitted to the Delphic oracle (Plutarch, Vitae, Solon, 4, 1

sqq.; cf. the discussion by Pothier, Traite du contrat de rente, n. 6; Herbert William Parke, D.E.W. Wormell, The Delphic Oracle, vol. I (1956), pp. 110 sqq.; David Daube, "Purchase of a Prospective Haul", in: Studi in onore di Ugo Enrico Paoli (1955), p. 203). Some Milesians bought from some fishermen the next haul of their net. It proved to include a golden tripod. Had the purchasers bought only such fish as might be caught or the haul, whatever it might contain? The Pythia awarded the tripod to neither of the parties but to the wisest man that could be found. It was sent to Thales of Miletos, the Ionian philosopher and natural scientist, who, however, declined to accept it and sent it to another philosopher, whom he considered wiser than himself. On the same argument the tripod passed through the hands of all the Seven Wise Men (tradition refers to Kleobulos of Lindos, Solon of Athens, Chilon of Sparta, Thales of Miletos, Pittakos of Mitylene, Bias of Priene and Periandros of Korinthos as the septem sapientes), until it was realized that no mortal was as wise as Apollo. Hence it was sent to the temple of Apollo at Delphi and dedicated to that god (that is, the master of the Delphic oracle, to whom the case had originally been submitted).

^a "Certainty of Price", in: Studies in the Roman Law of Sale in memory of Francis de Zulueta (1959), p. 12. For another practical example, see the sale of a vindemia pendens, as related by Plinius, Epistulae, Lib. VIII, 2; cf. J.E. Spruit, "Schikanen anlässlich eines Traubenkaufs", in: Satura Roberto Feenstra oblata (1985), pp. 158 sqq.

^H7Cf. Cels. D. 19, 1, 12.

Cf. Suetonius, De vita Caesarum. Nero, XI, 4, describing what was thrown to the streets at the occasion of one of Nero's entertainments. Another legal problem arising from the throwing of largesse (acquisition of ownership) is discussed in Gai. D. 41, 1, 9, 7 and Inst. If 1, 46. For further discussion, see Daube, Studi Paoli, pp. 205 sqq.; Liebs, RR. pp. 165 sq.; Ferenc Benedek, '"lactus missilium'", in: Sodatitas. Scritti in onore di Antonio Guarino, vol. V (1984), pp. 2108 sqq.

^H9 Daube, Studi Paoli, p. 205.

^{^[1270]} Pomp. D. 18, 1,8, 1. The classidty of this text has been vindicated by Max Kaser,

"Erbschaftskauf und Hoffnungskauf, (1971) 74 BIDR 47 sq.; cf. also already Daube, Studi Paoli, pp. 204 sqq. and J.A.C. Thomas, "Venditio herediiatis and emptio spei", (1959) 33

Tulane LR 541 sqq. Cf. also Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11. 18.

If the vendor failed to make a decent effort to procure the object, he was liable (under the actio empti) for damages, to be estimated according to the speculative value of the catch: cf. Cels. D. 19, 1, 12.

⁴² Cf. e.g. Pap. D. 39, 5, 29, 2; Diocl. C. 8. 38, 4. The immorality of such transactions is based on the desire on the part of the acquirer to see his spes hereditatis materialize as soon as possible. See, too, Paul D. 18. 4, 7,

lav. D. 18, 4, 8; Paul. D. 18, 4, 9. This was the other group of texts, on which Jhering based his culpa in contrahendo theory; cf. supra, pp. 244 sq.

^{^[1274]} Paul. D. 18, 4, 13.

⁹¹⁵ The normal mode of transfer was in iure cessio hereditatis; see Voci, DER, vol. I, pp. 98 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 722 sq.

^{^[1275]} One can think, for instance, of a Roman who hears that his uncle in Athens has died.

He is sure that his uncle has instituted him as his heir. Being short of money, he sells his spes hereditatis. As the purchaser bears the risk of the vendor not having become heir, the purchase price will, however, not be very high. Cf. Kaser, (1971) 74 BIDR 55.

^{^[1277]} Cf. Thomas, (1959) 33 Tulane LR 545 sqq. and especially Max Kaser, "Erbschaftskauf und Hoffnungskauf’, (1971) 74 BIDR 50 sqq.

afford habere licere: the purchaser could avail himself of the actio empti if he was evicted.

Paul- D. 18, 1, 1, 1; Gai. Ill, 141. Cf. e.g. Arangio-Ruiz, Comprat'endita, pp. 134 sqq.; David Daube, "The Three Quotations from Homer in Digest 18, 1. 1, i", (1949) 10 Cambridge LJ 213 sqq.

^{^[1280]} Paul. D. 18, 1, 1, pr.

¹⁽¹" For a discussion, see Herman van den Brink. The Charme of Legal History, 1974, pp. 79 sqq.: Altons Burge. "Geld- und Natural wirtschaft im vorklassischen und klassischen romischen Recht". (19821 99 ZSS 142 sqq.

¹¹¹¹ For details of the development, see Burge. (19821 99 ZSS 128 sqq.

^1,12 Gai. Ill. 141.

^w3 Paul. D. 18. 1. 1. 1; cf. also Paul. D. 19. 4. 1 pr.

^{^[1282]} For instance: the purchaser had to transfer ownership, the vendor only had to

Cf. infra, pp. 296 sqq.

^1C6 "Absurdum videri": Gai. Ill. 141.

“ Gai. HI. 141 in fine.

¹⁰ Seckel/Levy. (19271 47 ZSS 133.

“ Pomp. D. 19. 1. 6. 1.

“ lav. D. 18. 1. 79.

^{^[1289]} § 515 BGB. In other codifications, a distinction is recognized as far as remedies for eviction arc concerned (under a contract of exchange a party that has been evicted may either claim damages or restitution of the thing delivered; cf. e.g. art. 238 OR); in the code civil the provisions relating to rescission for lesion do not apply to exchange: art. 1706. For further details and analysis, see T.B. Smith, "Exchange or Sale?", (1974) 48 Tulane LR 1031 sqq; A.D.M. Forte, "A Civilian Approach to the Contract of Exchange in Modem Scots Law", (1984) 101 SALJ 691 sqq; R.L. Purves, "Asset-Transfer Contracts", 1987 Respotisa meridiana 237 sqq.

" Cf. e.g. § 472 I BGB, which provides with regard to the actio quanti minoris (on which see infra, p. 318): "In case of reduction, the purchase price shall be reduced in the proportion which, at the time of the sale, the value of the thing in a condition free from defect would have borne to the actual value." For further criticism, see Theo Mayer-Maly, "Dogmengeschich- tliches zu BGHZ 46, 338", in: Festschrift fur Karl Larenz (1973), pp. 673 sqq.

^{^[1291]} The relation is different, for instance, if A and В swop their motorcars (A's car being worth 9 000 rand, B's 10 000 rand) and A has to throw in 1 000 rand as a makeweight. The crucial factor in determining the type of contract is the intention of the parties: cf. e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XVIII, Tit. І, ХХП; Kerr, Sale and Lease, pp. 23 sqq. See further Smith, (1974) 48 Tulane LR 1034 sqq; Forte, (1984) 101 SALJ 693 sqq.

® For details, see H.P. Westermann, in: Munchener Kommentar, vol. ПІ 1 (2nd ed., 1988), § 515, n. 4.

¹ Ulp. D. 18, 1, 36. For a comprehensive discussion of this text, see David Daube, Studi Arangio-Ruiz, vol. I, pp. 192 sqq.

¹ Cf. Ulp. D. 19, 2, 46 (dealing, however, with locatio conductio); Pothier, Traite du central de vettte, n. 19.

^{^[1295]} But sec Michel, Gratuite. pp. 244 sqq.

^{^[1296]} D. 18, 1,7, 1.

^IW For a detailed analysis, see David Daube, "Certainty of Price", in: Studies in the Roman Law of Sale in memory of Francis de Zulueta (1959), pp. 9 sqq. Cf., however, alsoJ.A.C. Thomas, "Marginalia on certum pretium", (1967) 35 TR T1 sqq., who comes to the conclusion that the two cases can "in fact stand perfectly well together".

^{^[1298]} Ulp. D. 18, 1, 7, 2; cf. also Ulp. D. 19, 1, 13, 24.

Cf. e.g. Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 139 sq.

^Q Daubc, Studies De Zuiueta, p. 27. He continues: "As a matter of fact, one can think of situations, where even the term of 18, 1, 7, 2... would be perfectly in order. I sell the farm next door to mine to a farmer though I have higher offers from building speculators. A clause obliging him to cede any profit by a resale will keep him out of tempcation—to my advantage. Nor will it deprive him of his chief interest in the contract—which is to get and work the farm" (pp. 27 sq.).

^{^[1301]} Gai. Ill, 140.

^{^[1302]} Gai. Ill, 140.

^{^[1303]} C 4, 38, 15, 1; Inst. Ill, 23, 1.

¹² Gai. D. 18, 1, 35, 1. Cf. Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, p. 141; differently Daube, Studies De Zuiueta, pp. 21 sqq.

^AJj 317 I BGB.

^{^[1306]} If the third party is to determine the performance in an equitable manner (which is to be presumed): § 319 I BGB.

^{1 8} If the third party may make the decision at his discretion: § 319 II BGB. There can be no judicial substitution for or control of a discretionary declaration of this kind.

^{1 c}' § 315 I BGB. § 315 III provides: "If the determination is to be made in an equitable manner, the determination made is binding upon the other party only if it is equitable. If it is inequitable, the determination is made by court decision; the same applies if the determination is delayed."

The pandectists tended to interpret "impcrfectum" in Gai. D. 18, 1, 35, 1 not as invalid, but as (validly concluded but) not yet effective- On the pandectist doctrine with regard to determination of the purchase price by either one of the partners to the contract or a third party, tee Windscheid/Kipp, § 386; Hans-Joachim Winter, Die Bestimmtmg der Leisliing durch den Vertragspartner oder Dritte (§§ 315 bis 319 BGB) ur.ter besondert'r Berücksichtigung der Rechtsprechung tmd Lehre des 19. Jahrhunderts (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Frankfurt, 1979), passim.

^H Cf. already Windscheid/Kipp, § 386, n. 5 d.

For details, see Kerr, Sale and Lease, pp. 26 sqq. and e.g. Adcorp Spares PE (Pty.) Ltd. v. Hydromulch (Pty.) Ltd. 1972 (3) SA 663 (T) (with reference, i.a., to Vinnius, Institutiones 3, 24, 1, and Voct, 18, 1, 2).

⁰³ Johannes van der Lip v. De Weduwe en boedelhoudster van Adolph Snelierwaart (cf. Van Bynkershoek, Observations Tumultuariae, n. 1558, but particularly the report in (1975) 92 SALJ 278 sq.); on this decision and its (possible) implications, see H.J. Erasmus, P. van Warmelo, D. Zcffcrtt, "Pretium certum and the Hooge Raad", (1975) 92 SALJ 268 sqq.

^{^[1310]} On iustum pretium generally, see Theo Mayer-Maly, "Der gerechte Preis", in:

Festschrift fur Heinrich Demelius (1973), pp. 139 sqq.

“ Cicero. De offiais, 3. XVII —68.

^11,1 Paul. D. 50. 17. 144. A similar attitude (and not as has often been alleged: cf. e.g. Leonhard Freund. Lug und Trug unter den Germanen (1863). passim, a higher moral standard") can be found in the old Germanic law. Here the words for "tauschen" (exchange") and "tauschen" (deceive") have the same etymological root: a horse-dealer was called rosriuschaere (^,lRosstduscher"). The basic principle was "Jeder Kaufman» labt seine "Ware. Loben und bieten gehort гит Kauf (Every merchant praises his goods. Puffing and bidding are part of the game). Cf. Andreas Wacke, "Circumscribere, gerechter Preis und die Arten der List",(1977) 94 ZSS 202. As far as English law is concerned, see, for instance, Smith v. Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597 at 603: "... the question is not what a man of scrupulous morality or nice honour would do under such circumstances."

^и Cicero. De qfficiis, 3, ХХШ —57.

⁴ Cf. e.g. Conradus Rittershusius. Differentiarum iuris civilis et canonici sen Porttificii Htm septem (1638), Lib. П1, Cap. X: "... ilia industna et solertia et vigilantia in rebus propnis et suis commodis augendis... est homini naturahs ct laudabilis potius quam vituperanda."

^{^[1316]} For a similar, very interesting case cf. Laidlaw v. Organ 4 US (2 Wheat) 178 (1817) as discussed by Zweigert/Kotz, vol. II, p. 125. During the war of 1812-14 between England and the United States, and as a result of the British blockade, the tobacco prices in New Orleans had fallen drastically. One morning the plaintiff learnt that a treaty of peace had been signed in Ghent; he immediately proceeded to buy a great quantity of tobacco from the defendants, who were unaware of these developments. The tobacco price, as was to be expected, subsequently rose by some 50 %. Chief Justice Marshal upheld the contract. For England, see Smith v. Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597.

⁴ Theo Mayer-Maly. "Privatautonomie und Vertragsethik im Digestenrecht", (1955) 6 /ига 128 sqq.; Wacke, (1977) 94 ZSS 184 sqq.

^{^[1318]} Cf, for example, Glück, vol. 17, p. 19; Erich Genzmer, "Die antiken Grundlagen der Lehre vom gerechten Preis und der laesio enormis", in: Deutsche Landesreferate гит II. Internationalen Kongress für Rechtsvergleichung im Haag (19371. pp. 36 sq.

^11,1 Wacke. ('1977') 94 ZSS 202 sqq.. who also (pp. 198 sq.) draws attention to the fact that some haggling took place as a matter of course and commercial practice before a contract of sale was concluded. The parties usually took their time before they reached an agreement: on the weekly market days (dies nun din a rum) no work was done on the farms. (The nundinae are apparently derived from the word tor haggling.) The initial offer of the vendor could therefore not have created a reasonable expectation that the object was really worth this price. A philosopher such as Cicero looked down on the mercatores and found their occupation "sordid": "nihil enim prohciant, nisi admodum mentiantur" (De officiis. 1, XL1I—150). As far as the bargaining process is concerned, cf. also C. 4. 44, 8 (Diocl.): "... quod videlicet si contractus emptioms atque venditionis cogitasses substantial]} et quod emptor viliori comparandi, venditor canori distrahendi votum gerentes ad him c contractum accedam vixque post multas contentiones paulatini venditore de eo quod petierat detrahente, emptore autem huic quod obtulerat addenre, ad certum consentiant pretium...." For details about prices in Italy and the African provinces, see R. Duncan-Jones, The Economy of the Roman Empire, Quantitative Studies (1974), pp. 63 sqq.

¹⁴ "The formal equality ot Romans before the law became a shield behind which the mercantile economy of Rome could operate with greater confidence": Frier, Ronuiti jurists, p. 192.

^I4M Cf. supra, pp. 166 sqq

^{^[1320]} Mutuum differed from sale in that it was a strictly unilaterally binding contract in

Roman law. Interest could be promised only by way of a separate stipulation. Cf. supra,

pp. 154 sq.

^b" For an analysis in English, see John P. Dawson. "Economic Duress, and the Fair

Exchange in French and German Law". (1937) 12 Titiane LR 48 sqq.; idem, "Unconscion

able Coercion: The German Version". (1976) H9 Harvard LR ULI52 sqq. As lar as English law

is concerned, cf. e.g. Lloyds Bank Ltd. v. Bundy 11975] QB 326 (CA) at 337 (per Lord

Denning MR).

^{^[1328]} On its history, see Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht. pp. 147 sqq.; Klaus Luig. "Vertragsfreiheit und Aquivalenzprinzip Im gemcinen Recht imd im BGB", in: Festgabe fur Helmut Going (1982), pp. 171 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Franz Wieacker. Das Sozialmodt'II der klassischen Privatrechtsgeseizbiicher und die Etttwicktung der modernen Gesellschaft (19531.

- Joseph Story, Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence (11th ed.), vol. I (1873), § 244. On the age ot freedom of contract and its intellectual background, see, above all, Atiyah, Rise and Fall, pp. 219 sqq.

^{^[1331]} The term was introduced by the glossators.

^hb C. 4, 44. 2. The other text is C. 4, 44, 8. a long and involved piece of legal draftsmanship ("Si voluntate tua fundum tuum filius tuus venumdedit, dolus ex calliditate atque insidns emptoris argui debet vel metus mortis vel cruciatus corporis imminens detegi, nc habeatur rata venditio, hoc enim solum, quod paulo minori pretio fundum venumdatum significas, ad rescindendam emptionem invalidum est. quod videlicet si contractus emptionis atque venditionis cogitasses substantiam et quod emptor vilion comparandi, venditor carion distrahendi votum gerentes ad hunc contractum accedant vixque post multas contentiones, paulatim venditore de co quod petierat detrahente, emptore autem huic quod obtulerat addente, ad certum consentiant pretium, profecto perspiceres neque bonam fidem, quae emptionis atque venditionis conventionem tuetur, pati neque ullam rationem concedere rescindi propter hoc consensu finitum contractum vel statim vel post pretii quantitatis disceptationem: nisi minus dimidia iusti pretii, quod fuerat tempore venditionis, datum est, electione iam emptori praestita servanda").

^ft The question is much disputed. Arguing in favour of interpolation atfecting the substance of the text cf.. for example, Rene Dekkexs, La lesion hwrme (1937), pp. 16 sqq.: Genzmer, op. cit., note 145, pp. 55 sqq.: A.J.B. Sirks. "La laesio enormis en droit remain et byzantin", (1985) 53 TR 291 sqq.; Hannu Tapani Klami. " Laesio enormis' in Roman Law", (1987) 33 Labeo 48 sqq.; cf. also idem. Roman Law and Hardship (1987), pp. 156 sqq.; contra e.g. Karoly Visky, "'Die Proportionality von Wert und Freis in den romischen Rechtsquellen des III. Jahrhmiderts". (1969) 16 RED A 374 sqq.. 385 sqq.; cf. now also idem, Spuren. pp. 24 sqq.; Karl Hackl, "Zu den Wurzcln der Anfcchtung wegen laesio enormis".

Crawford, "Finance, Coinage and Money from the Severans to Constantino", in: AKRW. vol. U, 2 (1975), pp. 567 sq.; De Martino, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, pp. 391 sqq.: Klami, Roman Law and Hardship (1987). pp. 117 sqq., 130 sqq.

¹⁽¹⁴ For instance: 1 pound (— 327 g) of pork: 12 denarii. 1 pound of beef: 8 denarii, a chicken: 30 denarii, one fatted hen-pheasant: 200 denarii, half a litre of beer: 4 denarii, 20 cucumbers or 20 big edible snails: 4 denarii. A barber was allowed to take 2 denarii for a haircut, a primary teacher could charge 50 denarii per month and pupil, a teacher of grammar 200, of rhetoric 250 denarii.

^{^[1333]} Praefatio. 18; cf. also Lactantius, De mortibuspersecutorum, 7, §§ 6 sq.: "Idem cum variis

iniquitatibus immensura faceret caritatem, legam pretiis rerum venahum statuere conatus

est. Tune ob exigua et vilia multus sanguis effusus, nee venale quicquam metu apparebat et caritas multo detenus exarsit, donee lex necessitate ipsa posrmultorum exitium solveretur."

^I6d Which was, incidentally, not very successful and seems to have hardly outlived the Emperor who enacted it: cf. e.g. Ernst Schonbauer, "Untersuchungen über die Rechtsentwicklung in der Kaiserzeit", (1955-56) 9/10 JJP 53 scjq.

^{^[1337]} De Bondt, 1979 Juridical Review 50, 52, 55 further argues that, whereas Diocletian's

main aim (pursued by means of his edictum de pretiis rerum venalium and his reforms of the

fiscal system) was to stabilize the value of the money and to combat inflation, the recognition

of laesio enormis would have had the opposite effect.

^lsfl Cf. the clause "humanum est" in C. 4, 44, 2. On humanity in Roman Law, sec Schulz. Principles, pp. 189 sqq.; Heinz Haffter, "Die romische Humanitas", in: Hans Oppermann

(ed.), Romische Wertbegriffe, (1983), pp. 468 sqq.; Henryk Kupiszewski, "Humanitas et 1c droit romain". in: Maior viginti quinque annis, Hssays in commemoration of (he sixth lustrum of the Institute for Legal History of the University of Utrecht (ed. J.E. Spruit. 19791. pp. 85 sqq. Cf. also, more specifically, on humanitas and the regulation of labour relations, Johannes Michael Rainer, "Humanität und Arbeit im mmischen Recht", (1988) 105 ZSS 745 sqq. For a very

sceptical view ot the "humanitas" displayed in C. 4, 44, 2, see De Bondt, 1979 juridical Review 58 sq.

Cf. e.g. A.H.M. Jones, The Decline of the Ancient World (1966), pp. 114, 154 sqq.,

[1345] sqq.

^ro Cf. especially Dekkers, op. cit., note 156. pp. 66 sqq.; R.W.M. Dias, "Laesio Enormis. The Roman-Dutch Story", in: Studies in the Roman Law oj Sale in memory of Francis de Zulueta (1959), pp. 46 sqq.; Wolfgang Georg Schulze, Die laesio enormis in der deutschen Primtrechtsgeschichte (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Minister, 1973).

^{^[1347]} According to §§ 59, 69 I 11 PrALR, only to the purchaser.

^{1 2} For a comprehensive discussion sec Gluck, vol. 17, pp. 27 sqq.

^bJ1 Or only valuable movables: Voct, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. VIII, Tit. V, XII.

^{^[1350]} For details, see Gluck, vol. 17, pp. 120 sqq.

^lo For a comprehensive discussion, sec. again. Gluck, vol. 17. pp. 35 sqq. He quotes (inter alia!) Azo, Accursius. Bildus. Bartolm. Gutierrez, Covarruvias, Gomezius, Augustin Barbosa, jacobus Curtins. Johannes Voet. Gottlieb Gerhard Тишь, Samuel von Cocceji and Darjes for the one opinion, Molinaeus, Culacius. Duarenus, Donellus, Merenda. Ferezius, Tulden. Bockelmann and Johann Ulnch von Cramer for the other. Ct. also the discussion by Calm. (19691 6 Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 21 sqq.

^{^[1352]} This was the prevailing opinion trom about the 16th century onwards; ct. e.g. Molinaeus. "Tractatus contractuum et usurarum". in: Opera omnia (Famiis. 168]). Quaest. XIV. n. 175: Grotius. Inleiditiy. III. Lil. 2; Lauterbach. Collegium theoretuo-pniaicum. Lib. XVIII. Tit. V. X: c(. further bias. Studies De Zulucta. p. 52. "

' For a discussion of further problems and limitations ot the laesio enormis in the ius commune of the Roman-Dutch variant, see Dias. Studies De Zulueta, pp. 54 sqq.; for the ius commune generally, see Gluck, vol. 17. pp. 79 sqq.. 105 sqq.

De aequitate cerebrina legis secutidae C. De resc. vend., 2 § 13; for further details, see Klaus Luig, "Bemerkungen zum Problem des gerechten Preiscb bei Christian Thomasius", in: Tradition and EntwukUaig, Gedenkschrift fur Johannes Riederer (19811. pp. 167 sqq.

^{^[1354]} Wiirttembcrgische Landrechte of 1555 and 1610; cf. Schulze, op. cit., note 170, pp. 31

" Article 1674, applicable only in favour of a seller of land. This restrictive tendency can be traced back to Cuiacius, Moiinaeus, Domat and Pothier; for details, see Enrico Dell'Aquila, "L'adeguatezza tra i vantaggi nei contratti onerosi", (1979) 91 Studi Senesi 485 sqq. Article 1674 was inserted at the urging of Napoleon Bonaparte, who took a lively interest in the preparation of the code civil and left many marks on both the style and the substance of the code (which he is said to have considered his greatest achievement). Article

1674 is an exception to the general rule of art. 1118.

¹⁸' C(. e.g. Parladorius, Res Quotidianae, Lib. II, Cap. IV (pp. 246 sqq.).

For details, see Gltick. vol. 17. pp. 53 sqq.: Dias. Studies De Zuluem, pp. 55 sq. According to art. 1681. the purchaser may. if he chooses to pay rather than rescind, subtract 10 % from the iustum pretium.

^IS* Cf. e.g. § 59 I 11. § 75 I 4 PrALR.

^{^[1360]} Story, op. cit., note 153, § 245.

¹⁸⁰ Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Part I, chap. IS (p. 208 of the ed. by C.B. Macpherson, 1968).

¹⁸ Summa Theologiae, Secunda secundae. Quacst. LXXVIl, Art. I.

^1ВЯ Grotius, Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. 11, Cap. XII, 8.

^{^[1364]} For what follows, see Endemann, Studien, vol. II, pp. 6 sqq., 14, 30 sqq.; John T. Noonan, The Scholastic Analysis of Usury (1957); John W. Baldwin, The Medieval Theories of the Just Price. Romanists, Canonists and Theologians in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (1959); Winfried Trusen, Spd'tmittelalterliche Jurispmdenz und Wirtschaftsethik, dargestellt an Wiener Qutachten des 13. Jahrhunderts (1961), pp. 71 sqq.; idem, "Aquivalenzprinzip und gerechter Preis im Spatmittelalter", in: Slant und Gesellschaft, Festgabe für Gunther Ku'chenhofJ (1967), pp. 247 sqq.; Cahn, (1969) 6 Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 3 sqq., 30 sqq.; Raymond de Roover, La pensee economiaue des Scolastiques. Doctrines et methodes (1971); Wolter, Ins canonicum in iure civili pp. 113 sqq.; James Gordley. "Equality in Exchange", (1У81) 69 California LR 1587 sqq.; Werner Goez, "Das Ringen um den 'gerechten Preis' in Spatmittelalter und Reformationszeit", in: "Der Gerechte Preis", Beitra'ge гиг Diskussion um das "pretium iustum" (1982), pp. 21 sqq.

^]LLi "Primum, in contractibus emptionum et venditionum, similibusque permutationibus, nequaquam attendi, nee constitui iustum pretium ex natura rei. sed hominum aestimatione, tametsi insana sit aestimatio: num si natura rei foret observanda, pluris esset aestimandus equus, quam gemma ob utilitatem equi": Covarruvias a Lcyva, Variae resolutiones, vol. II, Lib. II. Cap. Ill, 4.

^{^[1366]} "Secundo hinc apparet in pretii insti aeuimarione non esse considerandum quanti res ipsa empta fuerit, nee quot labores pro eius adquisitione venditor fuerit perpessus, sed

tantum, habendam, esse rationem cotnmunis hominem aestimatione. Sic sane mercator, qui magnis expensis attulit merces e Flandria non potent eas carius vendere, quam communi hominum aestimatione valeant in Hispania, alioqui restituere tenebitur quidquid ultra iustum pretium accepent": Covarruvias a Leyva, loc. cit.

¹¹² Covarruvias a Leyva, loc. cit. Ct. also already Gai. D. 13, 4. 3 ("... scimus quam varia pretia rerum per singulas civitates regionesque..."); Paul. D. 35, 2, 63, 2 ("Nonnullam tamen pretio varietatem loca temporaque adferunt: nec enim tantidem Roniae et in Hispania oleum aestimabitur nec continuis sterilitatibus tantidem, quanti secundis fructibus, dutn hie quoque non ex mentis temporum nee ex ea quae raro accidat caritate pretia constituantur"). On the individual factors to be taken into consideration in establishing the price of a thing, see, for the late Middle Ages e.g. Conrad Summcnhard von Calw, as discussed by '1 ruseii, h'estgabe G. Kikhenhqff. pp. 259 sqq., for the age of the law ot reason Samuel Pufendorf, De jure naturae et gentium. Lib. V, Cap.I, § 1 (and the analysis by Herbert Niederländer. "Zum Fretium rei' bei den Vemunftrechtlem", in: (.iedachtnis- schriftfur Wolfgang Kurikei i 1984). pp. 283 sqq.

^m Nicomachean Hihics. Book V, II, 6 sqq. (1130 b sqq.)

^{^[1368]} Even though the Corpus juris Canomci itself still faithfully reflects Roman law: "Tenet venditio, licet venditor sit deceptus ultra dimidiam lusti pretii; poiest tamen venditor agere, ut restituatur res vel iustum pretium suppleatur, ct, si alterum praecise petit, succumbit" (Decretales Cregorii IX., Lib. HI. Tit. XVII, Cap. III).

^,ъ Cf, for example, the criticism by Pufendorf, De jure naturae et gentium. Lib. V, Cap. П1, § 9, who argued that the rule works unfairly, in that a small deviation in the price of an expensive object can cause more harm than a large deviation in the price of a small item; yet the rule applied to the second case, but not the first.

^{^[1370]} Cf., for example, Antonius Merenda (Alfred Pcmice, Laheo, vol. I, p. 454, n. 2): "Concludamus ergo rationem naturalem non pan, ut contrahentes se invicem decipiant, et ideo peceare eos qui secus feccrmt." The starting point is 1. Thessalomans 4, 6: "ne quis supergrediatur neque circumvcmat in negono fratreni suum" (vulgata-tr.); cf. also St. Matthew 6, 24. This did not mean that the Church condemned the economic activity of merchants and commercial enterprise per se; cf. supra, pp. 171, 173 sq.

¹⁴⁷ Cf e.g. Covarruvias a Leyva, Variae resoiutiones. vol. II, Lib. II, Cap. IV, 11: "... opinio verissima est, manifesra et urgent! admodum ratione quae dictat, naturali lege in contractibus commutativis a Rcpublica et hominum moribus in utnusque utilitatem institutis, re ipsa exactam et summam aequalitatem requiri exjustitia commutativa partes ad pattern... quo fit, deceptionem istam omnino esse contra virtutemjustitiac commutativae, quae in aequalitatejuxta proportionem consistit; si quis igitur ab ea virtute rccessent, id est,

a medio justitiae, vitium declinat, peccat et ad restitutionem tenetur"; Grotius, De jure belli acpacis. Lib. II, Cap. XII. 12: "Hi vero qui legibus dvilibus subjeeti non sunt, id sequi debent quod aequuum esse ipsis ratio recta dictat: irao et illi qui legibus subjecti iunt. quoties de eo quod fas piumque est agitur, si modo leges non jus dant aut tollunt, sed juri duntaxat ob certas causas auxilium suum denegant."

¹⁸⁸ Cf e.g. Molina. De justitia et iure, Tract- II. Disp. 350. coi. 404 sqq.

* Leonardus Lessius. De jmtitia etjure ceterisque virtutibus cardinalibus libri anatuor (Venetns, 1734), Lib. 2, Cap. 21, Dubitatio IV (n. 20).

"" Lauterbach, Collegium thcorctico-practimm. Lib. XVIII. Tit. I, 53 sqq. St. Thomas Aquinas had already recognized that the iustum pretium cannot be exactly determined: "... et tenetur ille qui plus habet, recompensare ei qui damniheatus ese, si sit notabile damnum. Quod ideo dico, quia justum pretium rerum non est punctualiter determinatum, sed magis in quadam aestimatione consistit; ita quod modica addmo vel minutio non viderur tollere aequalitatem justitiae": Summa Theobgiae. Secunda secundae, Quaest. LXXVII, Art I. He, and with him the other "realists", relied on the free (and unmanipulated) interplay of market forces to result in a iustum pretium. The "nominalists", on the other hand, argued for State intervention. Hence, the iustum pretium came to be fixed by public price regulations; cf. e.g. Gustaf Klemens Schmelzeisen, Polizeiordmtngm und Privatrecht (1955). pp. 436 sq.

^{^[1375]} These invectives have been taken from the judgment of Van den Heever JA in Tjollo Atetjees (Ems.) Bpk. v. Small 1949 (1) SA 856 (A) at 862 sqq. (esp. at 863 and 873) and Schulz, CRL. p. 528. For further harsh comments, see Ludwig Julius Friedrich Hopfner, Saturrecht des einzelnen Menschen, der Gesellschaften und der Volker (6th ed.. Giessen. 1795). § 92; Adolph Dietrich Weber. Systematische Entwickelung der Lehre von der natürlichen Verbindlichkeit und deren gerichtliche Wirkung (4th ed.. 1811") § 41.

" ^K Cf. DeSpinetto. Apothecario de Venetia Politische Schnupf-Tobacs-Dose vordie WdchsemeNase derjustiz in sich fassend Juristische Streit-Frageti in Handel en Wandei von denen Kauf und Mieth- oder Pacht- und anderen Contracten mit Satyrischer Feder entworfen und aus dem halienischett ins Teutsche übersetzt (The Political Snuff-Box before the Waxen Nose of Justice) (17391. prise 51 sqq.

^{^[1377]} For the arguments, see Franz Philipp von Kübel, "Recht der Schuldverhaltnisse. Teil 2"₅ in: Werner Schubert (ed.), Vorentwurje. pp. 20 sq.

-¹¹ The pandectists tended to regard laesio enormis as a somewhat anomalous exception to the normal principles of contract law, based merely on equity: cf. e.g. von Wachter, Pandekttn, § 207, p. 472. For references ro cases in which laesio enormis was discussed, see, for example, lohn P. Dawson, "Economic Duress and the Fair Exchange in French and German Law"". (1937) 11 Tulane LR 368.

²⁰⁵ Cf. supra, p. 264.

;'*/§ 934 ABGB.

^21h' In France it has again been restricted to the sale of land; the Austrian provision used to be emasculated in practice by standardized renunciation clauses.

^2()S SchreinerJ, in Botha v. Assad 1945 TPD 1 at 9. For a full discussion of laesio enormis in South African law, see Wessels, Contract, vol. II, §§ 5071 sqq.

^{^[1380]} Tjo/Zo Ateljees (Fins,) Bpk. v. Small 1949 (1) SA 856 (A).

^1,0 S. 25 General Law Amendment Act 32/1952. Cf. further H.R. Hahlo, E. Kahn, "Good-Bye Laesio Enormis", (1952) SAL/392 sqq.

²¹ Cf. supra, p. 258.

²² A "distressed situation" ("Zwangslage"), for instance, does not necessarily imply a threat to the economic existence of the disadvantaged party: see e.g. Theo Mayer-Maly, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nd ed., 1984), § 138, n. 124.

^21J The question of lack of judgemental ability or willpower is investigated only with regard to the individual contract in question, no matter whether the disadvantaged party has shown these traits on other occasions; see e.g. Mayer-Maly, op. cit., note 212, § 138, n. 126.

^{^[1381]} John P. Dawson, '"Unconscionable Coercion: The German Version", (1976) 89 Harvard LR 106].

^2,s Cf. e.g. BGHZ 80, 153 (160); for details, see Mayer-Maly, op. cit., note 212, § 138, nn. 98 sqq.; Helmut Koziol. "Sonderprivatrecht fur Konsumentenkredite?", (1988) 188 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 184 sqq.

j²" Cf already RGZ 15». 1 (6).

^{^[1384]} OLG Stuttgart, 1979 Neue Jurististhe Wochenwhrift 2409 (dealing with a case of loan, where the annual interest was 31.08 %). Cf. also Karl Hackl, "Aquivalenzstorung und Sittenwidrigkeit". 1977 Bttriebsbtrater 1412 sqq.

^21H Analysed critically by Theo Mayler-Maly, "Renaissance der laesio enormis?", in: (Zweite) Festschrift fur Karl Larenz (1983), pp. 395 sqq.; cf also Mayer-Maly. op. cit., note 21_?2 § 138. nn. 104,' 119.

" ¹ For a comparative analysis. (France, Germany, United States) ot modern remedies, cf. Gordley, (1981) 69 California LR 1625 sqq., 1645 sqq; for a crisp and lucid analysis of English law. see P.S. Atiyah, "Contract and Fair Exchange", (1985) 35 University of Toronto LJ I sqq.

" § 935 ABGB, amended version. Cf. the criticism by Mayer-Maly, H. festschrift Larenz. pp. 398 sq., 408.

" Cf. e.g. Franz Bydlinkski, Privatautonome und objektive Cmndlugen des verpfiiditenden Rechtsgeschäfts (1967), pp. 103 sqq., 151 sqq.; Gordley, (1981) 69 California LR 1587 sqq. Cf. also Wolfgang Blomeyer. "Der gerechte Freib mi geltenden Recht", in: "Der Qercchte Preis", op. cit., note 189, pp. 39 sqq.

²" Cf. e.g. Justus Wiihelm Hedemann, Die Fonschritte des Zivihechts im XIX. Jahrhundert. vol. 1 (1910), pp. 3 um.. 130 sqq.; Luig, Festgabe Coing, pp. 171 sqq.

²²⁵ For a general overview, see Ole Lando, "Unfair Contract Clauses and a European Uniform Commercial Code", in: Mauro Cappelletti, New Perspectives for a Common Law of Europe (1978). pp. 267 sqq. On the crisis of "classical" (liberal) contract doctrine today cf. also the literature quoted infra, p. 577, note 216.

^{^[1391]} Franz Wieacker, "Das Sozialmodell der klassischen Privatrechtsgesetzbiicher und die Entwicklung der modernen Gesellschaft", in: Industriegescllschaft tmd Privatredusordnuny (1974), pp. 23 pp.

²²' Cf. iso Gordley, (1981) 69 California LR 1644.

""This is the thrust of both Gordley's ((1981) 69 California LR 1637 sqq.) and Mayer-Maly's (II. Festschrift Larenz. pp. 395 sqq.; cf. also Münchener Kommentar, op. dr., note 212, § 138, rm. 98 sqq.) argument. On the other hand, the conflicting demands of equity and certainty of law have somehow to be balanced. Hence the repeated attempts by both courts and academic writers to suggest concrete figures ro mark the borderline between what is still legal and what has to be regarded as illegal. Such attempts are understandable considering the trend to (over)extend § 138 BGB as (e.g.) an instrument of price-control. They are, however, in my view, irreconcilable with the nature of § 138 BGB as an outer limit of contractual freedom, and with the officium ludicis (cf. Zimmermann, Moderatiom-recht. pp. 47 sqq., 83).

^{^[1394]} In iure cessio and mancipatio had fallen into disuse by the time of Justinian. According to the Digest, therefore, traditio is the only way of transferring ownership.

" Cf., for example, Kaser, RPr I, pp. 416 sqq.

^{^[1396]} The doctrine that ownership passes by mere agreement of the parties goes back to the natural lawyers of the 17th and 18th centuries; c{. e.g. Hugo Grotius, De jure belli ac pacts. Lib. П, Cap. П, 1; Samuel Pufendorf, De jure naturae el gentium. Lib. IV, Cap. IX; Christian

271

Wolff, Institutions firns Naturae et Gentium. §§ 313 sqq.; and see William M. Gordon, Studies in the Transfer of Property by traditio (1970), pp. 172 sqq.

^{^[1397]} As far as English law is concerned, cf. Buckland/McNair, pp. 291 sqq.

^{^[1398]} Cf. e.g. Nicholas, Introduction, pp. 101 sqq.

^{^[1399]} The transferee's position will be even safer where a legal system recognizes acquisition of ownership (from a non-owner) in good faith. This is the case in modern German law (§§ 932 sqq. BGB), but was different in Roman law (which did, however, offer some protection to the purchaser by way of establishing short periods for acquisitive prescription (usucapio)).

^{^[1400]} Cf. only Coing, pp. 178 sqq.

^H Both Pringshcim and Schindler (tf. infra, notes 12, 13 ) maintain that the XII Tables cannot have contained a provision of this kind. But why should Justinian have invented (or grossly distorted) it? (Alfons Bürge, '"Geld- und Naturalwirtschaft im vorklassischcn und klassischen mmischen Recht", (1982) 99 ZSS 149).

^{^[1402]} Pomp. D. 18, 1, 19: "Quod vendidi non alitcr fit accipientis, quam si aut pretium nobis solutum sit aut satis eo nomine factum vel etiam fidem habuerimus emptori sine ulla satisfactione."

^D Cf, for example, Vinnius, Institutiones. Lib. II, Tit. I. 41; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. VI, Tit. I, 14 sq.; Grotius. In!eidin%. II, V, 14; Pothier, Trait? dtt contra! de vente, §323; Windscheid/Kipp, § 172, 7; Daniels v. Cooper (1880) 1 EDC 174 sqq.; for details, see Robert Feenstra, Reclame en Revindicate (1949), pp. 98 sqq., 255 sqq.; idem, "Eigendomsovergang BI) koop en terugvorderingsrecht van de onbetaalde verkoper: Romeins recht en Middefeeuws handelsrecht", (1987) 50 THRHR 134 sqq,; Going, pp. 307 sq.; more particularly on the glossators and commentators, Klaus Luig, "Übergabe und Übereignung der verkauften Saehe nach romischem und gememern Recht", in: Saturn Roberto Peenstva oblata (1985), pp. 445 sqq. The rule has not been taken over into the BGB ("Motive", in: Mugdan. vol. Hl, p. 186).

¹ For details, see C.G. van der Merwe, Sakereg (1979), pp. 203 sq.; Kerr, Sale and Lease. pp. 112 sqq. According to Shippard J (Daniels v. Cooper (1880) 1 EDC 174), South African law in this regard is "at variance with every well-considered modern system ot mercantile law throughout the world"; but d. Art. 1191 BW and Feenstra, (1987) 50 THRHR 128.

^E For a summary of the main views, see J.A.C. Thomas, "Institutes 2, 1, 41 and the Passage of Property on Sale" (1973) 90 SAL] 150 sqq.; d. further Karl-Heinz Schindler, "Die Bedeutung der Kaufprciszahlung im nachklassischen romischen Recht", in: Festschrift für Konrad Dttdeti (1977). pp. 555 sqq.; Tony Honore, "Sale and the Transfer of Ownership: the Compilers' Point of View", in: Studies in Justinian's Institutes in Memory of J. A. C 'Thomas (1983), pp. 56 sqq.; Feenstra, (1987) 50 THRHR \T1 sqq.

" Der Kaufmit fremdem Geld (1916), pp. 50 sqq.; but sec also the same author in The Greek Law of Sale, pp. 179 sqq.; cf. further Schindler, Festschrift Duden, pp. 555 sqq,

^{^[1404]} Cf. e.g. Ernst Schonbauer, "Zur Frage des Eigentumsuberganges beim Kauf", (1932)

52Z_S5 195 sqq.

^B Cf. Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 276 sqq.; Buckland/Stein. p. 240; cf also

Thomas, (1973) 90 SALf 158.

⁵ Philippe Meylan, "Lc paiement du prix et le transfert de la propriete de la chose vendue

en droit remain classique", in: Studi in onore de Pietro Bonfante, vol. I (1930), pp. 441 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 62 sqq.

^{^[1410]} Emiiio Albertario, "II momento del trasferimento della propneta nella compravendita romana", in: Studi di diritto romatw, vol. Ill (1936), 427 sqq.

^m Max Kaser, (1966) 34 TR 412 sqq.; idem, "StelJvertretung und 'notwendige

Entgeltlichkeit"'. (1974) 91 ZSS 161 sq.

¹ Honore, Studies Thomas, p. 58, has pointed out, though, that the result is not the same as it would be if ownership were to pass automatically with delivery. "For it is quite possible

for the seller to make clear that he does not rely on the buyer's good faith alone, though he does not, at the moment of delivery, obtain payment or satisfaction, either. Thus, he may ask the buyer to provide security, e.g. to get a friend to guarantee payment of the price. The buyer may promise to do this, yet fail to carry out his promise. If, then, the seller parts with possession on the faith of such a promise, he does not... fidem emptoris sequi, but neither does he obtain payment or satisfaction." The same applies where the purchaser has promised

to pay at once and then, after he has obtained possession of the thing, fails to honour his promise.

^{^[1416]} Pothier, Traite du control de rente, n. 324; De Zulueta, Sale, pp. 37 sq.

² Cf. esp. Kaser, RPr I, p. 418; idem, RPrU. p. 284; Jors/Kunkel/Wenger, pp. 129 sqq.; cf also Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 162.

Robert Feenstra, "Fidem emptoris sequi", in: Studi in onore di Ugo Enrico Paoli (1955). pp. 273 sqq. Approved by (e.g.) Watson, Obligations, pp. 62 sq.; Kaser, (1966) 34 TR 412; Thomas, (1973) 90 SALf 151, 159.

Cf. supra, p. 237.

^{^[1417]} The XII Tables already seem co have relaxed the principle by allowing a promise in the form of a stipulation (expromittere) as an acceptable substitute for the payment of the purchase price.

^A Cf. e.g. Gai. II, 20: "Itaque, si tibi vestem vel aurum vel argentum tradidero, sive ex venditionis causa sive ex donationis sive quavis alia ex causa, statim tua fit ea res...." Cf., further, C 4, 49, 1 (Carae); 3, 32, 12 (Diocl. et Max.).

Cf. esp. Pringsheim, Der Kauf mit fremdem Geld. op. cit., note 13, pp. 1 sqq. and passim (e.g. 40 sqq., 163 sqq.); idem, Sale. e.g. pp. 190 sqq.

Kaser, RPr II, pp. 278 sq.; Levy, Vulgar Law. pp. 131 sqq. (for the Roman-Germanic kingdoms cf. pp. 156 sqq.); but see Schindler, Festschrift Duden, pp. 560 sqq.; Wulf Eckart Voss. Recht und Rhetorik in den Kaisergesetzen der Spatantike (1982). pp. 190 sqq.

^{^[1421]} For details, see Pringsheim, Der Kauf mitfremdem Geld. op. eit., note 13, pp. 81 sqq. For a completely different view of post-classical law (the classical analysis of sale was preserved without major modifications; however, the private contract of sale came to be incorporated into a new social and economic framework (essentially: an authoritarian one) by means of regulations and enactments of a public legal character), cf Voss, op. cit., note 27, pp. 81 sqq., 200 sqq.

Watson, Obligations, p. 63. Tony Honore has recently made an imaginative attempt to reconstruct by what stages Justinian's commissions came to form their view of the matter. According to him, they adopted three different views of the law (all set out somewhere within the Corpus Juris), each at a different stage of their deliberations. Cf. "Sale and the Transfer of Ownership: the Compilers' Point of View", in: Studies in Justinian's Institutes in Memory ofJ.A.C. Thomas (1983), pp. 56 sqq. Honore's analysis provides the starting point for Luig's discussion of the medieval interpretations (and harmonizations) of the authoritative texts (Satura Feenstra. pp. 445 sqq.). But see also Feenstra, (1987) 50 THRHR 130sqq.

lav. D. 19, 2, 21. The problem that arose in this case was that the full price had been paid before the time envisaged by the parties. On this text, see David Daube, "Tenancy of Purchaser (Digest 19, 2, 21)", (1948-50) 10 Cambridge LJ 77 sqq.; idem, "Si... tune in D. 19,2, 22 pr.", (1958) 5 RIDA 427 sqq.; J. A.C.Thomas, "Tenancy by Purchaser", (1959) 10 lura 103 sqq.; Rolf Knutel, "Kauf und Pacht bei Abzahlungsgeschäften im romischen Recht", in: Studien im romischen Recht (1973). pp. 37 sqq.

^{^[1424]} Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 16, pp. 229 sqq._: Windscheid/ Kipp, § 172, n. 18. Cf. also Gottfried Schiemann, "Uber die Funktion des pactum reservati dominii wahrend der Rezeptionen des romischen Rechts in Italien und Mitteleuropa", (1976) 93 ZSS 161 sqq; Coing, p. 309.

are concerned)). It has occasionally been criticized as "anomalous" (cf. Franz Leonhard, Besonderes Schuldrecht des BGB (1931), pp. 90 sqq.), but has, more recently, most effectively been defended by Knutel, (1988) 105 ZSS 514 sqq., 538 sqq. For South African law cf. Kerr, Sale and Lease, pp. 145 sq.

^s Cf.. for example. Ulp. D. 19. 1. 13. 22; Stefan Weyand. "Kaufverstandnis und Verkauferhaftung im klassischen romischen Recht". (19831 51 TR 249 sqq.

^{^[1427]} Pomp. D. 19. 1. 9: "Si is. qui lapides ex fundo emcrit. tollere eos nolit. ex vendito agi cum eo potest, ut eos tollat."

⁴ Cf. e.g. Lab. D. 18. 1. 78. 1.

^{^[1428]} Berger. ED. p. 757.

^{^[1429]} Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 45. 1. 38; FIRA, vol. Ill. nn. 88 sq.

⁴¹ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 19. 4. 1 pr.; Ulp. D. 18. 1. 25. 1; Arangio-Ruiz. Compravendita, pp. 149 sqq.

¹⁶ Kaser. RPrl, p. 551.

^{^[1431]} As far as mancipatio is concerned, cf. e.g. Gai. IV. 131 a.

¹⁷ Schulz. CRL, p. 531.

⁴³ Cf. supra, pp. 239 sq.

^{^[1434]} Uip. D. 19. 1. 11.2.

³³ Frank Peters, "Die Verschaffung des Eigentums durch den Verka'ufer", (1979) 96 ZSS 185 sq.; cf. also F.H. Lawson, "The Passing of Property and Risk in Sale — A Comparative Study", (1949) 65 LQR 364 sq.

^{^[1436]} Cf. supra, p. 277.

^{^[1437]} Peters, (1979) 96 ZSS 181 sq.

^{^[1438]} Cf. e.g. Nicholas, Introduction, p. 181; Ernst Rabel, "Die Haftung des Verkäufers wegen Mangels im Rechte", vol. I (1902), p. 108.

^{^[1439]} D. 18, 6, 8 pr.

® For example Franz Haymann, "Textkritische Studien zum romischen Obligationenrecht, Periculum est emptoris", (1920)41 ZSS 44 sqq.; idem, "Zur Klassizität des penculum est emptoris", (1928) 48 ZSS 314 sqq.; Emilio Betti, "Zum Problem der Gefahrtragung bei zweiseitig verpflichtenden Vertragen", (1965) 82 ZSS 1 sqq. Cf. Jacobus Cuiacius, "Ad

® For a recent survey of the literature, see Wolfgang Ernst, Das klassische romische Recht der Gefahrtragung beim Kauf: Periculum est emptoris, (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Bonn, 1981) (for an abbreviated version, see idem, "Periculum est emptoris", (1982) 99 ZSS 216 sqq.).

Africanum Tractatus VIII", Ad E. si fundus 33. loc. et cond., in: Opera Onmia, vol. I

(Venetris, 1768).

® Philippe Meylan, "Inst. Ill, 23, §§ 3 et 3a et Punification du regime des risques dans le contrat de vente par Justinien", in: Atti Verona, vol. Ill (1951), pp. 387 sqq.; idem, "Paul. O. 21, 2, 11 pr. et la question des risques dans le contrat de vente", (1949) 3 RID A 193 sqq.;

idem, "Periculum est emptoris", in: Festschrift für Theo Guhl (1950), pp. 9 sqq.; idem, "Fr. Vat. 16 et la question des risques dans le contrat de vente", (1950) 1 Iura 253 sqq.

^{^[1446]} Ernst Rabel, "Gefahrtragung beim Kauf", (1921) 42 ZSS 543 sqq. Cf. also Geoffrey MacCormack, "Alfenus Varus and the Law of Risk in Sate", (1985) 101 LQR 573 sqq., who argues that the law developed on a casuistic ad hoc basis. While, he says, the "trend" of the late classical law favoured perfection of the contract as the criterion for the passing of risk, Alfenus Varus favoured an approach under which the risk remained with the seller until traditio (cf. Paul. D. 18, 6, 13 and 15; but why did Paul—in whose days the law was periculum est emptoris —take the trouble to record Alfenus' decisions? I am not convinced by the explanations offered by MacCormack on p. 576).

' Emil Seckel, Ernst Levy, "Die Gefahrtragung beim Kauf im klassischen romischen

Recht", (1927) 47 ZSS 117 sqq.; H.R. Hoetink, Periculum est emptoris (1928); De Zulueta, Sale, pp. 30 sqq.; Jors/Kunkel/Wenger, pp. 228 sqq.; Schulz, CRL, pp. 532 sq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Cotnpravendita, pp. 250 sqq.; Benohr, Synallagma, pp. 86 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I,

pp. 552 sq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 3(19 sq.; Imre Molnar, '"Periculum emptoris' im romischen Recht der klassischen Penode", in: Sodalitas, Scritti in onore di Antonio Gitaviuo, vol. V (1984), pp. 2227 sqq.; Frank Peters, "Periculum est emptoris", in: Iuris Professio, Fests>abe fur Max Kaser (1986), pp. 221 sqq.

Haymann. (1920) 41 ZSS 48 sq. ("[Unsere Aufgabe muss es sein, diej Linieti des klassischen Rechts... in Hirer bewunderungswürdigen Hinfachheit \md Folgerichtigkeit wiederherzustelieti und damit zugleich einen fleck von dem wissenschaftlichen Ehrenschild jener grossen, unerreichbaren Meisler endgültig auszutilgen" (It has to be our task to reconstruct the outlines of classical law in their admirable simplicity and consistency and we must at the same time aim at wiping out, once and for all. a blot on the badge of honour of those great and unrivalled masters)).

^{7IGai. D. 18, 6, 2, 1; Ulp. D. 18, 6, 4, 1 et al.; further Wolfgang Kunkel. "Diligentia", (1925) 45 ZSS 278 sqq.; Hoetmk. op. cit., note 68, pp. 49 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravetidita, pp. 247 sqq.; Schulz, CRL, p. 533; Manlio Sargenti, "Problemi della responsabilità contrattuale", (1954) 20 SDH1 200 sqq.; Max Kaser, "Die actio furti des Verkäufers", (1979) 96 ZSS 105 sqq. The question is disputed. For a contrary view (custodia had to be specifically agreed upon), see Betti, Istituzioni, vol. II, 1, pp. 372 «1·.· 416 sqq.}

In case of theft, the vendor also had to "cede" to the purchaser his (reipersecutary and penal—as to this terminology cf. infra, pp. 918 sqq.) actions: condictio ex causa furtiva, actio furti and rei vindicatio; alternatively, if he had already brought one of these actions, he had to hand over what he had received (usually called "stellvertretendes commodum"). Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 47, 2, 14 pr.: "Eum qui emit, si non tradita est ei res, furti actionem non habere, sed adhuc venditoris esse hanc actionem Celsus scripsit, mandare eum plane oportebit emptori furti actionem et condictionem et vindicationem, et si quid ex his actiombus fuerit

Seckel.Levy. (19271 47 ZSS 231 sq.; Benohr. Symilh^Hid. p. SH. Cf. also Mcyl.ni. :J949) 3 RIDA 197 sqq.. who. however, goes on to argue that in case oi res nec m.mcipi (praedia in Gennania trans Renum!) the nsk passes with the due date of the purchase price (dies pretn soKcndij. I hs theory, while providing an ingenious explanation for Paul. I). 21.

[1476] 11. is based on the mistaken assumption that transfer of ownership was, according to

classical law, always dependent on payment ot the purchase price. A curious explanation is offered by Voet, Comitwntiiriiis aJ I\md'JI It was not imported only in the late classical period under the influence ot Hellenistic law, as Haymann. (1УЗО) 41 ZSS 172 sqq. and Bern. (1%5) 82 ZSS 12 would have it.

^I ^In Schul/, (^RL, p. 533 even calls it "an ideal solution'". See, too, De Zulueta..S'j/e. p. 35; Nicholas, Introduction, p. 18П; Ernst, op. eit.. note 63. pp. 73 sqq.; Stetan Weyand. "Kaufverstamlnis nud Verkauferhattung un klassischcni rdmiseheu Recht", (1983) 51 ! R 246 s₄q.; Peters, Irstgah' Kd1: "The reason tor this exceptional provision is to be found in the tact that the declaration ot intention to sell is a declaration ot intention to alienate. That means that its content is not so much that the seller binds himself to surrender the thing sold, as rather that he actually surrenders it. In consequence ot this characteristic ot the declaration ot intention to sell, the thing sold is treated by the law, so tar as the relation ot the seller to the buyer is concerned, as though it had already been severed trom the seller's estate and passed into the buyer's." Cf. also § 390.

^{^[1484]} Cf. supra, pp. 277 sq.

"" Paul. I). 22. 1. ?>H. 7-H; Pomp. IX 19. 1. 3. 1; C 4. 49. 13 ami 1 U (Oioel.): Ulp. 1). 19. I. 13. 13. For details, see V'oet. CoiiuneiiLinio ad P.uidedits. I lb. XVIII. lit. VI. 9; (iluck. vol. 17. pp. 189 s₄q.: and esp. Wey.ind. (1983) 51 Г И 229 sqq. Cf. also Paul. I). 18. 6, 7 pr.: "Id. quod post cmptionem inndo aecessir per.ilhivionem vel pent, ad emptoris eommodum incommodumque pertmet: n.im et si totus ager post emptionem rlummc oeeupatus esset, penculutn esset emptoris: sic igitur et comniodum eius esse debet", and hut. III. 23. 3 a. where [he reason for this is crisply expressed m the rule "nam et connnodum ешь esse debet. cuius peneulum est". This ride also appears among the regulae liiris antiqui in P.nil. IX 5n, 17. 10 ("Secundum naturam est commoda cuiusque rei cum sequi. quern sequenrur incomnioda"). For details, see G.CJ.J. van den liergh. "Qui habet commoda tere debet

onera", in: Hlorcs legum H.J. Sdwttnna oblcdi (1971), pp. 21 sqq.; Manfred Harder. "Commodum eius esse debet, amis periculum est'": in: Testsdirifi für Мах Ка.чт (1976). pp. 362 sqq.

Cf. supra, pp. 239 sq.

⁷ I he following comments reter only to the sale of individual things, not to emptio generis.

¹¹ Cf. supra, note 71 and §§ 95. 100 1 11; 364 15 PrALR; cf. also §§ 1064, 1048. 1051 ABGB. Critical ot "periculum est emptoris" in his comparative evaluation, also Hager, op. cit., note 62. pp. 66 sqq.

^{^[1488]} "Motive", in: Mtigdiiti, vol. II. pp. 113 sq.

§ 446 I 2 BGB carries on to state that "after delivery the emoluments accrue to the purchaser, and he bears the burdens attached to the thing". This is in line with the maxim "secundum naturani est commoda cuiusque re cum sequi, quem sequentur incommoda" (Paul. D. 50. 17. ID).

Cf. e.g. Vinnius. Institutions, Lib. Ill, Tit. XXIV. 3: Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVIII, Tit. VI; Pornier, Trade du contra! de vente, п. ЗОЙ: Grotius, Itileidint;, III, X! V, 34; Gluck, vol. 17. pp. 126 sqq.; Windscheid/'Kipp, § 390; Vangerow, Pandcktcti. § 635; Bechmann, vol. II. pp. 99 sqq.; vol. Ill, 1, pp. 171 sqq.

⁷² * Cf. Poppe, Sclumlwjfand Gimery i>. Mo-aithJ & Co. (1879) 9 Buch 91; Taylor & Co. v. Mackie. Ditnti tr Co. (1879) 9 Buch 166; for details, sec De Wet en Yeats, pp. 308 sqq.; cf. also the acute analysis by M.A.K. Lambins, (1984) 101 SALJ 656 sqq. For Scotland, see Sloan's Dairies Ltd.'v. Glasgow Corporation 1477 SC 223 at 238'and A.D.M. Forte, "Must a Purchaser Buy Charred Remains?—An Analysis ot the Passing ot Risk on Civilian Principles", (1984) 19 The Irish jurist 1 sqq. (who himself is critical of the rule: pp. 9 sqq.).

^{^[1491]} Cf. supra, pp. 192 sq. and, in the present context, lust. III. 23, 3 a. dealing with the sale of slaves, for which transaction special rules seem to have applied already in classical law; ct.

Kaser, (1979) 96 ZSS 109 sqq.

^{^[1493]} Am. 1 138, 1583 code civil.

^{^[1494]} That was not always so; cf. Pollock and Maitland, vol. if, pp. 209 sq.: "That the ownership of the purchased goods did not pass to the buyer until they were delivered to him seems plain. We may gather from Bracton and Fleta that this was so even when the whole price had been paid. Unless there was some special agreement to the contrary, the risk remained with the party who was in possession ot the goods." For the roots of the modern notion of sale as having the consequence ot passing both title and risk, see Holdsworth, vol. Ill, pp. 354 sqq. "Res pent domino" seems to have been referred to for the first time by Blackburn J, in Martineau v. Kitciring (1872) LR 7 QB 436 at 454. For a comparison between English and Roman law, see Buckland/McNair, pp. 289 sq.; Lawson, (1949) 65 LQR 352 sqq.

Cf. ss. 20. 49 Sale of Goods Act 1979.

^,M> (18091 11 East 210 at 217.

^{^[1496]} Cf. infra. Chapter 25.

- For a comparative discussion, see Raphael Powell, "Eviction in Roman h\v and Hnglish Law", in: Studies in the Roman Law of Sale in memory of Francis tie '/.nìneta (1959Ì. pp. 78 sqq.. 86 sqq.

■ ' Ulp. D. 50. 17. 54.

^{^[1499]} Ulp. D. 18. 1. 28.

" Cf. supra, pp. 27H sqq.

^{^[1501]} Ct. supra, p. 27H.

293

^{^[1502]} This is the main example that will be used for the purposes of the following discussion. The situation was the same, where the purchaser had become owner, but a third party could assert a real right against him: e.g. the holder of a non-possessory pledge (who could bring the actio Serviana) or a usufructuary (who could avail himself of the vindicatio ususfructus). What mattered was whether the purchaser had the habere licere or whether he was evicted (due to whatever real right of a third party); cf. e.g. Pomp. D. 21, 2, 34, 2; Paul. D. 21, 2, 35; Afr. D. 21, 2, 46 pr.; Cels. D. 21, 2, 62, 2; Windscheid/Kipp, § 391, 3.

^{^[1503]} On evincere, evictio, see Heumann/Seckel, p. 177; Cuiacius, Ad Africanum Tractatus VI, Ad L. Non tamen 24 de eviction.: "Evincere igitur est legitimo certamine vincere, id est, cognitio judicis, el non vincere tantum, sed etiam rem abducere, et auferre. Plus enim est evincere quam vincere, quia est etiam rem abducere et auferre. Una litera auget significationem, ut in elugere, emereri, enavigare...."

^{^[1504]} The literature on this enigmatic concept of ancient Roman law is vast. Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 20. pp. 179 sqq.; Ernst Eck. Die Verpflichtung des Verkäufers гиг Gewährung des Eigenthums nach romischem undgemeinem deutschen Recht (1874"). pp. 2 sqq.; Bechmann. vol. I. pp. 107 sqq.; Ernst Rabel. Die Haftung des Verkäufers wegen Mangels im Reckte, vol. I 1'1902). pp. 5 sqq.; Franz Haymann. Die Haftung des Verkäufers für die Beschaffenheit der Kaufsache, vol. I (1912'). pp. 1 sqq.; Kaser. Altrb'misches ius, pp. 135 sqq.; idem. Eigentum und Besitz im älteren romischen Recht (2nd ed., 1956), pp. 89 sqq., 109 sqq., 129 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Cotnpravendita, pp. 310sqq.;TheoMayer-Maly, "StudienzurFnihgeschichtederusucapioII", (1961) 78 ZSS 234 sqq.; Herman van den Brink, Ius fasque (1968), pp. 214 sqq.; Diosdi, Ownership in Ancient and Preclasskal Roman Law (1970"). pp. 75 sqq.; A.M. Prichard. "Auctoritas in Early Roman Law", (1974) 90 LQR 378 sqq.; Hans Ankum, "L'actio de auctoritate et la restitutio in integrum dans le droit romain classique", in: Maior viginti quinque annis, Essays in commemoration of the sixth lustrum of the Institute for legal history of the University of Utrecht (1979), pp. 1 sqq. For a modern overview over and summary of the discussion, sceJolowicz/Nicholas, pp. 146 sqq.; Kaser, RPrl, pp. 132 sqq.; Honscll/Mayer- Maly/Sclb, pp.173 sqq.

^D "Usus auctoritas fundi biennium, ceterarum rerum annos esto".

¹ The problem is that we have, at best, only indirect references to it, for Justinian deleted both mancipatio and the auctoritas liability flowing therefrom from the classical sources. It is not surprising, therefore, that it has even been argued that this liability never existed (cf. e.g. Μ. Sargenti, "Per una revisione della nozione deU'auctoritas come effetto della mancipatio", in: Studi in onore di Emiiio Betti, vol. IV (1962), pp. 15 sqq.; Alfredo Calonge, Eviction (1968), pp. 15 sqq.); but see e.g. Rabel, Arangio-Ruiz, Kaser, Diosdi and Prichard, Ankum, all as above.

^E Cf. e.g. Rabel, op. cit., note 9, pp. 8 sqq.; Kaser, Eigentum ttrtd Besitz, op. dr., note 9, pp. 115 sqq.; idem, "Die romische Eviktionshaftung nach Weiterverkauf", in; Sein und Werden im Recht. Festgabe für Ulrich von Lubtow (1970), p. 488.

® Cf. infra, pp. 932 sqq.

Cf. Max Kaser, "Typisierter dolus' im altromischen Recht", (1962) 65 BIDR 79 sqq., 96

^B Cels. D. 18, 1, 59; Ner. D. 21, 2, 48; Paul. D. 50, 16, 169; D. F. Mostert, "Uitwinning by die Koopkontrak in die Romeinse Reg", 1969 Ada Juridica 19 sqq.

^{^[1511]} The parties were, of course, free to vary the sum; they could agree to simplum or to triplum, quadruplum, etc.: cf. e.g. Paul. D. 21, 2, 56 pr.; Gluck, vol. 20, pp. 280 sqq.

‘ Cf. e.g. Varro, De re rustica. Lib. II, 10, 5; Gai. D. 21, 2, 6; Ulp. D. 21, 2, 37, 1; Rabel, op. cit., note 9, pp. 72 sqq.; Kaser, Eigentum und Besitz, op. cit., note 9, pp. 202 sqq.; Helmut Coing, "A Typical Development in the Roman law of Sale", in: Gesammelte Aufsatze zu Rechtsgeschichte, Rechtsphilosophie und Zivilrecht, vol. I (1982"). pp. 64 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz. Compravendita. pp. 341 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 83 sqq.; Pasquale Voci, "La responsibility del debitore da 'stipulatio poenae'"; in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. Ill (1971), pp. 339 sqq.; Mostert, 1969 Ada Juridica 67 sqq.; Knutel, Stipulatiopoenae. pp. 37 sq. In the case of res mancipi, such a stipulation was necessary only where a mancipatio did not take place (e.g. where res mancipi were sold to peregrini), but the purchaser could also

take a stipulatio duplae from the seller where there was mancipatio ("satisdatio secundum mancipium"?; cf. Kaser, RPr I, p. 130; Mostert, 1969 Ada Juridica 24 sqq.) It could serve as a basis for suretyship in the form of either sponsio or fidepromissio.

^B Ulp. D. 21, 2, 37, 1 in fine. If the vendor refused to give the guarantee within two months, the purchaser was granted the actio redhibitoria: Gai. D. 21, 1, 28.

^{^[1514]} Kaser, Festgabe von Lubtow, pp. 484 sq.; cf. also Lenel, EP, p. 568.

²³ Varro, De re rustica, for example, Lib. II, 2, 6; Lib. II, 3, 5; Lib II, 4, 5; all relating to different kinds of pecus ("... earn rem... recte mihi habere licere spondesne?").

² Rabel, op. cit., note 9, pp. 136 sqq.

^{^[1517]} Max Kaser, "Das Ziel der actio empti nach Eviktion", (1934) 54 ZSS 176 sqq.

^{^[1518]} In contrast to the stipulatio duplae, the stipulatio habere licere did not mention eviction as a requirement; hence the narrow interpretation (in accordance with "nemo alienum factum promittendo obligatur") by Ulpianus in D. 45, 1, 38 pr. Cf. esp. Max Kaser, "Neue Studien zum altromischen Eigentum", (1951) 68 ZSS 152 sqq.; but see Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 18; Rabel, op. cit., note 9, pp. 30 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 85 sq.; Philippe Meylan, "La stipulation habere licere", (1970) 38 TR 67 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Comprauendita, pp. 332 sqq.; Mostert, 1969 Ada Juridica 60 sqq. The narrow interpretation only came to prevail once the actio empti had been made available to the purchaser to recover his interest; see D. 45, 1, 38 pr., the first sentence of which probably still represents the opinion of Sabinus.

^{^[1519]} Cf. e.g. Afr. D. 19, 1, 30, 1; Ulp. D. 19, 1, 1, 1; Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 15; Rabe], op. cit., note 9, pp. 93 sqq.; Antonius Louisius Olde Kaker, Dicta et Promissa (1963), pp. 69 sqq.

⁵ Ulp. D. 21, 1, 31, 20: "Quia adsidua ese duplae stipulatio, idcirco placuit etiam ex empto agi posse, si duplam venditor mancipii non caveat: ea enim, quae sunt moris et consuetudim's, in bonae fidei indiciis debent venire." Cf, further Pomp. D. 45, 1, 5 pr.; Rabel, op. cit., note 9, pp. 75 sqq.; Kaser, (1934) 54 ZSS 182 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita. pp. 346 sqq.; Mostert, 1969 Actajuridka 109 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 20 sqq. Did that apply only to the stipulatio duplae or also to the stipulatio habere licere? Cf. Ner./Ulp. 19, 1, 11, 8, but (on this text) Kaser, (1934) 54 ZSS 185; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, p. 347.

^{^[1521]} Ulp. D. 21, 2, 37, 1.

Gai. D. 21, 2, 6: "Si fundus venierit, ex consuetudine eius regionis in qua negotium gestum est pro evictione caveri oportet."

^s Ulp. D. 21, 2, 37 pr.

⁵ D. 21, 2, 37 pr.

³³ Cf. also Ner./Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 9.

^{^[1526]} Cf. particularly Levy. Obligationenrecht, pp. 213 sqq.: but see Honsell. Quod interest, pp. 23 sqq.

Medicus, Id quod interest, p. 52; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 25 sqq.

^{^[1528]} Ulp. D. 21, 2, 37, 1; Gai. D. 21, 2, 6.

³¹ Cf. Eck, op. cit., note 9, pp. 29 sqq.; Fritz Schulz, "Die Lehre vom Concursus Causarum im klassischen und justinianischen Recht", (1917) 38 ZSS 132 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 100 sqq.

^{^[1530]} D. 21. 2. 8: cf. further e.g. lul./UIp. D. 19. 1. 11. 18: Paul. D. 19. 1. 43: lav. D. 21.

2, 60; Paul. D. 21, 2, 70; Kaser, (1934) 54 ZSS 163 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 349 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 52 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 25 sqq.; Hans Ankum, "Das Ziel der 'actio empti' nach Eviktion", in: Sodalitas, Scritti in onore di Antonio Guarino, vol. VII (1984), pp. 3215 sqq.

Not, however, in the cases of concursus causarum, where the actio empti only lay ad pretium reciperandum, i.e. for the return of the purchase price. The purchaser's habere licere was not infringed and therefore he could not claim quod interest rem habere licere. On the other hand, he had now paid the purchase price twice (where he had acquired the object from the true owner under a titulus onerosus—like sale) or he had paid a price, which, in the light of subsequent events, he need not have paid at all (acquisition from the true owner on account of a titulus lucraiivus, e.g. he happened to become his heir). Cf. Honsell, Quod interest, p. 38 sqq. and the literature quoted above.

^{^[1532]} C 8, 44, 23 (Diocl.).

³³ Paul. D. 19, 1, 43. In Afr. D. 19, 1, 30, 1 we find "quanti mea intersit (rem) meam esse factam", but this refers to the (aggravated) liability under the actio empti for dolus; cf. Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 57 sq.

³⁵ For a comprehensive discussion, see Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 53 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 30 sqq.

® "Comment, ad Tit. Dig. de Evictionib. et Duplae etc.", Cap. VII, 3, in: Opera Omnia, vol. X (Florentiae, 1847), col. 1401, discussed by Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 31 sq.

⁴ The relevant value to be estimated was the value at the time of eviction; as a consequence any increase in value by way of improvements effected by the purchaser was taken into consideration. Cf. Paul./Afr. D. 19, 1, 43-45; on the difficult problems posed by this text, see Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 80 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 50 sqq.; Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 338 sqq.

Iui. D. 21, 2, 8. This is a typical case, where "quod interest" was for once likely to exceed dupla pecunia.

^{^[1538]} The purchaser had a choice (elective concurrence of remedies): Knutel, Stipulatio poenae, pp. 335 sqq.

^{^[1539]} If the purchaser was aware of the defect in title, he could not sue the vendor on account of eviction: cf. C 8, 44, 27 and 30 (Diocl.)- But see C. 6, 43, 3, 4 (J^ust)- where an action for the return of the purchase price is granted. This conflict between classical and Justinianic law has given rise to a dispute amongst the authors of the ius commune {Covarruvias, Donellus, Christinaeus, Fachinaeus, Carpzovius, Brunnemann, U. Huber and Van der Keessel on the one hand; Cujacius, Zoesius, Perezius, Groenewegen, Antonius Matthaeus III, Voet and Pothier on the other) that is fully canvassed in Van der Westhuizen v. Yskor Werknemers se Onderlinge Bystandsversekering 1960 (4) SA 803 (T) at 804H-812A. See Max Kaser, "Das romische Recht in Südafrika", (1964) 81 ZSS 23 sqq.; for modern German law: § 439 BGB. The parties were also able, in their contract of sale, to exclude liability for eviction (pactum de non praestanda evictione); cf. Ulp. D. 19, 1,11, 18; Pothier, Tratte du contrat de pente, nn. 182 sqq.; Gliick, vol. 20, pp. 295 sqq.; Vangerow, Pandekten, § 610, n. 4; Calonge, op. cit., note 11, pp. 116 sqq. On partial eviction, see Ulp. D. 21, 2, 1; Paul. D. 21, 2, 36; lul. D. 21, 2, 39, 2 (Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXI, Tit. II, XV sq.; Pothier, nn. 140 sqq.; Gliick, vol. 20, pp. 332 sqq.). If the purchaser had not yet paid the purchase price, he could refuse to do so after litis contestatio had taken place with regard to the action by the third party brought against him {exceptio evictionis imminentis); cf. Pap. vat. 12, but see Pap. D. 18, 6, 19, 1; and Gluck, vol. 20, pp. 370 sqq.; Benohr, Synallagma, pp. 56 sqq. As far as the sale of claims (nomina) was concerned, see Cels./Ulp. D. 18, 4, 4 ("... locupletem esse debitorem non debere praestare, debitorem autem esse praestare..."); Herrn. D. 21, 2, 74, 3 ("... dumtaxat ut sit, non ut exigi etiam aliquid possit... praestare cogitur"); Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 167 sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Lenel, EP, pp. 542 sqq.

⁴⁶ Kaser, RPr II, pp. 391 sq.

⁴⁷ Cf. e.g. Levy, Obligationenrecht, pp. 216 sq.

^{^[1541]} "Cum pro eo quod interest dubitationes antiquae in infinitum productae sunt, melius

nobis visum est huiusmodi prolixitatem prout possibile est angustum coartare. Sancimus

^{^[1543]} As far as, specifically, Roman-Dutch law is concerned, see the detailed analysis by D.F. Mostert, "Uitwinning by die Koopkontrak in die Romeins-Hollandse Reg", 1967 Ada Juridka 49 sqq., 77 sqq. For the ius commune in general, see Coing, p. 452; Arndts, Pandekten, § 303, n. 8; Baron, Pandekten. § 288, II.

Van Leeuwen, loc. cit.; Vinnius, Selectae Juris Quaestiones (Roterdami, 1685), Lib. IL

Cap. VIII ("... quae praestatio pars est obligationis empti et venditi") and many others. Cf. e.g. Donellus, Commentarii de Jure Cifili. Cap. Vll, 2, 3 ("... Quibus verbis (sc. id quod interest) non pretium, ut dixi, continetur, sed quanti res valuit"); Domat, Les loix civiles. Tit. I, Sec. X, XII sqq.; Gluck, vol. 20, p. 349; Baron, Pandekten. § 288, II; Windscheid/Kipp, § 391, 5.

^{^[1546]} Molinaeus. Tractatus de eo quod interest, nn. 68 sqq.: Perezius. Praelectiones. Lib. VIII. Tit XLV, 11 ("...re tamen evicta emptor consequitur rei pretium, et praeterea quanti interest rem evictam non esse"); Van Leeuwen, loc. cit. ("In qua causa, si succumbat, et rem ad

alium pertinere compertum sit pretium restkuere tenetur venditor cum usuris, et quod praeterea emptoris interest, rem evictam non fuisse"); Grotius, Itileiding. Ill, XIV, 6; Voet,

Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXI. Tit. II. XXV; Pothier. Traite du central de vente, nn. 70.

119 sqq. and many others. In modern French law, the vendor is obliged to restore the price

(apart from paying damages; art. 1630 code civil); such restitution is, however, not based upon an implied warranty, but upon the genera) principles of unjustified enrichment: the sale of a thing belonging to another person is void (art. 1599 code civil).

⁵⁵ According to Rabel (op. cit.. note 9. pp. 145 sqq.) and Medicus {Id quod interest. pp. 49 sqq.. 94 sqq.l the Roman lawyers took the price paid as the starting point for the id quod interest. Contra: Honsell. Quod interest, pp. 32 sqq.

³⁷ Cf. Hendler Bros. Garage (Pty.) Ltd. v. Lantbons Ltd. 1967 (41 SA 115 (O') C"n uitgewonne koper is slegs op skadevergoeding geregtig: die bedrag daarvan is die waarde van die verkoopte saak ten tye van die uitwinning") (according to De Wet en Yeats, p. 293,

"'n bloemlesing van nalwiteite"); Alpha Trust (Edms.) Bpk. v. Van der Watt 1975 (3) SA 734

(A) at 748G ("... as gevolg van die uitwinning (is respondent} geregtig om terugbetaling van die koopprys en vergoeding van sy skade met die actio empti van die verkoper te vorder") and see D.F. Mostert, "Uitwinning by die Koopkontrak in die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg", 1968 Actajuridica 36 sqq.

For a comprehensive analysis in historical perspective, see Mostert, 1968 Actajuridica 5

sqq.⁵ For a detailed analysis, see Mostert, 1967 Acta Juridica 49 sqq.

® For a general discussion, see Voet, Camtnentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXI, Tit. II, XX; Gluck, vol. 20, pp. 388 sqq.

^a Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXI, Tit. II, XX; Coing, p. 452.

Cf. Paarl Pretoria Gold Mining Co. v. Donovan & Wolff 3 SAR 93 at 98, per Kotze CJ

.. it is clear that this was... only a local provision of the jus adjectivum or practice in the Netherlands... and forms no portion of the real substantive law, which is that by which alone we are bound, for we have our own rules and procedure in this country").

^s hammers & Lammers v. Giovannoni 1955 (3) SA 385 (A) at 397B (per Van den Heever

Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXI, Tit. II, XX; Mostert, 1967 Actajuridica 102 sqcb

® York & Co. (Put.) Ltd. v.Jones (i) 1962 (1) SA 65 (SR) at 82 sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Alpha Trust (Edms.) Bpk. v. Van der Watt 1975 (3) SA 734 (A) at 743G. This applies at least in cases where the seller himself was not the owner. Otherwise, he seems to be obliged to transfer ownership; cf. Grotius, Inleiding, III, XV, 4: "Aen des verkoopers zijde bestaet de nakominge daer in, dat den verkooper, indien hy eigenaar is van het verkochte goed, schuldig is den kooper daer in te eigenen: 't welch gheschied door levering ende inleiding in het bezit..."; see also Kerr, Sale and Lease, pp. 110 sqq. This distinction seems to go back to the old Dutch (Germanic) concept of "waerhand": cf. Grotius, Inleiding, III, XIV, 6 and Mostert, 1967 Ada Juridica 85 sqq. It fits in with Roman law on the basis that, where an object has been sold by its owner, traditio is usually tantamount to transfer of ownership.

^{^[1558]} Cf. e.g. Pothier, Traite du contrat de rente, nn. 41, 48; Gluck vol. 20, p. 210; Windscheid/Kipp, § 389, 1; Coing, p. 451. A similar situation obtained in the English common law until well into the 19th century. As late as 1849 Baron Parke stated: "... the result of the older authorities is that there is by the law of England no warranty of title in the actual contract of sale, any more than there is of quality. The rule of caveat emptor applies to both" (Morley v. Attenborough (1849) 3 Exch 500 at 510; but see, only 15 years later, Eichholz v. Bannister (1864) 17 CB (NS) 708 at 723: "... in almost all the transactions of sale in common life, the seller by the very act of selling holds out to the buyer that he is the owner of the article he offers for sale" (per Erie CJ); cf. further Buckland/McNair, pp. 283 sq.; Powell, Studies de Zulueta, pp. 88 sqq.; Mostert. Uitwinning by die Koopkontrak in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg (unpublished LL.D, thesis, Pretoria, 1965), pp. 659 sqq.

® § 433 BGB has been quoted above (supra p. 278). § 434 adds: "The seller is bound to transfer to the purchaser the object sold free from rights enforceable by third parties against the purchaser." Ownership, in other words, must be transferred free from any real or personal rights which might affect the purchaser's habere licere (see § 434 read together with § 440 II BGB). This includes servitudes. The legislator thus rejected the approach of Roman law, according to which incumbrances on land by way of servitudes are so common, that the purchaser cannot assume the vendor's land to be free from them unless he has been given a specific promise to that effect. This type of reasoning, however, still prevails today with regard to public burdens on land (§ 436 BGB: "The seller of a piece of land does not warrant the land to be free from public taxes and other public burdens which are not appropriate for entry in the Land Register"). In Roman-Dutch and modern South African law the question is whether the old Dutch (Germanic) rule, according to which the vendor is under a duty not only of waeren but also of vtijen, has survived the reception of Roman law; see Van der Keessel, Praelectiones, ad Gr. Ill, XV, 4, and the discussion by Mostert, 1967 Ada Juridica 87 sqq. Further, on the problem of how far the guarantee of the vendor extends to freedom from servitudes, see Donellus, Commentarii de Jure Civilt, Cap. VI, 8 sqq.; Pothier, Traite du contrat de vente, nn. 200 sqq.; Vangerow, Pandekten, § 610, n. 2 (pp. 315 sqq.).

^{^[1560]} In case of land (ownership of which is transferred not by agreement and delivery, but by agreement and registration in the Land Register) the general rule of § 440 I BGB applies ("If the seller does not fulfil the obligations imposed upon him by §§ 433 to 437. 439, the rights of the purchaser are determined according to the provisions of §§ 320 to 327").

" Or has returned it to the seller, or unless the thing has been destroyed (sc: if such destruction has its origin in the defect in title).

¹ § 440 II. In evaluating this rule, it has to be taken into consideration that liability on account of eviction under the BGB does not have the same importance as in the ius commune, since the "nemo plus iuris" rule no longer applies: according to §§ 932 sqq. BGB the purchaser can acquire ownership in good faith from a non-owner. On the other hand, however, the periods for acquisitive prescription of ownership were much shorter in the ius commune than they are under the BGB. For similar considerations relating to the comparison between Roman and English law, see Powell, Studies de Zulueta, pp. 78 sqq. Cf. further already §§ 317 I 5, 135, 136, 143 1 11 PrALR (read together with § 1 I 11); §§ 922, 1053 ABGB; am. 1625 sqq. code civil. For a comparative analysis (Roman Law, French law and Louisiana Civil Code), see Alexander E. Ralston, "Warranty of Title or Warranty of Peaceable Possession in Louisiana?", (1940-41) 15 Tulane LR 115 sqq.; John H. Baldwin, "Warranty Against Eviction in the Civil Law: Extent of the Vendee's Recovery", (1948-49) 23 Tulane LR 140 sqq.; Charles J. Boudreaux, "Warranty Against Eviction in the Civil Law: Limitations on the Extent of the Vendee's Recovery", (1948-49) 23 Tulane LR 154 sqq.; cf. also Coing, Gesammelte Aufsatze, vol. I, op. cit., note 17, pp. 65 sq.

^{^[1563]} Cf. in this context § 442 BGB, according to which the purchaser has to prove the defect in title.

⁷³ §§ 459, 462 BGB.

” § 463 BGB.

⁵ §477 BGB.

^{^[1565]} For details, see Walter Jürgen Klempt, Die Grundlagen der Sachmangelhaftung des Verkäufers im Vermmftrecht und Usus modernus (1967), pp. 26 sqq.

⁷⁷ Grotius, De jure belli ac pacts. Lib. II, Cap. XII, 8.

^{^[1567]} Christian Wolff, Jus naturae. Pars IV, Cap. IV, § 977. ⁷⁹

Institut! ones juris naturae et gentium. § 618.

^{^[1569]} Cf. also Pothier, Pandedae Justinianae. vol. VIII, Lib. XIX, Tit. 1, Art. V, XLVIII, XLIX: "Quum venditor praestare teneatur rem emptori habere licere, sequitur eum ex empto teneri praestare eas qualitates in re vendita abesse, per quas non liceat earn habere, aut per quas earn inutiliter haberet emptor... De caeteris autem vitiis quae non impediunt quominus rem habere liceat, venditor qui ea ignoravit et de his tacuit, nullatenus tenetur."

^a Atiyah, Rise and Fall. pp. 464 sqq. For the historical development cf. Rheinstein, Struktur. pp. 42 sqq.; Samuel). Stoljar, "Conditions, Warranties and Descriptions of Quality in Sale of Goods I", (1952) 15 Modern LR 432 sqq.

® S. 13 I, II.

⁸³ S. 14 II, 15 II.

^{^[1570]} S. 14 III.

^s Cf. ss. 11 III, 53.

⁸ For details, see Patrick S. Atiyah, The Sale of Goods (7th ed., 1985).

^{^[1573]} "[A] Latin proverb of late Anglican vintage": Walton H. Hamilton, "The Ancient Maxim Caveat Emptor", (1931) 40 Yale LJ 1186. Hamilton shows (pp. 1163 sqq.) how it won judicial acceptance with the rise of individualism and freedom of contract. "Not until the nineteenth century, did judges discover that caveat emptor sharpened wits, taught self-reliance, made a man—an economic man—out of the buyer, and served well its two masters, business andjustice." Along the same lines Atiyah, Rise and Fall. pp. 178 sqq., 464 ("The doctrine of caveat emptor can be said to represent the apotheosis of nineteenthcentury individualism"). The leading case had always been Chandelor v. Lopus (1603) Cro Jac 4, where a jeweller had sold a stone affirming it to be a Bezoar stone (i.e. a stone that is found in the stomach or intestines of certain animals). It turned out that the stone was in fact not a Bezoar stone. Nevertheless, the purchaser lost his case because the vendor had only affirmed, not warranted it to be a Bezoar stone. In the Middle Ages, a very strict and detailed system of regulation of marketplaces and materials and methods of manufacture, and also the gild system compensated, to a certain extent, for the lack of common- law protection of the purchaser; cf. e.g. Hamilton, pp. 1141 sqq.; Gustav Klemcns Schmelzeisen, Polizeiordnungen undPrivatrecht (1955), pp. 423 sqq.

^{^[1574]} Parkinson v. Lee (1802) 2 East 314; but cf. also still Smith v. Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597

at 604 sq. per Cockburn CJ: "Now, in this case, there was plainly no legal obligation in the plaintiff in the first instance to state whether the oats were new or old. He offered them for

sale according to the sample, as he had a perfect right to do, and gave the buyer the fullest

opportunity of inspecting the sample.... If, indeed, the buyer, instead of acting on his own

opinion, had asked the question whether the oats were old or new, or had said anything which intimated his understanding that the seller was selling the oats as old oats, the case would have been wholly different... Here, however, nothing of the sort occurs. The buyer in no way refers to the seller, but acts entirely on his own judgement."

^d9 Cf. Eduard Graf, Mathias Dietherr, Deutsche Rechtssprkhworter (2nd ed., 1869), pp. 259 sqq. The same applies in other countries; cf. the proverb "let their eye be their chapman" (cf. Hamilton, (1931) 40 YakLJ 1164) or "qui n'owrepasyeuxdoitouvrirla bourse”.

"But when householders bought most of their commodities at local markets or fairs, when they were able to examine what they bought by look and feel, and haggle over the price, it may be that they 'would be more likely to feel ashamed of being outwitted than outraged at being swindled'" (Atiyah, Rise and Fall, pp. 179 sq.).

⁹ Bechmann. vol. I. pp. 247 sqq.; Lenel. Quellenforschungen in den Edictcommentarcn (1882) 3 ZSS 190 sqq.; Watson. Obligations, pp. 81 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 133 sq.

® Cicero. De offiais, 3. XVI-65; Paul. Sent. I. XIX. 1.

® Kaser. RZ, pp. 99 sq.

⁹¹ Levy. Obligationetirecht, pp. 229 sqq.

^9a Cf. e.g. Bechmann. vol. Ill. 2. pp. 218 sqq.

^{^[1582]} Raymond Momer. La garantie contre les vices caches dans la rente romaine (1930). pp. 6 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz. Compravendha, pp. 353 sq.; Olde Kalter, op. cit.. note 24. pp. 33 sqq.; Honseil. Quod interest, pp. 62 sqq.

^1/7 De officiis, 3. XVI-65.

^lcs Monier. op. cit.. note 96. pp. 10 sqq.: Arangio-Ruiz. Compravendita, pp. 355 sqq.

^{^[1585]} Cf. e.g. Varrò. De re rustica, Lib. II. 2. 6: Lib. II. 3. 5: Lib. II. 4. 4: Lib. II. 10. 5.

¹¹¹ Honscll. Quod interest, pp. 63 sqq.: contra: Medicus. Id quod interest, pp. 110 sqq.. 117.

^1(B A vispellio was a person whose profession it was to carry corpses, not. as has frequently been assumed, a violator of graves. Why would a purchaser not wish to have a vispellio? They stood at the lowest end of the social hierarchy and were usually regarded as very shadowy figures. Meddling with sinister affairs, usually being found in bad company and making their money by burying the poor at night, they were turpes personae. For details, see Uwe Wesel. "Vispellio". (1963) 80 ZSS 392 sqq.

^1,19 Ulp. D. 21. 2. 31.

^{^[1589]} Cuiacius. as quoted by Honsell. Quod interest, p. 66: Arangio-Ruiz. Compravendita, p. 357.

^{^[1590]} On the jurisdiction of the aediles generally, see Giambattista hnpallomeni, L'editto degli edili cuntli (1955), pp. 109 sqq.; Max Kaser, "Die Jurisdiktion der kurulischen Adilen", in: Melanges Philippe Mevlan. vol. I (1963), pp. 173 sqq.

^{^[1591]} Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 21, 1, 44, 1.

^1B Introduced in the early part of the 2nd century B.C., perhaps in the year 199; cf. A. de Senarclens, "La date de 1'edit des Edilcs de mancipiis vendundis", (1923) 4 TR 384 sqq.; idem, "Servus Recepticius", (1933) 12 TR 390 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 90 sqq.; David Daube, Forms of Roman Legislation, pp. 91 sqq.

¹⁴ On the use of imperatives in the aedilitian edict, see David Daube, Forms of Roman Legislation (1956), pp. 91 sqq.; Alan Watson, "The Imperatives of the Aedilitian Edict", (1971) 39 TR73 sqq.

^1B Ulp. D. 21, 1, 1, 1.

^{^[1594]} Ulp. D. 21, 1, 1, 6; Van Warmelo, op. cit., note 98, pp. 13 sqq.

¹¹⁷ As to the relevant test, see Ulp. D. 21, 1, 14, 10: "Si nominatim morbus exceptus non

sit, talis tamen morbus sit, qui omnibus potuit apparere..., eius nomine non teneri Caecilius ait, perinde ac si nominatim morbus exceptus fuisset: ad eos enim morbos vitiaque pertinere edictum aedilium probandum est, quae quis ignoravit vel ignorare potuit."

^{^[1597]} Cf. Ulp. D. 21, 1, 14, 10: "... (ut puta caecus homo venibat, aut qui cicatrkem evidentem et periculosam habebat vel in capite vel in alia parte [aperta?] corporis)...."

^{^[1598]} D. 18, 1, 43, 1.

¹² Sab./Ulp. D. 21, 1, 1, 7; cf. also Aulus Gellius, Nodes Attkae. Lib. IV, II, 3.

^{^[1600]} Ulp. D. 21, 1, 1, 8: "Proinde si quid tale fuerit vitii sive morbi, quod usum minis teriumque hominis impediat, id dabit redhibitioni locum...."

^m Ulp. D. 21, 1, 4, 5. Morbus sonticus excused the disregard of a summons (cf. tab. 2, 2 of the XII Tables and Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae, Lib. XX, I, 27). "Sonticus", etymologically, is an adjective from sum (in the sense of "definitely being", "overwhelm ingly real"). The participle "sons" (the one who is) is used in the sense of guilty and lies at the root of the word for sin (both in English and German). On all this, see the analysis by David Daube, "Pecco Ergo Sum", (1985) 4 RJ 137 sqq.

® Ulp. D. 21, 1, 4, 3: "Et videmur hoc iure uti, ut vitii morbique appellatio non videatur pertinere nisi ad corpora."

“ Sab./Ulp. D. 21. 1, 1, 7.

[1604] "f he jurists are perhaps not at their best in D. 21, 1": A. Rogerson, "Implied Warranty Against Latent Defects in Roman and English Law", in: Studies in the Roman Law of Sate in memory ofFranris de Zulueta (1959), p. 121.

¹²¹ But see also Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae. Lib. IV, II.

^1>6 Ulp. D. 21. 1. 4. 3: ",.. animi autcm vitium ita demum praestabit venditor, si promisit, si minus, non"; Viv./Ulp. D. 21, 1, 1, 10. Brunnemann, Commentarius, Lib. XXI, 1, Ad L. Labeo, I, § 3, n. 8 gives this reason: "... quta animi vitia facilius poenis, aliisque modis in servis corrigi possimt."

^{^[1607]} Viv./Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. 9. ^15B Viv./Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. 10.

¹⁵⁴ Paul. D. 21. 1. 2.

“ Pomp./Ulp. D. 21. 1. 4. 2.

^H For a massive amount of casuistry, see Ulp. D. 21. 1. 17.

^Ifi2 For a definition, see Ulp. D. 21. 1. 17. 14.

^lw Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. 1; Ulp. D. 21. 1. 23. 2.

¹⁸ Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. 1; Ulp. D. 21. 1. 23. 3. with a very interesting reasoning: "... maius

servus creditus est, qui aliquid facit, quo magis se rebus humanis extrahat, ut puta laqueum

torsit sive medicamentum pro veneno bibit praecipitumve se ex alto miserit aliudve quid

fecerit, quo facto speravit mortem perventuram, tamquam non nihil in alium ausurus, qui hoc adversus se ausus est." A breath-taking piece of early criminology; the person who had attempted suicide had demonstrated that he had no respect for life; he was a bad (and dangerous) person, because he was likely to try to do to another what he had attempted against himself. A modern variant of this idea can be found in §§ 211, 212 StGB (dealing

with murder and wilful manslaughter), if Eberhard Schmidhauser's argument ("Selbstmord und Beteiligung am Selbstmord in strafrechtlicher Sicht", in: Festschrift fur Hans Welzel (1974), pp. 801 sqq.) is correct that both sections as far as their objective requirements are concerned, place the killing of another and suicide on the same level; their wording is: "Who kills a person...", not "Who kills another...". Schmidhauser then carries on to argue that, since (attempted) suicide is an unlawful act (which is not punishable only due to an extra-legal exculpation ground), the aider and abettor has committed a crime and can consequently be punished. But see Albin Eser, in: Alfred Schonke, Horst Schroder, Strafgesetzbuch (23rd ed., 1988), Vorbcm. §§ 211 sqq., nn. 33 sqq. for the prevailing opinion in German criminal law. On the fascinating topic of the evaluation of suicide in Roman law and society, see the study by Andreas Wacke, "Der Selbstmord im romischen Recht und in der Rechtsentwicklung", (1980) 97 ZSS 26 sqq.

“ Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. 1.

“ Ulp. D. 21. 1.1.1: Ulp. D. 21. 1. 17. 17-19.

^B Gai. IV. 77: Ulp. D. 47. 2. 41. 2: see infra, p. 917.

^lffi The vendor also had to declare the nationality of the slave—certain nations seem to have had a very bad reputation concerning the quality of their people; Ulp. D. 21, 1, 31, 21: "Qui mancipia vendunt, nationem cuiusquc in venditione pronuntiare debent: plerumquc enim natio servi aut provocat aut deterret emptorem: idcirco interest nostra scire nationem.. Cf. Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 63 sqq.

^w For instance, that he was an excellent cook: Gai. D. 21, 1, 18, 1.

^ro Cf. Ulp., Gai. D. 21, 1, 17, 20—19, 4.

^{^[1621]} As to the distinction between dicta and promissa, see Ulp. D. 21, 1, 19, 2. That distinction was not crucial; in fact, the two became increasingly amalgamated. Dictum possibly continued to refer to a (unilateral) declaration by the vendor; promissum implied a bilateral arrangement. See Max Kaser, "Unlautere Warenanpreisungcn beim romischen Kauf", in: Festschrift fur He inrich Demelius (1973), pp. 128 sq.

^{^[1622]} Except where the defect was patent. Where, for instance, a slave, whose eyes had been knocked out, was sold and the seller promised that he was "sanus", this stipulation was taken to mean that the slave did not suffer from physical defects apart from his blindness: cf. Flor. D. 18, 1, 43, 1.

[1623] " Jq tmngs of sa]e a seller's praise belongs": Love's Labour's Lost, Act IV, Scene III, line

237.

^m Flor. D. 18. 1. 43 pr.

¹⁵ D. 21. 1. 19 pr. Cf. further Olde Kalter. op. cit.. note 24. pp. 48 sqq.; Stein. Fault, pp. 29 sqq.; Kaser, Festschrift Demelius, pp. 127 sqq.

Ulp. D. 21, 1, 1, 1 in fine: "[Hjoc amplius si quis adversus ea sciens dolo malo vendidisse dicetur, iudicium dabimus." This clause is difficult to understand; see, for example, Monier, op. cit., note 96, pp. 56 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 30 sqq.; A.M. Honore, "The History of the Aedilitian Actions from Roman to Roman-Dutch Law", in: Studies in the Roman Law of Sale in memory of Francis de Zulueta (1959), pp. 136 sqq. It probably applied in cases such as Flor. D. 18, 1, 43, 2 and Ulp. D. 4, 3, 37; cf. Kaser, Festschrift Demelius, pp. 127 sqq., 136 sq.

^{^[1627]} Ulp. D. 21, 2, 37, 1 in fine ("... per edictum autem curulium etiam de servo cavere venditor iubetur") and Monier, op. cit., note 96, pp. 87 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 44 sqq.

^{^[1628]} Gai. D. 21, 1, 28. ¹⁷⁹ Honsell, Quod interest, p. 69.

¹⁸⁰ i.e. the same principles as in the case of the stipulatio duplae: c{. supra pp. 295 sqq.,

300; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 68 sqq.

⁸ Usually the text is regarded as interpolated, the claim for inlcresse being thought to have been added by a post-classical reviser; cf. e.g. Monier, op. cit., note 96, pp. 104 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, p. 389. For a different interpretation, see Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 118 sqq.

^{^[1632]} Technically, condemnation of the vendor was dependent upon restitution of the slave; there was no action that the vendor could bring to get the slave returned. Cf. Ulp. D. 21, 1, 29 pr. and Uwe Wesel, "Zur dinglichen Wirkung der Rücktrittsvorbehalte des romischen Kaufs", (1968) 85 ZSS 141 sqq.

^{^[1633]} For details, see Bechmann, vol. Ill, 2, pp. 118 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 137 sqq.; Georg Thielmarm, '"Actio redhibitoria' und zufälliger Untergang der Kaufsache", in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. II (1971), pp. 487 sqq.; Honseil, Quod interest, pp. 70 sqq.

¹⁸¹ Ulp. D. 21. 1. 23. 7; cf. also Ulp. D. 21. 1. 21 pr.

^{^[1635]} Ulp. D. 21. 1. 23. 8; Paul. D. 21. 1. 58 pr.

¹⁸⁵ Ulp. D. 21. 1. 27; Ulp. D. 21. 1. 29. 3.

^{^[1637]} Aristo/Paul. D. 21. 1. 30. 1.

^{^[1638]} Ulp. D. 21. 1. 23. 9.

¹⁸⁸ Or that of his people ("familia" and "procurator"’): cf. Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. l.;Ulp. D. 21. 1. 25; Ulp. D. 21. 1. 31. 12.

^{^[1640]} Ulp. D. 21, 1, 19, 6.

¹⁹ Pap. D. 21, 1, 55.

¹⁴² Windscheid/Kipp, § 104.

¹⁵⁸ Cf. Aulus Gellius, Nodes Attkae, Lib. IV, II, 5; and Fritz Pringsheim, "Das Alter der aedilizischen actio quanti minoris", (1952) 69 ZSS 234 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 381 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 194 sqq.

^{^[1644]} Aulus Gellius, loc. cit.; cf. also Ulp. D. 21, 1, 38 pr.

^{^[1645]} For details, sec Bcchmann, vol. HI, 2, pp. 160 sqq.; G.A. Mulligan, "Quanti Minoris Than What", (1953) 70 SALJ 132 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 124 sq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 74 sqq.

^№ Ulp. D. 21, 1, 38 pr. and cf. Pap. D. 21, 1, 55.

^{^[1647]} Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae, Lib. VI, IV; as far as exclusion of liability is concerned, cf. also Ulp. D. 21, 1, 14, 9 and Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 20 sqq.

¹⁵⁸ Ulp. D. 21, 1, 38 pr. See Monier, op. cit., note 96, pp. 46 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 380 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 75 sqq.

^{^[1648]} Ulrich von Lubtow, "Zur Frage der Sachmangelhaftung im romischen Recht", in: Studi in onore di Ugo Enrico Paoli (1955), pp. 492 sqq.; Olde Kalter, op. cit., note 24, pp. 116 sqq.: Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 80 sqq.; Kaser, RPrI, p. 558.

²¹¹⁷ Pomp. D. 19, 1, 6, 4.

¹⁸ Cf. supra, p. 309.

^w Cf. further Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 7: "Venditorem, etiamsi ignorans vendiderit, fugitivum non esse praestare emptori oportere Neratius ait."

^{^[1652]} Ulp. D. 19, 1, 13 pr.

^{^[1653]} For details, see Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 85 sqq.

Ulp. D. 19. 1. 11. 5; Medicus. Id quod interest, pp. 146 sq.

³³ Ulp. D. 19. 1. 11. 3.

^{^[1655]} Cf.. particularly. Montz Wlassak. Zur Geschichte der negotiorum gestio (18791. pp. 169 sqq.; Bechmann, vol. Ill, 2, pp. 174 sqq.

^{^[1656]} Ulp. D. 19. 1. 13 pr.; cf. also Iui./Marci. D. 18. 1. 45.

^{^[1657]} The classicality of the actio empti against the venditor ignorans has been recognized for centuries (cf. still Vangerow, Pandekten, vol. Ill, p. 302; Wlassak and Bechmann supra, note 214). In view of the texts referred to above, a contrary view can only be maintained on the basis of extensive interpolation assumptions: cf. Franz Haymann, Die Haftutig des Verkdufers for die Beschaffenheit der Kaufsache. vol. I (1912), pp. 71 sqq.; Van Warmelo, op. cit., note 98, pp. 55 sqq.; Pringsheim (1952) 69 ZSS 293 sqq.; impallomeni, op. cit., note 111, pp. 247 sqq.; Honore, Studies de Zulueta. pp. 137 sqq. (but see pp. 143 sq.). Today, one tends to adopt a more conservative and cautious approach, as far as the corruption of classical texts is concerned; hence the renaissance of the pre-interpolationist view of the range of the actio empti.

~*⁷ Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht. vol.11, 1, p. 522.

^{^[1659]} Cf. Const. 0mnem4; Const. Tanta 5; Levy, Obligationenrecht. pp. 223 sq.; Monier, op. cit., note 96, pp. 186 sqq.

^{^[1660]} Ulp- D. 21, 1, 1 pr. (interpolated); cf. further e.g. C 4, 58, 4, 1 (dealing with the sale of "pestibilis fundus, id est pestibulas vel herbas letiferas habens"). Cf. e.g. Monier, op. cit., note 96. pp. 161 sqq.; Van Warmelo, op. cit., note 98, pp. 16 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita. pp. 394 sqq.; Impallomeni, op. cit., not 111, pp. 265 sqq. The aedilitian remedies and the actio empti stood in a relationship of elective concurrence.

²⁰ For details of the historical development of the law relating to latent defects in things sold, cf. Van Warmelo, op. cit., note 98, pp. 58 sqq.; Honore, Studies de Zulueta, pp. 132 sqq.; Norbert Burke. Einschrdnkungen der ddilizischen Rechtsbehelfe beim Kaufron der Reception bis zur Gegenwart (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Munster, 1967); Walter-jurgen Klempt, Die Crundlagen der Sachmdr'gelliaftutig des Verkdufers im Vemunjtrecht und Usus modertius

^{^[1662]} Cf. e.g. already Baldus dc Ubaldis, Consilia, vol. V, CCCCXCIX ("emptor potesi agere redhibitoria, vel certe quanto minoris... potest agi actione ex empto similiter").

²⁸ Cf. e.g. Ulrich Huber, Praekctiones, Lib. XXI, Tit. I, nn. 4 sq.; Justus Henning Boehmer, Doctrina de actionibus (Francofurti ad Moenum, 1738), Sect. II, Cap. VIII, § 77.

²⁹ Cf. e.g. Doncllus, Commentarii de jure Civili, Lib. XIII, Cap. II, III ("Earum praestationum, quae a venditore in re vendita citra aliam conventionem exiguntur, quatuor sunt capita. Primum, ut rem venditam tradat emptori... Tertium, ut dum emptor rem habebit, habeat incorruptam..."); for details Cap. Ill and "Commentaria ad titulum, de aediliticio edicto" (Opera Omnia, vol. X, col. 1327 sqq.); Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XXI, Tit. I, XXXIV.

²⁰ Based on C 7, 39, 3, 1 (Honor, et Theodos.).

^{^[1666]} Usus modenuis pandectamm. Lib. XXI, Tit. I, § 52.

Donellus, ’’Commentaria ad titulum, de aedilitico edicto” (op. cit., note 229), Cap. V, n. 4; cf, further e.g. Heinrich Hahn, Observata theoretico practica, Ad Matthaei Wesenbecii in L. libros Digestorum Commentaries {Helmstadii, 1659), Pars II, Lib. XXI, Tit. I, Obs. n. 9; Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XXI, Tit, I, XXXIV.

²⁸ Gluck, vol. 20, pp. 153 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 393, n. 1, 12.

³⁴ Windscheid/Kipp. § 393. n. 9.

^{^[1670]} Struve, Syntagma, Exerc. XXVII, X; cf. further Pothier, Tratte du contrat de vente, n. 233; Johann Paul Anselm Feuerbach (the great criminal lawyer), Civilistische Versuche (1803), Erster Theil, pp. 51 sqq.; Gluck, vol. 20, p. 119.

³⁶ Stryk, Usus modermispandectarum. Lib. XXI, Tit. I, § 11; cf. further e.g. Brunnemann, Commentarius in Pandectas, Lib. XXI, 1, Ad L. Labeo, I, § 3, 6.

^{^[1672]} Ulrich Huber, Praelectiones, Lib. XXI, Tit. I, n. 6; cf. also Perezius, Praelectiones, Lib. IV, Tit. LVIH, n. 5; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXI, Tit. I, IV.

^{^[1673]} Cf. e.g. Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum, Lib. XXI, Tit. I, § 11.

^{^[1674]} One of the reasons why it was deemed necessary to lay down strict and detailed rules

was the fear of making the outcome of judicial proceedings dependent upon the expert opinions of veterinary surgeons. Being generally speaking unenlightened and scientifically far behind the times, the latter were likely to confuse and misguide the court. For further about §§ 482 sqq. BGB and the Imperial Ordinance, see Fritz Ostler, "Kritik am Viehgewahrschaftsrecht", 1956 Juristenzeitung 471 sqq.; Petcrs/Zimmermann, Verjahntngs- fristen. pp. 142 sqq.

The best summary ot all pros and cons can still be found in von Kubel's motivation of his draft, in: Werner Schubert (ed.), Vorentwiirfe. Schuldrecht 1 (1980), pp. 425 sqq.

²⁴* Cf. e.g. "Motive", in; Mugdan. vol.ll, p". 123.

*⁴⁴ Honsell. Geddchtnisschrift Kitnkel, p. 62.

¹ For a discussion of this problem, sec e.g. H.P. Westermann, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. П1, 1 (2nd ed., 1988), § 463. nn. 31 sqq. It docs not arise in other modem European legal systems, where the purchaser is usually granted a contractual claim for damages (including consequential loss) if the vendor was at fault; sometimes, incidentally, not even fault is required: cf. Jürgen Basedow. DieRefonn des deutschen Kaufrechts (1988), pp. 30 sqq., 73 sqq.

-¹' For details, see Peters/Zimmermann, Verjahnmgsfristm, pp. 182, 202 sqq.

^{^[1680]} This has, for instance, necessitated the regulations contained in § 11, п. K) a-c of the Ge set- гиг Regelung des Rechts dtr AUgemeinm GescMfisbedmgungen (AGBG: General Conditions of Business Act) of 1976. For details, see, for example, Hein Kotz, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nd ed., 1984), § 11 ABGB, nn. 80 sqq; for a comparative analysis, see Basedow, op. cit., note 250, pp. 63 sqq.

" " So, too, Honsell, Gedachtnissclmft Kunkel, p. 65. The BGB does not recognize a right to demand removal of the defect. Differently, for instance, § 932 ABGB. As far as the sale of fungibles is concerned. § 480 does, however, give the purchaser the right to demand, instead of cancellation or reduction, that in the place of the defective thing another one free from defects be delivered to him. During the 19th century, the question whether the aedilitian actions are applicable to generic sales or not was vehemently discussed; for details, see Burke, op. cit., note 220, pp. 86 sqq. (who also provides information about the attitude of modern legislators on this problem).

^21,4 Even to cattle (Коек v. Du Plessis 1923 OPD 113) and to the sale of incorporeals (cf. in this context Holmes JA, in Phame (Ply.) Ltd. v. Paizes 1973 (3) SA 397 (A) at 419H-420A: "... the aedilitian relief, recognized under the Roman-Dutch law, can, while retaining its basic principles, be adapted to apply to the modern circumstances...").

Cf. e.g. Minister van Landbou-Tegnicse Dienste v. Scholtz 1971 (3) SA 188 (A); De Wet en Yeats, pp. 300 sq.

^{^[1684]} Cf. e.g. Giaston House (Ply.) Lid. v. Inag (Pry.) Ltd. 1977 (2) SA 846 (A); De Wet en Yeats, pp. 301 sq.

^{^[1685]} Cf. e.g. Reed Bros. v. Bosch 1914 TPD 578; Van Warmelo, op. cit., note 98, pp. 144

*^s 1949 (3) SA 664 (A) at 684 and 685.

So also De Wet en Yeats, pp. 303 sqq.. but see Kerr. Sale and Lease, p. 54.

**' Op. cit.. note 98. p. 155. ™ Act 18 (1943). s. 3.

-⁶- Act 68 (1969). s. 11(d). ™ 1973 (3) SA 397 (A).

²'¹' 1973 (3) SA 397 (A) at 398 sqq.

^2,15 1973 (3) SA 397 (A) at 403 sqq.

“ 1973 (31 SA 397 (Al at 407 sqq.

²⁵ J.J. Gauntlett. ''The Sayings of Mr. Justice Holmes¹'. (19741 37 THRHR 169 sqq.

²⁶ 1973 (31 SA 397 (Al at 410E.

^2fi"1973 (31 SA397(A1 at 418A.

™ S.WJ. van der Mcrwc. M.F.B. Reinecke. (19741 37 THRHR 175 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 306 sq.; Wouter de Vos," Onopsetlike wanvoorstelling by kontraksluiting", in: J.C. Noster, 'n Feesbundc! (1979), pp. 63 sqq.

^{^[1695]} Cf. supra, pp. 315 sq., 319.

^{^[1696]} Administrates, Natal v. Trust Bank van Ajrika Bpk. 1979 (3) SA 824 (A); for details, c(.

infra, pp. 674, 1042 sq.

^3J Ulp. D. 21. 1. 1. 11.

³⁴ Cf. today §§ 467. 351 BGB; Kcrr. Sale and Lease, pp. 61 sqq.

³⁵ Cf. Rosalie Lederle. Mortuus redhibetur. Die Rikkahwicklunq nacn Wandlun* im romischen Recht (1983), pp. 23 sqq.

^{^[1700]} Ulp. D. 21, 1, 25, 6.

^{^[1701]} PeContract Law", (1975) 91 LQR 254.

^3U> A translation of [he Tratte des obligations by W.D. Evans appeared first in America (Philadelphia, 1802), four years later also in England (London, 1806). The Tratte du corilrat de rente was translated by L.S. Cushings in 1839, the Tratte du conlrat de societe by O.D. Tudor in 1854.

^{^[1719]} For further details, see Reinhard Zimmermann," Synthesis in South African Private Law: Civil Law, Common Law and Usus Hodiernus Pandectarum", (1986) 103 SAU 283 sq.; idem (1985) 102 ZSS (GA) 176 sqq.

¹¹⁸ Cox v. Troy (1822) 5 B & Aid 474 at 480.

^{^[1720]} Cf., for example, Arndts. Pandekten. § 309; Demburg, Pandekten. vol If § 110; Thibaut, System. § 511. On the history of this trichotomy, see Felix Olivier-Martin, "Des divisions du louage en droit romain", (1936) 15 RH463 sqq., who credits Voct (Canimcntarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XIX, Tit. II) with its invention. Most writers of the usus modernus pandectarum and of the natural-law school, however, drew a distinction only between locatio conductio rei and operac (the latter category comprising both contract of service and contract for work): Coing, pp. 456 sq. Cf. also art. 1708 code civil, art. 1568 codice civile, §§ 1090 sqq., 1151 ABGB, and Windscheid/Kipp, §§ 399, 401. On the question of classification, see too Jones, Bailments, pp. 85 sqq.; Story, Bailments. §§ 368 sqq.; F.B.J. Wubbc, "Opus selon la definition de Labcon", (1982) 50 TR 250.

^{^[1721]} Gai. hl, 135: "Consensu fiunt obligationes in emptionibus venditionibus, locationibus conductionibus, societatibus, mandatis."

^{^[1722]} "We are accustomed, in the common law, to use words corresponding to those of the Roman law, almost in the same promiscuous manner. Thus letting (locatio) and hiring (conductio) are precise equivalents, used for the purpose of distinguishing the relative situation of different parties to the same contract": Story, Bailments. § 369.

338

^{^[1723]} On etymology and meaning cf. e.g. Heinnch Degenkolb, Platzrecht imdMiete (1867), pp. 133 sqq.; Kaufmann, AttromischeMiete, pp. 297 sq.; Ulrich von Lubtow, "Catos leges venditioni et locationi dictae", in: Symbolae Raphael! Taubenschlag dedicalae. vol. Ill (1957), pp. 231 sqq. But see also e.g. Otto Karlowa, Romische Rechtsgesdtichte, vol. II (1901), p. 638.

^{^[1724]} The terms "locare" and "conducere" were not always employed in a strictly literal sense, but were sometimes used "metaphorically" (Schulz, CRL, p. 543). Thus, for instance, in a contract for work the conductor often does not "carry" anything "with him" (or away): take, for instance, the contractor who has undertaken to build a house on the property of the customer. The same applies to a lease of landed property (cf. Kaufmann. Attromische Miete, pp. 237 sq.). On the terminology and the question of who could conclude a contract of locatio conductio, cf. Imre Molnar, "Subjekte der locatio conductio", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanjilippo. vol. II (1982), pp. 413 sqq.

^{^[1725]} Cf., however, e.g. Arangio-Ruiz, Istituzioni, pp. 345 sq.; Ugo Brasiello, "L'unitarietà del concetto di locazione in diruto Romano", (1927)2 K/SG529sqq.; (1928) 3 RISC 1 sqq.;

Schulz, CRL, pp. 542 sq.; Luigi Amirante, "Ricerche in tema it\ locazione", (1959) 62 BIDR

[1727] sqq. Contra: A.D.E. Lewis, '"The Trichotomy in Locatio Conductio", (1973) 8 Irish Juris! 164 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 18 sqq.; idem, "Tipicità c unita della locatio conductio'", (1959) 5 Labeo 390 sqq.; Max Kaser, (1960) 11 tura 229 sqq.; idem, RPrl, p. 563; more recently cf. e.g. Pinna Parpaglia, Vitia ex ipsa re (1983), pp. Ì81 sqq.

⁸ "... far from constructing a bogus classification, the civilians were responsible tor making explicit what, for the Roman jurists, was only implicit": Lewis. (1973) 8 The Irish Jurist 164.

" This is also how Kaser, RPrl. pp. 564 sqq. and Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, §§118 sqq., deal with the matter. The alternative approach (discussion of locatio conductio in general; differentiation according to the various types of locatio conductio only in the context of individual problems) has been followed by Mayer-Maly in his book on locatio conductio.

^{^[1728]} There are hardly any literary sources documenting the practice of letting and hiring before the 2nd century B.C. (i.e. before the time of the comedies of Plautus and Terentius). All available archaeological evidence has been carefully scrutinized by Kaufmann, Altromische Miete, pp. 26 sqq. For the time of the XII Tables cf. Gai. IV, 28: "Lege autem introducta est pignoris capio veluti lege XII tabularum adversus eum, qui hostiam emisset nee pretium

redderet; item adversus eum, qui mercedem non redderet pro eo iumento, quod quis ideo locasset, ut inde pecuniam acceptam in dapem, id est in sacrificium, impenderet." A small farmer is unable to provide the prescribed sacrifices for the gods. He has to hire out his beasts of burden in order to raise the necessary money. If the hirer does not pay the remuneration, the farmer/lessor may resort to self-heip, and distrain. Gaius' report relates to a time when locatio conductio was very much an extra-legal phenomenon. For further details, see Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. pp. 35 sqq. On the early history of locatio conductio, see further Kaser, RPr I, pp. 564 sq.

^{^[1730]} Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. passim. Hardly anything is known about the (legal) shape and structure of these transactions.

^E Cf. e.g. Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. pp. 344 sqq. More particularly, contrary to the opinion of many, locatio conductio did not originate as contract re (cf. the discussion by Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 81 sqq.).

" Lenel, EP. pp. 229 sq. For detailed speculations on the structure of the formula, see Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. pp. 349 sqq.

For a detailed commentary cf. e.g. Volker Emmerich, Jürgen Sonnenschein, Mietrecht (2nd ed., 1984); Wolfgang Schmidt-Futterer, Hubert Blank, Wohnraitmschutzge setze (5th ed., 1984).

For an attempt to remedy this state of affairs and to consolidate the law, sec Jürgen Sonnenschein, Die Bereitiigung des Mietrechts im Biirgerlkheti Gesetzbuch (1985).

^{^[1733]} Franz Wieacker, IndustriegeSeilschaft itnd Privatrechtsordnung (1974), p. 27.

^B The title "Basic law" is intended to convey the provisional nature of the (West) German "constitution". After 40 years of sepcrate development in the Federal Republic and the "German Democratic Republic" one can, however, hardly maintain any longer that the "Basic Faw" is different in character (i.e. inferior) from a "proper" constitution. Cf. for example, Otto Kimminich, 1973 Deutsche Verwahurigsblatter 657 sqq. (659); Michael Kirn, 1974 Zeitschrift fur Rechtspolitik 84 sqq. (86); Schmidt-Bleibtreu/Klein, Komtnentar zum Grundgesetz fur die Btmdesrepublik Deutschland (6th ed., 1983), Einl. n. 45.

^A Art. 14IGG.

"" Art. 2 1 GG (as interpreted by the German Constitutional Supreme Court).

² Art. 14IIGG.

^{^[1738]} Cf. particularly Heinrich Honscll, "Privatautonomie und Wohnungsmiete", (1986) 186 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 115 sqq.

^{^[1739]} For these figures cf. Honsell, (1986) 186 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 124 sqq.

" On a more general level, see Kurt H. Biedenkopf, "Die Wiederentdeckung des Privatrechts", in: Europäisches Rechisdenken in Geschichte und Geqenwart, Festschrift fur Helmut Going, vol. II (1982), pp. 21 sqq.

-¹ Tony Honorc, The Quest for Security: Employees, Tenants, Wives (1982), pp. 34 sqq.

^{^[1741]} Honorc, op. cit., note 25, "pp. 37 sqq. Today cf. Act 82—526, Recueil Dalloz 1982, 284

(22.6.1982).

^{^[1743]} Honore, op. cit-, note 25, pp. 58 sq.

^{^[1744]} Cf. Schulz, CRT, p. 544.

^{^[1745]} "Roman jurisprudence displays, in urban leasehold as elsewhere, an emphasis on

enforcement of the agreed-upon terms of contracts. Such emphasis can be defended as

support for the security of the market-place": Frier, Landlords and Tenants, p. 186.

On the Roman villa (architecture, conditions oftiving, daily routine of the owner of a villa, etc.), see Harald Mielsch, Die romische Villa (1987).

For details Carcopino, pp. 2(1 sqq., 26 sqq. On the overcrowding of ancient towns, see in particular R. von Pohlmann, Die Übervolkerung der atitiken Grossstädte (1884). For quantitative studies on the size of cities and of city population in the Roman Empire, see Duncan-Jones, pp. 259 sqq.

— For this and what follows cf. Carcopino, pp. 33 sqq. According to the Rcgionarics, the city had 1 797 domus as opposed to 46 602 insulae. The most characteristic feature of these insulae was their height. "As early as the third century B.C. insulae of three storeys were so frequent that they had ceased to excite remarks." This can be gleaned from the anecdote (told by Livius, Ab urbe condita, Lib. XXI, LXII) of the (apparently) mad ox which "scaled the stairs of a riverside insula to fling itself into the void from the third storey amid the horrified cries of the onlookers" (Carcopino, pp. 35 sqq.): a bad omen indeed! Augustus imposed a limit of 20 m on the height of private houses.

It is to these apartment units (as described in Ulp. D. 9, 3, 5, 2) that Frier, Landlords and Tenants, pp. 5 sqq. wishes to confine the use of the term "cenaculum" (as opposed to "diversoria" or "meritoria", the squalid tenement houses for the poor).

^{^[1750]} Cicero, Pro Μ. Caelio oralio, VII —17.

" Carcopino, p. 56. Juvenal, Saiura. Ill, 223 sqq., remarks that the annual rent tor a miserable flat in town would have bought splendid estates in a medium-sized country town. The figure of 2 000 sesterces is probably exaggerated. Our legal and extra-legal texts deal with upper-class leases, not with "the hordes of depressed lower class tenants who constituted the vast majority of the Roman tenantry" (Frier, Landlords and Tenants, p. 39). The latter, according to Frier (p. 51), paid rent "on a short-term basis, perhaps most commonly daily". Payment at yearly intervals (as a rule: postnumerando!) in all probability applied only to upper-class tenants. English law seems to offer a parallel in so far as the law of lease has traditionally been reserved for relationships with some sort of permanence (as opposed to a mere licence).

^3fl Carcopino, loc. cit.

^{^[1753]} For details Frier, Landlords and Tenants, pp. 29 sqq.; Guillaume Cardascia, "Sur une fonction de la sous-location en droit romain", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi. vol. II (1982), pp. 365 sqq. The same applied in the case of warehouses (horrea); the owner of a horreum usually let the whole warehouse to a principal tenant (the horrearius) who then in turn let out the storage space to the individual customers (cf. e.g. Andreas Wacke,

"Rcchtsfrage der romischen Lagerhausvcrmictung", (1980) 26 Labeo 304 sqq.; differently Claude Alzon. ProbUmes relatifs a la location des entrepots en droit romain (1965"). according to whom the individual customer always contracted directly with the owner; the horrearius was merely a subordinate, something like a foreman of the staff of the horrea, acting in the employ of the owner. This view has however generally been rejected: cf. e.g. J.A.C. Thomas, "Return to 'Horrea' " (1966) 13 RIDA 357 sqq.).

It is obvious that the contract between owner and horrearius was locatio conductio rei. But what was the relationship between horrearius and his customers (the "depositors")? It cannot have been depositum wherever—as was usually the case—the horrearius received a merces. But was it locatio conductio operarum (Joachim Rosenthal, "Custodia und Aktivlegitimation zur Actio furti", (1951) 68 ZSS 231 sqq.) or locatio conductio operis (Felix Wubbe, "Zur Haftung des Horrearius", (1959) 76 ZSS 511 sqq.) or locatio conductio rei (prevailing opinion: cf. e.g. Thomas, (1966) 13 RIDA '361', Kaser, RPrl. p. 565; Wacke, (1980) 26 Labeo 309) or a combined locatio rei and operis faciendi (Alzon, pp. 201 sqq.)? The horrearius was an independent contractor who employed his own staff; thus he was probably not merely an employee of the "depositors" (thus: no locatio conductio operarum). In all our sources, the horrearius is referred to as locator, by customers as conductores. The relationship must therefore have been one of locatio conductio rei, despite the fact that the horrearius (unlike "normal" lessors) was liable for custodia (Paul. D. 19, 2, 55 pr.; Lab. D. 19, 2, 60, 6 and 9; C. 4, 65, 1 (Ant.); C 4, 65, 4 (Alex.); Wubbe, (1959) 76 ZSS 508 sqq.; Carlo Augusto Cannata, "Su alcuni problemi relativi alia 'locatio horrei' nel diritto romano classico", (1964) 30 SDHI244 sqq.; Alzon, pp. 41 sqq., and many others). The horrearius is providing a "safe-keeping place", i.e. he is as locator under an additional contractual duty of custodiam praestare. These (modem) disputes about the horrea contract are, incidentally, another confirmation of the fact that the Romans did not employ the scheme of three different types of locatio conductio (Thomas, (1966) 13 RIDA 362).

^3H Carcopino, loc. cit.

^wIav. D. 19. 2. 57.

⁴⁽¹ Cf. e.g. supra, p. 192.

⁴ On this text and the problem of iusta causa timoris in general, cf. Frier, Landlords and Tenants, pp. 94 sqq.

^{^[1758]} Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 6.

⁴ Reason: the payment had not been made per errorem.

^{^[1760]} As to the justification of such fear, cf., for example, Ulp. D. 1, 15, 2 ("pluribus uno die incendiis exortis"). Cf. further e.g. Juvenal, Satura, III, 197 sqq. Aulus Gellius relates the story of a group of friends walking up the Cispian hill when they see a big urban insula on fire. "Magni reditus urbanorum praediorum", says one of them, "sed pericula sunt longe maxima, si quid autem possit remedii fore, ut ne tam adsidue domus Romae arderent, venum hercle dedissem res rusticas et urbicas emissem." It was mainly the risk of fire that made it more attractive for wealthy Romans to invest in farmland rather than in urban properties. For details, see Frier, Landlords and Tenants, pp. 21 sqq.

⁴ * 1 p. D. 19. 2. 11. 4.

Ulp. D. 19. 2. 11. 1.

^{^[1763]} The idea of versari in re illicita; cf. supra, pp. 197. 209.

^{^[1764]} Cf. generally Schulz. Principles, p. 24 (s. v. "Isolation"!.

^{^[1765]} Cicero. De oratore, 1. XLV—45.

^4,1 An apartment block of extraordinary dimensions, that seems to have been famous throughout the ancient world (cf. Tertullius. Adversus Valentinianos, VII. 3). On the status and social background of the Romanjurists during the various periods of Roman law. see especially Fritz Schulz. History of Roman Legal Science, passim; Wolfgang Kunkel. Herkunft und soziale Stellwnv der romischen juristen (2nd ed.. 1967). passim.

*^! Cf. e.g. Schulz, CRL, p. 545.

³² For all details, see Frier, Landlords and Tenants, pp. 21 sqq. ("The Social Institutions of the Roman Rental Market"), pp. 174 sqq. ("Recognition of Interests in Roman Lease Law"), pp. 196 sqq. ("Roman Jurisprudence as an Instrument of Social Control").

^{^[1769]} This is the main thesis of Frier's book on the Roman law of urban leasehold, which is now authoritative.

^{^[1770]} For details, see Frier. Landlords and Tenants, pp. 48 sqq.

^{^[1771]} Frier. Landlords and Tenants, pp. 50 sq. Cf.. on a more general level, also David Daube. Roman Law. pp. 71 sqq... the sources, the legal ones in particular, concentrate on the haves; it is they who occupy the centre of the stage.... The have-nots are invisible: die im Dunkeln sieht man nicllt").

Landlords and Tenants, pp. 40 sqq.: cf. also p. 52: "The inquilini of slum tenements find no place in juristic decisions on leasehold, despite their numerical preponderance among urban tenants."

³⁷ The archaeological evidence in Ostia and Rome is discussed by Frier. Landlords and Tenants, pp. 3 sqq.

Suetonius (De vita Cae sa rum. Tiberius. XXXV. 4). for instance, tells the story of a senator who was stripped of his rank by Tiberius, because he used to enter his urban leases only in the course of July, remaining, until then, on his country estates. In this way, he tried to take advantage of the sharp drop in (upper-class) rents which occurred annually after the 1st July, the day which traditionally marked the start of the rental year..

⁵ Frier. Landlords and Tenants, p. 52.

^{^[1776]} Cf. supra, p. 343. If in many Western legal systems this applies to the whole of the law of lease, modem South African law offers an even closer parallel to the situation in Roman law: the law of lease (locatio conductio rei) in its pure and proper sense applies, by and large,

^{^[1777]} Kaser, RPr I, pp. 564 sq.; but see Kaufmann, Altromische Miete, pp. 320 sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Afr. D. 19, 2, 35 pr.; Gai. D. 19, 2, 25. On what frui entailed (fructus

® Cf. e.g. Berger, ED, p. 391; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 118 sq. More specifically on client-coloni, cf. most recently P. W. de Neeve, Colomis. Private Farm-Tenancy in Roman Italy During the Republic and the Early Priucipate (1984), pp. 187 sqq.

percipere), see P.W. de Neeve, "Rcmissio Mcrcedis", (1983) 100 ZSS 303.

® § 535 BGB.

^f'⁷ § 581 I BGB. On the specific structure of the usufructuary lease ("Pacht") in Roman law

cf. recently Pinna Parpaglia, op. cit.. note 7, p. 27 and passim; Wolfgang Ernst, "Das Nutzungsrisiko bei der Pacht in der Entwicklung seit Servius", (1988) 105 ZSS 58Y sqq.

^,IK Cf. in general Imre Molnar, "Object of locatio conductio", (1982) 85 BIDR 127 sqq.

Recently, the thesis has been advanced that the object of locatio conductio (rei) was not a res but an activity relating to this res; Pinna Parpaglia, Vitia ex ipsa re (1983), e.g. pp. 138, 145; cf. also Ernst, (1988) 105 ZSS 590 sq.; Frier, Landlord and Tenant, p. 215 ("To some extent... urban leasehold might better be thought of as the exchange of money for certain services from the landlord, and not just for a place (res)"); but see Theo Mayer-Maty, (1983) 34 lura 155.

^{^[1786]} Gai. Ill, 146; cf. supra, p. 236.

¹¹ Cf. e.g. Alf. D. 19, 2, 30, 2 and Sibylle von Bolla, Untcrsuchungen zu Tiermiete und Viehpacht it n Alt emm (1940).

¹ Lab. D. 19, 2, 60, 6; 9; Paul. D. 19, 2, 55 pr.; Alzon, loc. cit.; Cannata, (1964) 30 SDHI 235 sqq.; Thomas, (1966) 13 RIDA 353 sqq.; Wacke, (1980) 26 Labeo 299 sqq.

⁷² Cf. e.g. Duncan-Jones, pp. 323 sqq.; De Martino, pp. 268 sqq.; most recently De Nceve, Colonus, pp. 217 sqq.

⁷³ Historia mturalis, Lib. XVIII, 6, 35.

^{^[1788]} Duncan-Jones, pp. 33 sqq.; Moses I. Finley, The Ancient Economy (1975), pp. 95 sqq. On the size and cost of farms in the late Republic cf. also Frier, Roman jurists, pp. 11 sq.

⁷¹ Cf., for example, De Martino, pp. 314 sqq.

^lk "Colonus" is related to "cotere"; the term indicates that the conductor was a farmer

who was duty-bound to cultivate the land (as opposed to the "rather slangy word" (Frier, Landlords and Tenants, p. 59) "inquilinus" for the urban tenant). Originally, it did not

necessarily refer to a small tenant; nor was it a terminus technicus for tenants of plots belonging to large estates. It was only in the period after Diocletian that what has become known as the "eolonate" developed, the term "coloni" then referring to poor people of low

social rank who were bound to their land and found themselves in a quasi-servile condition of dependency. On the term "colonus" and on the rise of what he prefers to call farm

tenancy in Italy in the course of the 1st century B.C., see De Necvc, Catenas, pp. 21, 31

sqq., 119 sqq. On the eolonate of the later antiquity the literature abounds; cf. Kaser, RPr II, pp. 142 sqq.

As to the crisis in Italian agriculture, sec mainly M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (2nd ed., 1957), e.g. 502 sqq. But see C.R. Whittaker, "Agri deserti", in M.I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Roman Property (1976), pp. 137 sqq.

^7H For post-classical times, sec Kaser, RPr II, pp. 401 sq.

Cf. e.g. C. 4, 65, 6: "Nemo prohibcrur rem quam conduxit fruendam alii locarc, si nihil aliud convenit"; Molnar, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. II, pp. 420. Cf. today also § 10Y8 ABGB and art. 1573 codice civile. A different approach has been adopted by the PrALR (§ 309 121) and the BGB (§ 549 I, 1: "A lessee is not entitled, without the permission of the lessor, to transfer to a third party the use of the leased thing, particularly to sublet the thing").

⁸¹¹ Cf, for example, Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. pp. 27 sqq; Cardascia, Studi Biscardi. vol. II, pp. 365 sqq. The right to sublease was presumed unless specifically excluded: cf. Frier. Landlords and Tenants, p. 62.

^{^[1798]} Ulp. D. 50, 17, 45: "Neque pignus neque depositum neque precarium neque emptio

neque locatio rei suae consistere potest"; Iui. D. 16, 3, 15.

* Ulp. D. 19, 2, 9, 6.

^ro Cf, in this context, the interesting hypothesis by Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. p. 118.

^H4 For details, see J.A.C. Thomas, "Conductio rei suae". (1971) 2 Index 283 sqq.

^HS Gai. D. 19, 2, 2 pr.

⁶ On the close relation between sale and hire cf. e.g. Gai. Ill, 142; Gai. D. 19, 1, 2 pr.; Inst.

Ill, 24 pr.; Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 63 sqq. ^R7 Paul. D. 19, 2, 20, 1. Ulp. D. 19,

2, 46. ^m Gai. Ill, 143. On Cato, De agri cuhura, XVII, 14, see Watson, Obligations, pp. 103 sqq-

⁹³ Inst. Ill, 24, 1. Justinian could afford to be strict on this point, since exclusion from the regime of locatio conductio no longer meant non-enforceability of the transaction. An actio praescriptis verbis was available.

^{^[1808]} Cf. supra, p. 256.

^{^[1809]} On negotia partiaria in Cato, De agri cuhura, CXLV sq., 136 sq. see Watson, Obligations, pp. 104sq.

' For details see Franz Kobler, Der Teilbau im rb'mischen und geltenden italienischen Recht (1928); Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 135 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "The Nature of Merces”, 1958 Ada juridica 197 sqq.; F.P. van den Heever, The Partiarian Agricultural Lease in South African Law (n.d). Specifically on the medieval concept of share-cropping, see E.J.H. Schrage, ’’Colonia partria, Zum Rechtsbegriff der Teilpacht aus der Sicht der Glossatoren”, in: Satura Roberto Feenstra oblata (1985), pp. 393 sqq.

⁹¹ Epistulae, Lib. IX. 37.

® Gai. D. 19. 2. 25. 6.

^{^[1812]} Ulp. D. 19. 5. 17. 3; Inst. Ill. 24. 2.

⁹⁷ Ulp. D. 10. 3. 23.

^9a As can. for instance, be seen from "quaeritur" in Gai. Ill. 144. Cf. further Afr. D. 19.

2. 35. 1; on this text, see J.A.C. Thomas. "D. 19. 2. 35. I¹'. (1971) 74 BIDR 83 sqq.; Karlheinz Misera, "Der Nutzungstausch bei Nachbarn und Miteigentümern", (1977) 94 ZSS 273 sqq., 277 sqq.

But probably only at a time when the availability of other remedies (csp. the actio in factum) for such use-exchange transactions was widely recognized.

^{^[1817]} Cf. e.g. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 129 sqq.; Thomas, 1958 Acta Juridica 191 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 101 sqq.; Misera, (1977) 94 ZSS 267 sqq. On Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 3, cf. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 137 sq. and Karoly Visky, "I contratti di locazione nella crisi economica del III secolo", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. I (1982), pp. 670 sqq.

^1B Cf. the statutes of the upper Italian city-states, for example the Statutes of Trient (1528): "Item statuimus et ordinamus, quod si aliquis locator velit aliquem conductorem expellere de domo..., debeat certiorare ipsum conductorem per mensem ante tempus locationis finitae" (cf. Klaus Genius, Der Bestandsschutz des Mietverhaltnisses in seiner historischen Entwicklung bis zu den Naturrechtskodifikationen (1972), p. 74 sq.); Johannes a Sande, Decisiones Frisicae (Leovardiae, 1635), Lib. Ill, Tit. VI, Def. I ("... consuetudine apud Frisios receptum est, ut dominus, qui vel ipse re locata uti frui, vel alteri earn locare aut alienare, vult colono aut inquilino ante Calendasjanuarii denuntiet"; cf. further Genius, e.g. p. 144).

^{^[1819]} § 564 a BGB.

^{^[1820]} Hence the periods of notice, the length of which can be determined, for instance, according to whether the rent is measured by days, weeks or months; cf. § 565 BGB.

^{^[1821]} Mackay v. Naylor 1917 TPD 533 at 538.

^{^[1822]} Cf, for example, Grotius, Inleiding, III, XIX, 8; Van Lecuwen, Censure Forensis, Pars I, Lib. IV, Cap. XXII, 6; § 595 BGB; but see the more refined considerations by Pothier, Traite du contrat de louage, n. 28.

^I2) Hence: "Non solet locatio dominium mutare": cf. Ulp. D. 19, 2, 39. For an exception (the so-called locatio conductio irregularis—a phenomonen similar to the depositum irregulare), see infra, p. 402, note 101.

“Gai. Ill. 145.

^E Kaser. RPr I. p. 455.

¹³ Gai. Ill. 145.

^{^[1824]} Cf. Ludwig Mitteis. Zur Geschichte der Erbpacht im Alterthum (1901). pp. 33 sqq.; Levy.

Vulgar Law, pp. 43 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, pp. 308 sqq.

For details, see Kaser, RPr II, pp. 151 sqq.

Levy, Vulgar law, pp. 45 sqq.

^{^[1828]} C. 4, 66, 1; cf. Inst. Ill, 24, 3.

^I2H For what follows, see Paolo Grossi, Locatio ad longum tempus (1963); Coing, pp. 369 sq. As to the glossators, cf., more recently, E.J.H. Schrage, "Emptio (Nondum) Tollit Locatum", 1978 Acta Juridica 6 sqq.

^{^[1830]} On the distinction between dominium directum and dominium utile, cf. E. Meynial, "Notes sur la formation de la theorie du domaine divise (domaine directe et domaine utile) du XHe au XlVe siecle dans les romanistes—etude de dogmatique juridique", in: Melanges Fitting (1908), vol. II, pp. 409 sqq.; Robert Feenstra, "Les origines du dominium utile chez les Glossateurs", in: Fata iuris romani (1974), pp. 215 sqq.; D.P. Visser, "The 'absoluteness' of ownership: the South African common law in perspective", 1986 Acta Juridica 39 sqq.

¹³³ Cf. e.g. Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XIX, Tit. II, § 51.

^H Contrat de louage, n. 27.

^{^[1833]} § 567 BGB.

^{^[1834]} C G. van der Merwe, Sakereg (1979), pp. 420 sqq.

^{^[1835]} Kerr, Sale and Lease, p. 183. Van Leeuwcn, Censura Forensis, Pars I, Lib. IV, Cap. XXII, 4, says: "Caeterum quod a quibusdam alia dicatur quae ad certum tempus, alia quae in perpetuum initur, proprie ad locationem non pertinet, sed in alium contractum transit: Emphyteusin nimirum:...."

^{^[1836]} Ulp. D. 19. 2. 15. 1. ^I3"

Gai. D. 19. 2. 25. 2. ¹³⁷ Ulp.

D. 19. 2. 15. 1. ^13H Cf. infra.

pp. 509 sqq. ¹³⁴ Ulp. D. 16.

3. 1. 6.

' Cf. Maycr-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 106 sqq.; von Liibtow, Symbolae Taubenschlag,

vol. Ill, pp. 239 sqq.; Frier, Landlords and Tenants, pp. 61 sqq.; De Neeve, Colonus, op. cit., note 101, pp. 5 sqq.; cf. also Kaser, RPr I, p. 229. ¹⁴¹ Cf. supra, p. 356.

^{^[1843]} Cf. e.g. Alf. D. 19. 2, 27 pr.; Alf. D. 19, 2, 30 pr.; cf. also Gai. D. 19. 2, 25. 2 (supra, p. 360 ). Cf. further Bruce W. Frier, "Tenant Remedies for Unsuitable Conditions Arising after Entry", in: Studies in Roman law in Memory of A. Arthur Schiller (1986), pp. 65 sqq., 70

- Max Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 157 sqq.; Imre Molnar, "Verantwortung und Gefahrtragung bei der locatio conductio zur Zeit des Prinzipats", in: ANRW, vol. II, 14 (1982), pp. 663 sqq. Cf. also Buckland/Stein. p. 500; Thomas, TRL, p. 294.

“ Alf. D. 19. 2. 30 pr.

Kaser. (1957) 74 ZSS 158; Honscll. Quod interest, pp. 119 sqq.; cf. further Afr. D. 19.

2, 33 (second part, from: "... nam ct si colonus"): Atr. 1). 19, 2, 35 pr.

¹ " Paul. D. 19, 2, 45 pr,, 1; Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 156 sqq. On noxal liability generally, see infra, pp. 916 sq., 109Y sq., 1118 sq.

^{^[1848]} Lab. D. 19, 2, 60, 7. The other text is Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 34: "Si quis servum conductum ad mulum regendum commendaverit ei mulum ille ad pollicem suum eum alligaverit de loro et mulus eruperit sic, uC et pollicem avelleret servo et se praecipitaret, Mela scribk, si pro perito impentus locatus sit, ex conducto agendum cum domino ob mulum ruptum vel debilitaium, sed si ictu aut terrore mulus turbatus sit, turn dominum cius, id est muli, et servi cum eo qui turbavit habiturum legis Aquiliae actionem, mihi autem videtur et eo casu, quo ex locato actio est, competere etiam Aquiliae." On these texts (and the question of their authenticity), cf. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 159 sq.; Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 161 sqq.; Stein, Fault, pp. 105 sqq.; Molnar, ANRW, op. cit., note 143, pp. 622 sqq.

^I4H Cf. Ulp. D. 19, 2, 15, 1 ("... si quid in lege conductionis convenit").

^{^[1850]} Cf. supra, pp. 293 sqq.

^m Ulp. D. 19, 2, 9pr. Cf. further Ulp. (Hans Kreller, (1948) 66 ZSS 76 sq.) D. 19, 2, 7; Tryph. D. 19,2, 8; Ulp. D. 19,2, 15, 8 and Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 166 sqq.; Mcdicus, Id quod interest, pp. 96 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 130 sqq.; Molnar, ANRW, op. cit., note 143,

pp. 622 sqq. For a different opinion (liability only if the lessor knew about his defect in title), see Nicola Palazzolo, "Evizione della cosa locata e responsabilita del locatore", (1965) 48 BIDR 275 sqq. He leans particularly on Afr. D. 19, 2, 35 pr.

^bI "Si tibi alienam insulam locavero quinquaginta tuque eandam sexagmta Titio locaveris et Titius a domino prohibitus fuerit habitare, agentem te ex conducto sexaginta consequi debere placet, quia ipse Titio lenearis in sexaginta."

¹⁵² Interestingly, the subtenants in their action against the sublessor could not claim quod interest, but only the prepaid rent. For an explanation, see Frier, Landlords and Tenants, PP.-.79 sqq.

Maycr-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 155 sq.

^{^[1852]} Ulp. D. 19, 2, 9 pr. (not interpolated: sec Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 168).

¹⁵ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 21, 2, 11 pr. ("futuros casus evictionis", relating to the expropriation

of provincial land). On this text cf. supra, pp. 288 sq.

™ D. 19, 2, 33. But see Hans Ankum, "Afr. Dig. 19, 2, 33, Haftung und Gefahr bei der publicatio eines verpachteten oder verkauften Grundstucks", (1980) 97 ZSS 165, according

to whom "publicatio" in D. 19, 2, 33 refers to a sale of the fundus to a magistrate or imperial official in the public interest; formally, this was a voluntary sale, even though de facto the

vendor was under some political pressure to sell.

^{^[1858]} Kaser. (19571 74 ZSS 177. Contra: Andreas Wackc. ''Dig. 19. 2. 33: Afrikans Verhältnis zu Julian und die Haftung fur hohere Gewalt", in: ANRIV, vol. II. 15. 1976. p. 481.

h>H Qf _e g A_ccursj_us gl ut mihi frui. ad I). 19. 2. 33: Donellus. Cotnuwtitaridejtirc Civili, Lib. XIII. Cap. VII. XVI": Cluck, vol. 17. p. 370.

^іл' On the nature of classical Roman law (and the consequences for the credibility of our sourcesl in this context, see especially Andreas Bertalan Schwarz. "Das strittige Recht der romischen Juris ten", in: Festschrift jiir Fritz Schtilz, vol. II (19511. pp. 201 sqq.: Max Kaser. 7мг Methode der rotnischai Rechtsfindung (19621. pp. 74 sq.: idem. RPr I. pp. 181 sqq.. 188 sqq.; Tomasz Giaro. "Uber methodologische Werkmittcl der Romanistik", (1988) 105 ZSS 180

^^>" Cf. supra, pp. 298 sq., 320.

¹⁶ For an examplary exegesis of D. 19, 2. 33 in all its ramifications, see Wacke, ANRW. op. cit., note 157, pp. 455 sqq. Ho draws attention to the point (p. 481) that lulianus did not hesitate to decide against the wealthy landed aristocracy (to which he himself probably belonged).

^{^[1863]} A.M. Honori, "Julian's Circle", (1964) 32 TR 17.

¹¹ Cf. especially Emil Seckel, Ernst Levy, "Die Gefahrtragung beim Kauf im klassischen romischen Recht", (1927) 47 ZSS 219 sqq.; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 122 sqq.; Wacke, ANRW. op. cit., note 157, pp'. 476 sqq.; Aiikum, (1980) 97 ZSS 157 sqq. Contra especially Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 177 sqq.; Nicola Palazzolo, "Evizione della cosa locata e responsabilita del locatorc", (1965) 68 BIDR 292 sqq. Modem German law would follow Africanus in the solution of this case: cf. Wackc, pp. 494 sq.

⁴ Pomp. D. 19, 1, 6. 4. Cf. supra, pp. 309, 320, 334 sqq.

^{^[1865]} Cassius was a student of Sabinus. Sabinus (whose opinion has been related by another of his students, Minicius) is quoted by Pompomus in I). 19, 1, 6, 4.

^16fl Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 1.

^fi7 For a recent discussion, see Christoph Krampe, Die Garantiehctftwtg des Vermieters fur Sachma'ngel (1980), pp. 21 sqq.

^m However, in the case of ignorantia the lessor still loses his right to claim counterperformance (the merces locarionis). On this aspect of the decision (and on its relation to Ulp. D. 19, 2, 15, 2, cf. the recent discussion by Ernst, (1988) 105 ZSS 554 sqq.

"¹⁹ Krampe, op. cit., note 167, p. 26.

¹⁷⁰ Prevailing opinion- see Stein, Fault, pp. 100 sqq.; Mayer-Maly. Locatio conductio. pp. 168 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, p. 155.

^{^[1866]} See Franz Haymann. Die Haftuny des Verkaujersjiir die Beschaffenheit der Kaufsache, vol. I (1912'). pp. 96 sqq.

^{^[1867]} See Gerhard Beseler. "Ft ideo-Dcdararc-Hic". (19311 51 ZSS 70.

" Cf. Klaus Luig, "Zur Vorgeschichte der verschuldensunabhangigen Haftung des Vermieters fur anfängliche Mangel nach § 538 BGB", in: Festschrift flir Heinz Huimer (1984), pp. 129 sqq.

Dismissed by many as interpolated (cf. e.g. Mayer-Maly, Loctitio conductio, p. 169); but see, for instance, Voci, L'etrore, p. 251.

^{^[1870]} Luig, Festschrift Hubner, p. 132; cf. also Buckland/Stein, p. 500; Liebs, RR, p. 244.

Cf, for example, Honsell, Quod interest, p. 134; also Ulrich von Lubtow, "Zur Frage der Sachmangelhaftung im romischen Recht", in: Studi in onore di Ugo Hnrico Paoli (1955), pp. 490 sq. After all, the dolia were sunk into the ground. In the case of pasture, on the other hand, the lessee was in as good a position as the lessor to evaluate what was growing on it. It was not expected of the lessor to let his own cattle trial-graze on the pasture. According to Mayer-Maly (Locatio conductio, p. 170), the crucial difference lies in the fact that the effluxion of wine in the case of leaking vats is the typical kind of damage that is bound to happen, whereas the loss of cattle due to mala herba growing on the lessor's pasture is not so typically related to the defect. Others argue that a leaking vessel is not a receptacle, whilst a pasture with poisonous herbs is still a pasture (Thomas, TRL, p. 294; Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 166). Also, it has been pointed out that, in the case of vats, express guarantees were

^{^[1871]} Views differ on what exactly vitia ex ipsa re refers to: faults which appear in the res (e.g. Watson, Obligations, p. 112), which result from the res (e.g. Molnar, ANRW. op. cit., note 143, p. 66)9), which arise in products or produce of the res (e.g. Seager, (1965) 31 SDHI 333), which could have been overcome by diligence and labour and are therefore ultimately due to negligence or imperitia on the part of the conductor (e.g. ParpagHa, op. cit., note 7, p. 32) or which occur "nelf ambito defl'attivita agricola" (Francesco Sitzia, "Considerazioni in Tema di Periculum Locatoris e di Remissio Mercedis", in: Studi in Metttoria di Giuliana d'Amelio. vol. I (1Y78), pp. 333 sqq.); cf. also Ernst, (1988) 105 ZSS 540 sqq., 554 sqq. (anything that prevents cultivation of the soil without constituting a blow of fate ("schicksalhafte Einwirkitng" — vis maior").

¹⁴⁸ But see also Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 1 ("... si saltum pascuum locasti, in quo herba mala nascebatur:... si ignorasti, pensionem non petes") and the analysis by Ernst, (1988) 105 ZSS 554 sqq.

¹⁴⁴ Ulp. D. 19, 2, 15, 2. According to Ernst, (1988) 105 ZSS 560 sqq., there was a significant shift in the post-classical analysis of risk-allocation; it was no longer based on the "fundamental content" of the contract of locatio conductio and the "basic concept" of vis maior (p. 559); the focus was now on the economic position of the lessee: could he reasonably be expected to pay the rent even though he had been unable to avert the incident that had prevented him from cultivating the land?

^{^[1874]} Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 6; Alf. D. 19, 2, 30 pr., 1; Alf. D. 19. 2, 35 pr.; Alf. D. 19, 2, T1 pr.; Lab. D. 19, 2, 60 pr.

This may appear to be surprising, because aedificii vitia could well be said to arise "ex ipsa re". But obviously the lawyers did not want to draw a distinction between ruina (which we find counted amongst the typical incidents of vis maior elsewhere, too) and those actions that were necessary to prevent ruina. Cf. Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 176.

²¹¹² Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. pp. 140 sqq.; Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 173 sqq.; idem, RPr I, p. 567.

^{^[1877]} Cf. e.g. Alf. D. 19, 2, T1 pr.

²¹¹⁴ Cf. especially Maycr-Maly, loc. cit.; also e.g. Watson. Obligations, p. 110.

^{^[1879]} Alzon, (1966) 12 Ldfcpo 315, Molnar, ANRW. "op. cit., note 143, pp. 660 sqq., 674 sqq.

^2I'" Stephan Brassloff, Sozialpolitische Motive in der romischeti Rechtsentwicklunq (1933), pp. 87 sq.; Hans Ankum, "Remissio Mercedis", (1972) 19 RID A 237.

²"⁷ Maycr-Maly. Locatio condnctio. p. 143; Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 174. Visky, Studi Sattfilippo. vol. I, pp. 679 sqq., 685 sq.

^{2ZSS 301.}

^{^[1884]} Cf. further Ulp. D. 19, 2, 15, 3; C 4, 65, 8 (Alex.).

²¹ Cf., in similar vein, J.Ä.C. Thomas, "Remissio Mercedis", in: Studi in memoria di

Guido Dondtuti. vol. Ill (1973), p. 1274.

³² Molnar. ANRW. op. cit.. note 143. p. 676: De Neeve. (19831 100 ZSS 312; slightly

differently Thomas, Studi Donatuti, vol. Ill, p. 1274.

³³ De Neeve. (19831 100 ZSS 303.

³⁴ Thomas. Studi Dotiatuti, vol. Ill. pp. 1271 sqq.; Sitzia. Studi d'Amelio, vol. I. pp. 331 sqq. (360 sq.); De Neeve, (1983) 100 ZSS 296 sqq.; cf. also Molnar, ANRW. op. cit., note 143, p. 661; Ernst, (1988) 105 ZSS 571 sq. (according to whom imperial remissio mercedis fitted in with the post-classical but not with the (early) classical risk regime (as espoused by Servius in Ulp. D. 19, 2, 15, 2)).

³⁵ De Neeve. (19831 100 ZSS 332 sqq.; cf. alsoAnkum. (19721 19 RIDA 222 sqq.. 234 sq. For alternative explanations as to why imperial remissio was introduced, despite being, at least substantially, in accordance with the normal risk regime, see Giannetto Longo, "Osservazioni critichc sulla disciplina giustinianca della locatio-conductio", in: Studi in onore di Biondo Biondi, vol. II (1965), pp. 293 sqq.; Sitzia, Studi d'Amelio. vol. I. pp. 347 sq., 360 sq.

~^{Isome pressure on the defendant rather to provide restitution in kind.}

⁴ But see Schrage, 1978 Acta Juridica 3 sqq. and now (more clearly) idem, "Zur mittelalterlichem Geschichte des Grimdsatzes 'Kauf bricht nicht Miete' ", in: E.J.H. Schrage (ed.), Das romische Recht im Mitteialter (1987), pp. 283 sqq., where he demonstrates that the glossators and commentators interpreted C. 4, 65, 9 so restrictively and recognized so many exceptions that the main rule (emptio tollit locatum) did not have much practical significance.

^A Cf. e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 400, n. 7.

~⁵⁶ Cf. further Pap. D. 43, 16, 18 pr. and Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 53 sqq.; Genius, op. cit., note 115, pp. 30 sqq.

^{^[1913]} Cf. e.g. Christian Fnedrich Muhlenbruch, Die Lehre von der Cession der Forderungsrechte (3rd ed., 1836), p. 279; Rudolf von Jhering, Der Besitzwille (1889), p. 441. For a thorough discussion of this problem, see Karl Ziebarth, Die Realexecution und die Obligation (1866), passim, e.g. pp. 1 sqq., 163 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Jhering, op. cit., note 257, pp. 448 sqq.

⁵⁹ Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 53 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 406; but see Thomas, (1973) 41 TR 37.

²⁶¹¹ Hugo Grotius, Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI. IV; Christian Wolff, Jus Naturae. Pars III, Cap. IV, § 360 ("Qui altcri ad faciendum sese obligat perfecte, particulam quandam libertatis suae alienat"). Cf. further Diesselhorst, Hugo Grotius. pp. 34 sqq.; 50 sq.; Franz Wieacker, "Die vertragliche Obligation bei den Klassikern des Vernunftrechts", in: Festschrift furHans Wel~el (1974"). pp. 11 sqq.

²⁶¹ For details, see Genius, op. cit., note 115, pp. 173 sqq.; cf. also Klaus Luig, "Der Einfluss des Naturrechts auf das positive Privatrecht Im 18. Jahrhundert", (1979) 96 ZSS (GA) 44 sqq.

^{^[1914]} Inleiding, II. XLIV. 9.

²³ For details, see J.C. de Wet. "Huur Gaat Voor Koop". (19441 8 THRHR 166 sqq.; Genius, op. cit., note 115, pp. 138 sqq.; E.J.H. Schrage, "Sale Breaks Hire—Or Does It? Medieval Foundations of the Roman-Dutch Concept", (1986) 54 TR 294 sqq.

^Ä Gudelinus, Commentarii de hire novissimo, Lib. Ill, Cap. VII, n 12. Cf. further, for

instance, John Gilissen. " 'Huur gaat voor koop' in het oud-belgische Recht", (1939) 16 TR 281 sqq.

^2bb For details Genius, op. cit., note 115, pp. 101 sqq.; Schrage, (1986) 54 TR 293 sq. The tenant had (although perhaps not always) "Gewere", i.e. his position had the character of a real right, and he was granted legal protection against expulsion.

^{^[1919]} For all details see, most recently, Duard G. Kleyn, Die Mandament van spolie in die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg (unpublished LLD thesis, Pretoria, 1986), pp. 73 sqq.

^{^[1920]} Cf., for example, Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. CCCCLI; Carl Georg Bruns, Das Recht des Besitzes im Mittelaiter und in der Gegenwart (1848), pp. 393 sq.

²³ Cf. e.g. Justus Henning Boehmer, Consultations et Dedsiones luris, vol. H, Pars II (Halae Magdeburgicac, 1734), Resp. 1014, n. 6.

²⁵ Cf. e.g. Vangerow, Pandekten, § 643, n. 1.

²⁷⁽³ Cf. e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 402, 1.

^{^[1924]} Cf. supra, pp. 355 sqq., 357 sq.

²⁵ Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 17, pp. 373 sqq., 477 sqq.

²⁹ § 564 b BGB. The interpretation of this rule has recently been the subject of much controversy. Cf. BVerfG, 1989 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 970 sqq., 972 sqq.; Johann Friedrich Henschel, "Eigentumsgewahrleistung und Mieterschutz" 1989 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 937 sqq.

²⁰ § 556 a BGB.

^2H1 The historical development of security of tenure of residential accommodation has been comprehensively analysed in the monographs of Genius op. cit., note 115 (from Roman law down to the times of usus modernus and the great natural-law codifications) and Udo Wolter, Mietrechtiicher Bestandsschutz (1986) (who takes the reader through from 1800 to the present-day law).

^{^[1929]} St. Matthew 20, 1-4.

On sc locare and operas suas locare cf. De Robertis, / rapporti di lavoro nel diritto romano (1946), pp. 18 sq., 25 sq., 52 sq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Locatio and operae", (1961) 64 BIDR 234; Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. p. 203. Could a slave let himself out? Cf. e.g. Lab. D. 19, 2, 60, 7; Pap. D. 33, 2, 2, and Thomas, (1961) 64 BIDR 232 sqq.; contra (on the basis that the texts are interpolated or untechnical) Mayer-Maly, "Romische Grundlagen des modemen Arbeitsrechis", 1967 Recht der Arbeit 285.

^{^[1931]} For a detailed discussion, see Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. pp. 182 sqq.; cf. also Maver-Maly, 1967 Recht der Arbeit 282.

On the history and etymology of merces and its derivatives, "mcrcennarius" (a person working for wages) and "Mercedonius" (an old, probably unofficial, name for the month of November!?), in the course of which the merces was due) see Kaufmann, Altromische Miete. pp. 138 sqq.

384

^{^[1933]} On these requirements see, in general, Theo Mayer-Maly, "Dienstvertrag und Arbeitsvertrag", (1966) 1 Zeitschrift fur Arbeitsrecht und Sozialrecht 2 sqq.

^{^[1934]} Paul. D. 19, 2, 38 pr. See De Robertis, op. eit., note 2, pp. 148 sqq.; Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. pp. 181 sqq.; Max Kaser, "Periculum locatoris", (1957) 24ZSS 194 sqq.; Giuseppe Provera, Sul problema del rischio contrattuale nel diritto romano", in: Studi in onore di Emilio Betti, vol. ПІ (1962), pp. 693 sqq.; Claude Alzon. "Les risques dans la 'locatio conductio' ", (1966) 12 Labeo 319 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "The Worker and His Wage", in: Uit Het Recht, Rechtsgeleerde opstellen aangebaden aan mr. P.J. Verdam (197D. pp. 201 sqq.; Imre Molnar, "Verantwortung und Gefahrtragung bei der locatio conductio zur Zeit des Prinzipats", ANRW. vol. II, 14 (1982), pp. 640 sqq.

^{^[1935]} Differently Robert Rohlc, "Das Problem der Gefahrtragung mi Bereich des romischen Dienst- und Werkvertrages", (1968) 34 SDHI184 sqq.

^{^[1936]} The parallel with the "Spharentheorie". which the modern German courts have developed to determine the allocations of risk (cf. supra p. 195) is obvious. The BGB itself, incidentally, had turned away (at least on a conceptual level) from the sphere-oriented way of risk allocation which dominated the earlier ius commune; it followed the generalized and will-oriented approach developed by the natural lawyers, as taken over by Savigny: in case of impossibility of performance, counter-performance also falls away on account of a "tacita conditio resolutiva" (Christian Wolff), i.e. the idea of the so-called conditional synallagma (cf. infra, p. 811). In the modern discussions about risk-allocation we see how even under the new normative roof of the BGB the old tradition of the ius commune still lives on ("... die gemeinrechtliche Erbschaft, die auch unter dem neuen normativen Dach des BGB fortwuchert"). For an analysis of the historical development, see Joachim Rückert, "Vorn casus zur Unmoglichkeit und vor den Sphäre zum Synallagma", (1984) 6 ZNR 50 sqq. (quotation on p. 52).

^{^[1937]} Risk on employee (i.e. no claim for wages): Kaser, RPr I, p. 570; Benohr, Synallagma, p. 107. Risk on employer (i.e. duty to pay wages): Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. p. 182; Provera, Studi Betti, vol. П1, p. 712. The question was very controversial among the writers of the ius commune too; c(. e.g. Coing, p. 460 (today § 616 BGB).

¹⁽¹ Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 9; 10. On these texts, See Nicola Palazzolo, "Le consueguenze della morte del Conductor operarum sul rapporto di lavoro", (1964) 30 SDHI284 sqq., who argues that the question is not one of periculum but of "trasmissibilita ereditaria".

Coipus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. ПІ, 2, 948 X.

^E For a discussion of this question, see Molnar, ANRW. op. cit., note 6, pp. 613 sqq.

® This rule can be found in Gai. D. 50, 17, 132.

^B Gai. D. 9,2,8, l;cf. also lust. IV, 3, 8; both texts, however, deal with Aquilian liability. For an analysis, see Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. pp. 158 sq.; Molnar, ANRW. op. cit., note 6, pp. 611 sqq.; Okko Behrends, "Die Rechtsformen des romischen Handwerks". (19811 22 Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaftm in Gottingen 145 sqq.

^{^[1943]} Cf. today § 276 I 2 BGB: "A person who does not exercise ordinary care acts negligently." Negligence is determined according to an abstract objective criterion, not according to whether this particular debtor could have foreseen or prevented the damage.

One of the main concerns of modern labour law; for a comparative analysis, see Tony Honore", The Quest for Security: Employees, Tenants, llii’cv (1982), pp. 1 sqq.

^{^[1945]} Cf., for example, Behrends, op. cit., note 14, pp. 182 sqq. But see also, as far as public works were concerned (such as large-scale imperial building programmes), P.A. Brunt,

"Free Labour and Public Works at Rome", (1980) 70 JRS 81 sqq.

^B Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 19, 2, 42; 43; 45, 1.

® Gai. HI, 96.

² For details on the operae libertorum. cf. Kaser. RPr I. pp. 298 sqq.; Behrends, op. cit.. note 14, pp. 184 sqq.; and now, in particular, the splendid work of Wolfgang Waldstein,

Operae Libertorum (1986). He emphasizes that we are dealing here with a social phenomenon

of great importance. On the actio operarum, cf. pp. 135 sqq., 345 sqq. and passim. Cf. also Johannes Michael Rainer, "Humanität und Arbeit im romischen Recht", (1988) 105 ZSS 745 ^s49-

Cf. e.g. Seneca, Epistulae ad Lucilium, Lib. XI, 88, 1, 2 and 20; referring, however, to "liberalia studia". There is an extensive literature dealing with the operae liberales (a term that does not appear in the legal sources; cf., however, Ulp. D. 50, 13, 1: "... liberalia autem studia..., quae Graeci eX.Evd?pux appellant"); cf, above all, Karoly Visky, Geistige Arbeit und die "artes liberates" in den Quellen des romischen Rechts (1977), pp. 9 sqq.

² "... what might generally be described as 'the professions', with intellectual as distinct from skilled manual activity": Thomas, (1961) 64 BIDR 240 sq.

³ Prevailing opinion; cf. e.g. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 125 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 569; Thomas, TRL, p. 298; Watson, Failures, p. 78. For a different view, see, for instance, Heinrich Siber, "Operae liberales", (1939-40) SSjhJb 161 sqq. (all types of operae liberales were typically rendered under a contract of locatio conductio) and Visky, op. cit., note 21, pp. 9 sqq. (operae liberales by law excluded from this contract). Others differentiate between the various professions (cf. e.g. Karl Heidrich, "Der Arzt im romischem Privatrecht", (1939-40) SSJhJb 139 sqq.; Michel, Gratuite, pp. 198 sqq.), one of the main difficulties being that the term "artes liberales" lacked both precise definition and technical significance. Thus, a single coherent doctrine of the practice of "the" professions at Rome cannot be extracted from the sources (Thomas, (1961) 64 BIDR 241). For further standard literature on the topic, cf. Antoine Bernard, La Remuneration des Professions Liberates en Droit Romain Classique (1936); Jean Macqueron, Le travail des hommes libres dans I'antiquite romaine (1958).

^{^[1952]} Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 11,6, 1 pr.: "... quia non crediderunt veteres inter talem personam locationem et conductionem esse..." (dealing with agri mensores),

² Cf. e.g. Cicero, Pro P. Sextio oratio, XLV—98; idem, De oratore, 1, I; Francesco M, de Robertis, Lavoro e lavoratori nel mondo romano (1963), pp. 21 sqq.

^{^[1953]} Dieter Norr, "Zur sozialen und rechtlichen Bewertung der freien Arbeit in Rom",

(1965) 82 ZSS 76.

^{^[1955]} 1, XLH—150 sq. On this text cf. e.g. De Robertis, op. cit., note 25, pp. 53 sqq.; Visky, op. cit., note 21, pp. 10 sqq.; Behrends, op. cit., note 14, pp. 149 sq.

^{^[1956]} On the necessity of differentiating between what he calls the ambiente volgare and the

ambiente aulico, and on the social evaluation in both spheres, see De Robertis, op. cit., note

25,pp. 21 sqq. and passim.

On the terminology, see De Robertis, op. cit., note 25, pp. 9 sqq.; cf. also Mayer-Maly,

1967 Recht der Arbeit 282.

^{^[1961]} Cf. e.g. Valerius Mixitnis. Lib. IV, Cap. IV, §§ 4 sqq.; Plinius, Historia naturalis. XVIII sq.; Cicero, Cato maior de senectute. XVI.

³ Cf. Cato, De agri cultura, praefatio ("... pius stabilissirrusque minimeque invidiosus") and Cicero, De officiis 1, XLH—151: "Omnium autem rerum ex quibus aliquid adquiritur, nihil est agricoltura melius, nihil uberius, nihil dulcius, nihil homine, nihil libero dignius." For details, see De Robertis, Lavoro. pp. 87 sqq.

² For an analysis of the various factors to be taken into consideration, see Non, (1965) 82 ZSS 73 sqq.

³ Non, (1965) 82 ZSS 76.

* For details cf. Visky, op. cit., note 21, pp. 54 sqq. and, more generally, on the legal professions, their status and their members, Fritz Schulz, Roman Legal Science (1946), passim; Bruce W. Frier, The Rise of the Roman Jurists (1985), passim Cf. also, in the present context, Thomas, (1961) 64 BIDR 245 sqq.; Michel, Gratuiti, pp. 215 sqq.

⁵ Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 11,6, 1 pr.:. sed magis operam beneficii loco praeberi et id quod datur ei, ad remunerandum dari et inde honorarium appellari" (dealing, however, with agri mensores).

^{^[1963]} Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 7, 8; Gai. D. 9, 3, 7; Visky, pp. 73 sqq. Too extreme are Heidrich, (1939-40) SSJhJb 141 sqq. (medici typically entered into a contract of locatio conductio) and Karl-Heinz Below, Der Arzt im romischen Recht (1953), pp. 57 (the medicus ingenuus—as opposed to servi and liberti—was excluded from entering into this type of contract).

■" Cicero, De officiis. 1, XIII—150 sq. During the Republic, physicians were regarded as artisans (faber); cf. e.g. Plautus, Aulularia. Act III, Sc. II, 1. 448 (on the notions of craft and craftsmen in Rome generally, see Behrends, op. cit., note 14, pp. 142 sqq.; cf. also Harald von Petrikovits, "Die Spezialisierung des romischen Handwerks", (1981) 122 Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen 63 sqq.). For a long time (and in contrast to other Mediterranean nations) the Romans did not have any kind of scientific medicine at all. Cato is still reported to have treated all the members of his household himself. For his ideas about medicine cf. e.g. De agri cultura. CLXVHI, 160 ("Luxum si quod est, hac cantione sanum fiet"). According to Varro, De re rustica. Lib. I, -■ 27, gout could be cured by singing 27 times "Ego tui memini, medere meis pedibus, terra, pestem teneto, salus hie maneto in meis pedibus", whilst at the same time touching the soil and spitting out. But see Ulp. D. 50, 13,

1, 1 and 3 for a different assessment of the activity of doctors prevailing in classical times; cf. also Seneca, De benefidis. Lib. VT, XIV, 3 sqq. and Watson, Failures, pp. 68 sqq.; Ralph Jackson. Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (19881. pp. 56 sqq.

^{^[1966]} Many of the most brilliant Roman doctors were of Greek origin: Asklepiades of

Bythinia (who was friendly with Quintus Mudus Scaevola, Cicero, Marcus Antonius and other prominent Romans), his pupil, Themison of Laodikeia, and Galenos of Pergamon. Under their influence, the social evaluation of medicine and of those practising it seems to

^{^[1968]} Not very much is known about the early history of service transactions. But it seems certain that, whereas locatio conductio presupposed at least formal equality of the parties, the

legal institutions preceding it were based on a relationship of subordination; thus, the right of the paterfamilias to the services of his slaves and of his sons in power (and his right to

transfer them into the service, i.e. the power, of another paterfamilias), the right of the patron to the services of his clientes and of the manumissor to those of his liberti were all based on relationships of power and status. For details, see Kaufmann, Altromisdie Miete, e.g. pp. 44sqq., 67sqq., 118 sqq., but also the summary by Mayer-Maly, 1967 Recht der Arbeit 283. The contract of locatio conductio did not involve a change of the legal status on the part of the employee: Norr, (1965) 82 ZSS 86 sqq. as against De Robertis, op. cit., note 25, pp.

143 sqq. More recently on the transition, as far as the activities of artisans are concerned, from status relationships to the liberalistic and individualistic contractual system, see Behrends, op. cit., note 14, pp. 193 sqq. Regarding the English common law, Kahn-Freund, (1977) 93 LQR 508 sqq. has argued that Blackstone's classification of the relationship of master and servant as essentially one of status impeded the development in England of a contractual approach to employment. Contra: John W. Cairns, "Blackstone, Kahn-Freund and the Contract of Employment", (1989) 105 LQR 300 sqq. One of the points at dispute between Kahn-Freund and Cairns is whether Blackstone's neglect of the contract of employment is a "specimen case to demonstrate the contrast between English legal thinking and the legal thinking of the continental nations of Western Europe". On Pothier's analysis (Traite du contrat de louage) cf. Kahn-Freund, (1977) 93 LQR 514 sqq. and Cairns, (1989) 105 LQR 302 sq. Other civilian authors did not deal with the master-and-servant relationship as part of the law of contract, but did so when they discussed various status relationships within the society at large. So did, incidentally, the Prussian General Land Law (§§ 1 sqq. II 5).

^{^[1972]} On these developments, which occurred as part of the permeation of the law by national-socialistic thinking, see Bernd Riithers, Die unbegrenzte Auslegung. Zum Wandet der Privatrechtsordnung im Nationalsozialistttus (1968), pp. 379 sqq.

⁴⁵ Cf., for example, Mayer-Maly, 1967 Recht der Arbeit 281 sqq.; Reinhold Trinkner, Maria Wolfer, "Modernes Arbcitsrecht und seine Beziehung zum Zivilrecht und seiner Geschichtc", 1986 Betriebsberater 4 sqq.; as far as the problem of risk allocation is concerned, cf. in particular Riickert, (1984) 6 ZNR 50 sqq. On the (earlier) ius commune, cf., in this respect, Theo Mayer-Maly, "ESemcme der Entwicklung des Arbeitsrecht", in: La formazione storica, vol. П1, pp. 1320 sqq. He draws attention to the fact that the history of labour law does not commence with the Industrial Revolution, but that a scientific body of law dealing with labour relations already existed in the late Middle Ages.

^{^[1974]} Cf. e.g. Gottfried Schiemann, "Der freie Dienstvertrag", 1983 Juristische Sdiuhmg 649 sqq. and also § 1163 ABGB. In so far as modern law deviates from the tus commune which, like Roman law, did not regard the services of members of the free (liberal) professions as being rendered under a contract of locatio conductio: cf. e.g. Glück, vol. 17, pp. 315 sqq.; D.J. Joubert, "Die kontraktuele verhouding tussen professioncle man en khe'nt", 1970 Acta Juridica 15 sqq.; Coing, pp. 458 scj.; cf. also Wmdscheid/Kipp, § 404 (emphasizing, however, thai the legal regime is the same as if one were dealit with locatio conductio); § 895 Ill PrALR; art. 1779 code civil. The situation in modert South African law is unclear (locatio conductio or mandatum?): cf. Joubert, 1970 Acta Juridica 22 sqq. (with very sensible suggestions). Generally on locatio conductio operarum in modem South African law, cf. James Fourie. Die Diemkontrak in die Suid-Afrikaans? Arbeidsre'' (unpublished LLD thesis. Pretoria. 1977).

^4H Cf. supra, p. 390.

⁴¹ At. p. 390. note 36.

^s Ulp. D. 9. 2. 7. 8. Cf. e.g. Heidrich. (1939-401 SSJhJb 150; Just. Scritti Guarino, vol.

VI. p. 3061.

³ Cf. e.g. Wmdscheid/Kipp. §§ 399. 401: Berger. ED, p. 567: Buckland/Stcin. p. 505: Kaser. RPr I. p. 570: Thomas. (19611 64 BIDR 236 sq.: F.B.J. Wubbe. "Opus scion la definition de Labeon" (19821 50 TR 241 sqq.: for the h storical development cf. particularly Kaufmann. Altromische Miete, pp. 205 sqq.

¹ lav. D. 19. 2. 51. 1.

³ Paul. D. 50. 16. 5. 1. On this text, see Wubbe. (1982'150 TR 241 sqq. He points out that opus does not refer to a material result (in the form of a physical object produced) but to an activity defined by and sustained up to an end (a t?\oa).

^{^[1981]} Cf. e.g. Gai. Ill. 205; Ulp. D. 19. 2. 9. 5.

^s Ulp. D. 7. 8. 12. 6.

^5f> Uip. D. 19. 2. 13. 5.

³⁷ Gai. D. 19. 2. 2. 1; hist. Ill. 24. 4. ^s Alf. D. 19. 2. 30. 3; Lab. D. 19. 2. 60. 3; lav. D. 19. 2. 59; Paul. D. 19. 2. 22. 2. Cf.

Robert Rohle, "Das Problem der Gefahrtragung im Bereich des romischen Dienst- und Werkvertrages", (1968) 34 SDHl 206 sqq.; Susan D. Martin, Building Contracts in Classical Roman Law, (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan, 1982; not available to me). The codifications of the civil-law countries still regard building contracts as a normal instance of a contract for work (locatio conductio operis) and provide only very few special rules dealing with this subject matter. On the growth of self-made "law" in the building industry which has occurred since then, see Werner Lorenz, "Contracts for Work on Goods and Building Contracts", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. VIII, 8, nn. 6 sqq. Modern commentators usually deal with building contracts as a distinctive category within the framework of locatio conductio opens.

® Ulp. D. 19. 2. 11. 3; Gai. D. 19. 2. 19. 7; Gai. D. 19. 2. 25. 7.

® Ulp. D. 19. 2. 13. 3; Kaser. RPr I. p. 569. n. 60. De Robertis. op. cit.. note 2. pp 197sqq.

Cf. Kaufmann, Altrdmische Miete, p. 257.

^{^[1989]} Cf. e.g. Dieter Giesen, Arzthaftungsrecht—Medical Malpractice Law (1981), pp. 158, 283, who also refers to French law, where the position is the same as in German law: the obligation medicale is an obligation de moyens, not an obligation de resultat; Franz Bydlinski, "Vertrage uber ärztliche Leistungen, in: Festschrift für Winfried Kralik (1986), pp. 345 sqq.

^H Cf. BGH, 1980 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 1452 (1453) and LG Freiburg, 1977 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 340.

⁶¹ BGHZ 63, 306 sqq.

® Horst Heinrich Jakobs, "Die 2ahnarztliche Behandlung als Werkleistung", 1975 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 1437 sqq.

⁶⁽¹ Cf. e.g. Horst Heinrich Jakobs, "Der Architekten vertrag im Verhältnis zum Dienst-und Werkvertragsrecht", in: Beiträge zum Zivil- und Wirtschaftsrecht, Festschrift für Kurt Ballerstedt (1975), pp. 355 sqq.

^{^[1994]} Cf. infra, pp. 576 sqq.

® Neither Roman law nor the ius commune knew such special remedies. The conductor had to produce the work lege artis and according to the specifications laid down in the contract (cf. e.g. Pothier, Traite du contrat de louage, n. 419: he was under an obligation "de faire bien I'ouvrage"). If the work was defective, the customer could bring the actio locati: the conductor had not (properly) fulfilled his obligation. According to the BGB, the customer may, first of all, demand removal of the defect. In the second place, he may either cancel the

^{^[1996]} Smit Μ. Workmen's Compensation Commissioner 1979 (11 SA 51 (Al at 61 sqq.. esp. 64A-68B.

⁷¹ For a detailed discussion, see Gerald Weber. Die Unterscheidung von Dienstvertrag und Werkvertrag (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Mimchen, 1977).

D. 19, 2, 25, 7. On this text cf., most recently, Rolf Kniitel, "Die Haftung fur Hilfspersonen im romischen Recht", (1983) 100 ZSS 419 sqq.

¹⁵ Columns were very valuable and had to be handled with great care. In Rome whole columns rather than tambours were normally used and one can easily imagine that their transportation threw up problems and required special skills. For details cf. Vitruvius, De architectura, Lib. X, 2, §11, and Kniitel, (1983) 100 ZSS 420 sq.; also Story. Bailments, §432.

^{^[2000]} But see also Ulp. D. 45. 1. 38. 21; Ulp. D. 46. 3. 31. Cf. further Glück, vol. 17. p. 317; Maycr-Maly, Locaiio conductio, pp. 27 sqq. In modern civil-law systems the conductor is, as a rule, permitted to employ servants; sub-contracting is deemed to have been authorized by

the customer if the contract or the nature of the relationship so permits. For a comparative analysis, see Lorenz, op. cit., note 58, nn. 26 sqq. Artists, for instance, may often have to perform in person, even where that is not expressly stipulated (as it was in the case of

Albrecht Diirer, who undertook to paint the middle section of the Heller altarpiece himself,

"and no other human being than myself shall paint one stroke of it": Rudolf Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law (1918), p. 555).

For the inherent limitation of imperitia liability, Jones, Bailments, p. 99, gives the following example (borrowed from Muhammadan law): "A man who had a disorder in his eyes, called on a farrier for a remedy; and he applied to them a medicine commonly used for his patients: the man lost his sight, and brought an action for damages; but the judge said, No action lies, for, if the complainant had not himself been an ass, he would never have employed a farrier'." This example had already been discussed by Pufendorf, Dejure naturae el gentium. Lib. V, Cap. V, 3, and was also taken up by Story, Bailments. § 435 (who referred to Inst. Ill, 15, 3 as a basis for the argument that liability ought not to be imposed in cases such as these).

⁷⁴Cels./Ulp. D. 19, 2, 9, 5.

Ulp. D. 19, 2, 13, 5; cf. also Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 29. On these texts cf. recently Peter Birks, "Other Man's Meat: Aquilian Liability for Proper User", (1981) 16 The Irish Jurist 163 sqq. (D. 9, 2, Tl, 29) and 169 sqq. (D. 19, 2, 13, 5).

^a Cels./Ulp. D. 19, 2, 9, 5.

^{^[2005]} On imperitia cf. further Arangio-Ruiz, Responsabilitd, pp. 188 sqq.; Cannata, Colpa, pp. 131 sqq., 241 sqq.; Behrends, op. cit., note 14, pp. 145 sqq. Pothier, Traite du contrat de

louage, nn. 425 sq.; Coing, p. 460. Pothier, as usual, has had his impact on English law; in particular, courts and writers have drawn inspiration from the civil-law maxim "spondet peritiam artis—imperitia culpae adnumeratur": cf. Harmer v. Cornelius (1858) 5 CB (NS) 236 at 246 (per Willes J); cf. further Lorenz, op. cit., note 58, nn. 86 sqq. Cf. also Story, Bailments, §§ 428, 431.

^s Gai. III. 205. " Ulp. D. 47. 2. 12 pr.

^{^[2008]} Cf. e.g. "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II. p. 16. For a detailed discussion of liability for

persons employed in performing an obligation, see Karl Spiro, Die Haftung fur ErfjiUungsgehilfen (1984).

® Cf! particularly Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 186 sqq.; Emilio Betti, "Zum Problem der Gefahrtragung bei zweiseitig vcrplichtendcn Vertragen", (1965) 82 ZSS 13 sqq.; Alzon, (1966) 12 Labeo 324 sqq.; Rohle, (1986) 34 SDHI 203 sqq.; Cannata, Colpa, pp. 219 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas. "Reflections on Building Contracts", (1971) 18 RIDA 680 sqq.; Molnar, ANRW, op. cit., note 6, pp. 651 sqq.; Felix Wubbe, "Labeo zur Gefahrtragung im Bauvertrag", in: L'homme dans son environment—Mensch und Umwelt, Festgabe der rechts-, wirtschafts-, und sozialivissenschaftlichem Fakultät der Universität Freiburg zum Schweizerischen Juristentag (1980), pp. 131 sqq.; idem, (1982) 50 TR 247 sq. Generally on the passing of risk in contracts for work and on the different meanings of risk in this context, see Lorenz, op. cit.. note 58, nn. 124.

^D. 19, 2, 62. Cf. also Lab. D. 14. 2, 10 pr.

^{^[2012]} But see Cannata. Colpa. pp. 216 sqq.; Wubbc. Festgabe Schiveizerischer Juristentag, op. cit., note 97, pp. 131 sqq.

^{1 10} (1867) LR 2 CP 651 at 660 (per Blackbum J).

ⁿ Occasionally the conductor became owner of what was handed over to him for the purposes of opus faciendum. Take Alf. D. 19, 2, 31, where grain was shot by several customers into one heap in Saufeius's vessel. Saufeius was to transport the grain. At the first port at which the ship called, one of the customers received back his share of the grain. In the course of the subsequent journey the vessel sank ("navis perierat": i.e. due to vis maior). The only thing that seems to be reasonably clear from Alf. D. 19, 2, 31 is that the contract was treated as one of locatio conductio operis. In later times, it became known as locatio conductio operis irregularis; for details, see Glück, vol. 17, pp. 424 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 401, n. 12; Nikolaus Benke, "Zum Eigentumserwerb des Unternehmers bei der 'locatio conductio irregularis"¹, (1987) 104 ZSS 156 sqq. (according to whom the distinction between locatio conductio regularis and irregularis was introduced by Lauterbach in his Collegium theoretico-practicum). Most of what has been written on this type of contract is based on speculation. One of the main problems with the Alfenus fragment is that it does not deal with the actio locati, but with an actio oneris aversi (of which, in turn, we do not know anything else). Cf. e.g. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio. pp. 34 sqq.; Francesco Μ. de Robertis, "D. 19, 2, 31 et il regime dei trasporti marittimi nell' ultima eta repubblicana", (1965) 31 SDHITl sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 106 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Trasporto marittimo, locazione ed 'actio oneris aversi'", in: (1968) 1 Antotogia Giuridica Romanistica ed Antiquaria 223 sqq.; Rohle, (1968) 34 SDHI219 sq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 571 sq. and, most recently, Benke, (1987) 104 ZSS 156 sqq., 191 sqq.

^{^[2015]} For a slightly different consideration cf. Gltick. vol. 17. p. 439: the conductor can be required to provide only what the locator would have obtained had he done the work himself (or let it out to another conductor).

"° For details, see Hans Hermann Seiler, in: Erman, Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (7th ed., 1981), vol. I. § 645, nn. 2 sqq.

^{^[2017]} Walter Erman, "Der Spharengedanke ah Gesichtspunkt fur die Verteilung der Preisgefahr beim Werkvertrag", 1965 Juristenzeitutig 657 sqq.

^{^[2018]} H.U. Kantorowicz, Bractonia» Problems (1941), p. 126.

^{^[2019]} On this subject, more generally, see Theo Mayer-Maly, "Die Wiederkehr von Rechtsfiguren", 1971 Juristenzeitung 1 sqq.

^{^[2020]} Cf. § 640 I BGB ("The customer is bound to accept the work completed according to the contract, unless this is impossible by reason of the nature of the work"). On the significance of adprobatio operis in modern German law, cf. Horst Heinrich Jakobs, "Die Abnahme beim Werkvertrag", (1983) 183 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 145 sqq.

^1B Cf. e.g. BGHZ 48. 257 (2621; 50. 160 (1621'.

^{^[2022]} Cf. e.g. Susan D. Martin. "A Reconsideration of probatio operis". (19861 103 ZSS 321 sqq. She advances the interesting argument that probatio operis with regard to building contracts had a similar function to liability for imperitia in other types of locatio conductio operis. On probatio operis in Roman law cf. particularly Richard Samter, (1905) 26 ZSS 125 sqq.; Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 187 sq.; Thomas, (1971) 81 RID A 679 sqq.; Cannata, Colpa, pp. 193 sqq.; and the study by Martin.

^{^[2023]} Matthias Pietsch, Die Abnahme itn Werkvertragsrecht—Geschichtlirtie Entwicklung und geltendes Recht (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Hamburg, 1976), pp. 37 sqq.

^{^[2024]} lav. D. 19, 2, 51, 1; d. also Lab. D. 19, 2, 62; lav. D. 19, 2, 37.

^{^[2025]} D. 19, 2, 24 pr.; cf. also Lab. D. 19, 2, 60, 3.

¹²³ Pietsch, op. cit., note 117, pp. 18 sq., 152 sqq., 220 sqq.; this suggestion has been followed e.g. by Seller, op. cit., note 110, § 645, n. 6.

^Q Flor. D. 19, 2, 36.

^{^[2028]} Cf. e.g. Cannata, Coipa, pp. 204, 207 sqq.; Thomas, (1971) 18 RIDA 688. The conductor continued to be liable only in the case of fraudulent behaviour: "... quibus conscquens cst, ut irrita sit adprobatio dolo conductoris facta, ut ex locato agi possit" (Paul. D. 19, 2, 24 pr. in fine).

^{^[2029]} Flor. D. 19, 2,36. Mayer-Maly, Locatio conductio, pp. 40 sq.; Kaser, (1957) 74 ZSS 187

sq._; Cannata, Coipa, pp. 209 sqq.; Rohle, (1968) 103 ZSS 327 sqq.; Thomas, (1971) 18 RIDA 677 sqq., 685 sq.; Martin, (1986) 103 ZSS 327 sqq.

⁰¹ D. 19, 2, 51, 1. On this text, see, e.g. Cannata, Coipa, pp. 211 sqq.; Thomas, (1971) \8RIDA 678sq.;Molnar, ANRW, op. cit., note 6, pp. 655 sq.; Martin, (1986) 103 ZSS 330 sqq-

“ lav. D. 19. 2. 51. 1.

“ § 631 II BGB.

[2033]

Cf. e.g. Seller, op. cit., note 110. Vor § 631, n. 1.

'~^M For details cf. Jean Rouge, Recherches sur ['organisation du commerce maritime en

mediterranee sous {'empire remain (1966), pp. 459 sqq.; A.J.M. Meyer-Tcrmeer, Die Haftung der Schiffer im griechischen und romischen Recht (1978), pp. 147 sqq.; De Martino, Wirt schaj is geschieht e, pp. 151 sqq.

¹²⁴ Cf. e.g. Meyer-Termcer, op. cit., note 128, pp. 148 sqq.; De Martino, Wirtschaftsge

schichte, pp. 366 sqq.

^{^[2039]} De Martino, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, pp. 357 sq. On the trade with India and China cf. Albrecht Dihle, John Ferguson and Manfred G. Raschke, in: ANRW, vol. II, 9 (1978), pp. 546 sqq., 581 sqq., 604 sqq.; Lionel Casson, Ancient Trade and Society (1984), pp. 182 sqq.

^H For details, cf. e.g. De Martino, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, pp. 365 sqq.; Russell Meiggs, Roman Ostia (2nd ed., 1973), pp. 149 sqq., 159.

^{^[2040]} Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 14. 1. 1. 12.

^{^[2041]} Cf. supra, p. 182.

“ Cf. supra, p. 184. note 191.

^13D On the position and the duties of the magister navis cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 14. 1. 1. 1-5; on the management of a ship generally and on the role of dominus navis, excrcitor. magister navis and gubernator. see Meyer-Termeer. op. cit.. note 128. pp. 150 sqq.; Rouge, op. cit.. note 128. pp. 213 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "juridical Aspects of Carriage by Sea and Warehousing in Roman Law", in: (19741 32 Recueils de la Societe Jean Bodin pour I'Histoire Comparative des Institutions 124 sq.

' For a well-known example of this practice cf. St. Paul's dangerous voyage towards Rome, as recounted in Ada Apostolorum, 27.

¹³⁷ Christian Wolff. Jus Naturae, Pars VI. Cap. IV. § 621.

^{^[2044]} Leyser. Meditationes ad Pandectas, Sp. CLX.

“ Paul. D. 14. 2. 1.

³⁰ Cf. e.g. Story. Bailments, § 583; Lowndes and Rudolf. General Average and York Antwerp Rules (10th ed.. 19751.

³¹ For details cf. §§ 700 sqq. HGB; Philipp Heck. Das Recht der grossen Haverei (18891.

³¹ On the origin of the words Ha^Aein/average cf. e.g. H. Kellenbenz. HRG vol. 2. col. 2 (from the Arabic word awdr (damaged cargoll and Lowndes and Rudolf, op. cit.. note 140. pp. 11 sq. (from the Italian avere, the having of propertyl.

¹⁴³ Cf. e.g. Rouge, op. cit.. note 128. pp. 407 sqq. and. on a compilation of the 8th century A.D. and its influence in medieval law, Walter Ashburner, The Rhodian Sea-Law, 1909. Cf. also T.E. Donges, The Liability for Safe Carriage of Goods in Roman-Dutch Law (1928), PP- 1S q q ■

Hans Kreller, "Lex Rhodia. Untersuchungen zur Quell en geschichte des romischen Sccrcchtes"', (1921) 85 ZHR 337 sqq.

^{^[2049]} Paul. D. 14, 2, 2 pr. ("... aequissimum enim est commune detrimentum fieri corum,

qui propter amissas res aliorum consecuti sunt, ut merces suas salvas haberent").

¹⁴¹ Franz Wieacker, "laetus in tributum nave salva venit (D. 14, 2, 4 pr.). Exegescn zur

Lex Rhodia de iactu", in: Studi in memoria di Emilio Albertario, vol. i (1953), pp. 513 sqq.; Francesco M. de Robertis, "Lex Rhodia, Critica e anticritica su D. 14, 2, 9", in: Studi in onore

di Vincenzo Aranqio-Ruiz, vol. Ill (1953), pp. 155 sqq.; Thomas (1974) 32 Recueih Jean Bodin

152,155.

^{^[2055]} Depending on the object of transportation, it was locatio conductio rerum vehendarum or vectorum vehendorum. Alternatively, the contract could be locatio conductio rei (the hiring of space on the ship). In this case, a duty to carry out transportation was created only if the parties had added a special agreement to that effect. For details cf. Meyer-Termeer, op. cit., note 128, pp. 177 sqq.;J. A.C. Thomas. "Carriage by Sea", (1960) 7 RIDA 496 sq.; idem, (1974) 32 Recueih Jean Bodin 119 sqq.

^{^[2056]} Or he could induce the other consignors to make their payment by withholding their goods; on this ius retentionis cf. Paul. D. 14, 2, 2 pr. According to Wieacker, Studi Albertario, vol. I, pp. 516 sq., this was the primary way of effecting the contribution: the ship's master availed himself of the ius retentionis ex iure tertiorum (i.e. the other consignors who have to receive their contribution from the cargo saved).

¹⁴⁵ Cf. Paul. D. 14, 2, 2 pr.; Wieacker, Studi Albertario, vol. I, p. 516; Kaser, RPrl, p. 572; Thomas, (1974) 32 Recueih Jean Bodin 152 sqq.; idem, TRL, p. 300.

^{^[2057]} Johann Schilter, Praxis juris Romani, Exercitatio ad Pandectas XXVII, §§ XXVI sq.

“ On the nave salva requirement cf. Kreller. (1921") 85 ZHR 288 sqq.: Wieacker. Studi Albertario, vol. I. pp. 515 sqq. Today cf. §§ 700. 703 HGB (and Heck. op. cit.. note 141. p. 600"). Proof of causation (that iactus saved the ship") does not seem to have been required (cf.. however. § 703 HBG and Wieacker. Studi Albertario, vol. I. pp. 530 sq.l.

^B Answer: yes: cf. Call. D. 14. 2. 4. 1. After all. the iactus has saved the remaining cargo: otherwise the ship would never have reached the point, where the water was shallow enough for the cargo to be saved by the divers: cf. Wieacker. Studi Albertario, vol. I. pp. 523 sqq.. 531 sq.

^E Paul. D. 14. 2. 2. 2.

¹³⁹ This is how Baldus describes the relevant situations (Commentaria, Vcneths. 1586. ad D. 14, 2, 2). Cf. also e.g. Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-practicum. Lib. XIV, Tit. II, XIV; Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. CLX. Contra, for example, Voet, Commentarius ad Pcmdectas, Tit. XIV, Cap. II, XVIII; cf. also Gluck, vol. 14, pp. 234 sqq.

^№ For a contrary view cf. e.g. Cuiacius, "Commentarii in Lib. XXXIV Pauli ad Edictum" (in: Opera Omnia, vol. v. (Mutinae, Mil), col. 518 sqq.).

^{^[2060]} Modestinus Pistoris, Consilia sive responsa, vol. I, Cons. XVI, n. 19.

^Iffi Brunnemann, Commentarius in Pandectas, Lib. XIV, Tit. II, ad L. Si laborante 2 pr.

¹⁶¹ Cf. Gluck, vol. 14, pp. 232 sq.

¹⁶⁵ Cf. supra notes 138, 158, 159.

¹⁰⁵ § 1043, 1 ABGB. For the history of this provision cf. Wesener, Festschrift Barmann,

pp. 45 sqq. For a comparison with § 904 BGB (emergency) cf. Andreas Hatzung,

Dogmengeschichtliche Grundlagen und Entstehung des zivilrechtlichen Notstands (1984), pp. 52 sqq.

^{^[2067]} Cf. H. Kellenbcnz, "Haverei", in: HRC, vol. 2, col. 2 sqq.; Going, pp. 554 sq.; Gotz Landwehr, Die Haverei in den mittelalterlichen deutschen Seerechtsquellen (1985), passim. For an "intelligent and exhaustive" treatment of "one whose country was in its golden century the maritime leader of the world" (Percival Gane, The Selective Voet. vol. ПІ (1956), p. 76), cf. Johannes Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XIV, Tit. П (dealing e.g. with the community of property in food and drink which ought to exist among stranded castaways in order to protect them against the horrors of cannibalism).

'“⁸ A collection of customary rules dealing, originally, with the transportion by sea of wine from the ports of Bordeaux and La Rochelle. The Roles have played a central part in the formation of the sea law in north-western Europe. Cf. H. Kellenbenz, HRG, vol. 3, col. 1240 sqq.

^{^[2069]} Gotz Landwehr, "Die Hanseatischen Seerechte des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts", in: 1667 drs siolag і ett 300-drigt perspektiv (1984), pp. 75 sqq.; on "grosse Haverei" cf. pp. 103 sqq.

° §§ ¹⁷⁶⁶ H ⁸; based on the Prussian Sea Law of 1727; cf. Gotz Landwehr, "Das Preussische Seerecht vom jähre 1727 im Rahmen der europäischen Rechtsentwicklung", (1986) 8 ZSR 132 sqq. For the first general definition of "grosse Haverei⁷' cf. Quintijn Weijtsen, Tractaet van 't Recht der Nederlantsche Avaryen (1651), § 17: "Waer by men sonde mogen infereren, dat de schaden, die men gewillighlijk ende voluntairement doet aen 't Schip ofte Goeden, om meerder apparenter hinder te beschütten, souden moeten gerekent werden voor Avarye grosse." Vinnius, in his notes on Peckius. In Till. Dig. et Cod. ad rem nauticam pertinentes Commentary і (1647), pp. 193, 206, writes: "Duae res concurrere debent, ut actio hujus contributionis nomine competat: 1, jactura rerum ex una parte, 2. conservatio rerum ex parte altra." On that basis he defines: "Avaria grossa vel grandis est, cum quaedam merces jaciuntur in mare levandae laborantis navis gratia, aut armamenta navis, malus, anchorae, rudentes, communis periculi removendi, causa dejiciuntur vel caeduntur voluntate navigantium, atque hoc damnum contribmionc omnium atque ipsius etiam nautae resarciatur." Dogmatically, the duty to contribute was by now usually based on "navalis societas" or a "societas et communio tacita". Cf. further e.g. Landwehr, (1986) 8 ZNR pp. 138 sqq.

Cf. e.g. W. Senior, Doctors' Commons and the Old Court of Admiralty (1922); Brian P. Levack, The Civil Lawyers in England 1603-1641 (1973); Daniel R. Coquillette, "Legal Ideology and Incorporation I: The English Civilian Writers, 1522-1607". (1981) 61 Boston University LR 1 sqq.

^{^[2072]} On these cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 11. 6. 1 pr.; Antoine Bernard. La Remuneration des Professions Liberates en Droil Romain Classique (1936), pp. 103 sqq. and Karoly Visky, Geistige Arbeit und die "artes lihetales" in den Quellen des romischen Rechts (1977), pp. 39 sqq.

^{^[2073]} Visky, op. cit., note 1, pp. 95 sqq.

^J Cf. supra, p. 390, note 34.

^{^[2075]} Paul. D. 17, 1, 1 pr.: "Obligatio mandati consensu contrahentium consistit." Convenient consequence: "Ideo per nuntium quoque vcl per epistulani mandatum suscipi potest." For details, see Watson, Mandate, pp. 61 sqq.

^{^[2076]} Paul. D. 17. 1. 1. 4. Cf. further Gai. IU, 162; lav. D. 17. 1. 36. 1; Watson. Mandate. pp. 102 sqq.; Michel, Gratuite, pp. 185 sqq.

^{^[2077]} Inst. III. 26. 13.

413

^{^[2078]} Lend, EP, pp. 295 sq. On the obligations of the mandatary cf. Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, // mandate in diritto romano (1949), pp. 159 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 178 sqq.

^K Particularly, the mandatarius was not allowed to exceed the terms of the mandate (fines mandati). If he did, he was liable to the mandator under the actio mandati, but was himself not able to sue the mandator for reimbursement of his expenses (actio mandati contraria). There was, however, a school dispute as to how far this principle should be carried. A commissions B to purchase a farm for not more than 100, but B buys it for 150. B is prepared to transfer the farm to A for 100; can he force A to accept it? No, according to the rigid approach of the Sabimans (Gai. HI, 161); yes, according to the interpretatio benignior of the Proculians (favoured by Justinian and the writers in later centuries—cf. e.g. GLiick, vol. 15, pp. 273 sqq.). Justinian relates the dispute in the following terms (III, 26, 8): "Is qui exsequitur mandatum non debet excedere fines mandati. ut ecce si quis usque ad centum aureos mandaverit tibi, ut fundum emeres..., [non] pluris emere debes...; alioquin non habebis cum eo mandati actionem: adeo quidem, ut Sabino et Cassio placuerit, etiam si usque ad centum aureos cum eo agere velis, inutiliter te acturum, diversae scholae auctores recte te usque ad centum aureos acturum existimant: quae sententia sane benignior est." There is much dispute, today, about what the prevailing view in classical law was and how certain other texts dealing with this problem (esp. Paul. D. 17, 1, 3-5; Gai. D. 17, 1, 41) ought to be understood; cf. Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 7, pp. 168 sqq.; Fritz Pringsheim, "Noch einmal Gai. 3, 161 und Inst. Just. 3. 26. 8", (1955) 72 ZSS 54 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 185 sqq.; Paul van Warmelo, "Wanneer die Lashebber sy Opdrag tc buite gaan", 1964 Acta Juridica 1 sqq.; F.B.J. Wubbe, "Benignus redivivus", in: Symbolae iuridicae et historicae Martina David dedicatae, vol. I (1968), pp. 246 sqq.

^{^[2080]} Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 17, 1, 10, 6; Ulp. D. 17, 1, 8, 3; Paul. D. 17, 1, 20 pr.

^D Ulp. D. 17, 1, 12, 9; Pap. D. 17, 1, 56, 4; Gai. D. 17. 1, 27, 4; Cels. D. 17, 1, 50, 1; Watson, Mandate, pp. 154 sqq.; cf. also Bernardo Albanese, "Judicium contrarium' e

'ignominia' nel mandato", (1970) 21 lura 1 sqq. The test for the recoverability of expenses was not whether the mandator had actually benefited but whether the mandatarius had incurred th:m bona fide as a result of the mandate. Cf. today § 670 BGB ("... which he mav regard as necessary under the circumstances").

¹ Cf. irAa, pp. 430 sq.

^E Lenel, EP, pp. 295 sq.

^B But see Guido Donatuti, "Contributi alia teoria del mandato in diritto romano, II. La volontadel mandante", in: Studi di diritto romano, vol. I (1976), pp. 351 sqq.; but see Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 7. pp. 87 sqq.; cf. also Fritz Schwarz, "Die Kontrarklagen", (1954) 71 ZSS 171 sqq., 218 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 579.

⁴ Paul. D. 17, 1, 1. 4. Cf. also Cicero, Pro Sexto Roscio Amerino oratio, XXXVIII—111 sqq. and, generally, Schulz, Principles, pp. 223 sqq.

■ "Gratiam vero referre, ec gratuitam operam remunerare amicitiae non est contrarium, sed bene convenit" (Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practiatm. Lib. XVII. Tit. I, XIV).

^{^[2087]} For parallels in the case of loan transactions (mutuum was also, nominally, a gratuitous transaction!), cf. Alfons Btirge, "Vertrag und personale Abhängigkeiten im Rom der spaten Republik und der frühen Kaiserzdt", (1980) 97 ZSS 122 sqq.

" Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 11, 6, 1 pr.

^IH Cf. Michel, Gratuite, pp. 279 sq.

^{^[2090]} Cf. e.g. Visky, op. eit., note 1, pp. 60 sqq.

²³ Michel, Gratuite, pp. 187 sq., 198 sqq.

²¹ Michel. Gratuite, p. 192.

^{^[2092]} Plimus Sccundus. Historia naturalise Lib. XXXI. 41. 89.

^2,1 Cf. e.g. Walter Hatto Gross, in: Kleiner Pauly, vol. IV. col. 1528 sq.

-⁷ Plinius Secundus. loc. cit. As to the meaning of "mola salsa". c{. e.g. Konrat Ziegler, in: Kleiner Pauty, vol. Ill. col. 1398: it was customary to strew a mixture of coarsely ground meal and salt over victims.

Cf. e.g. Mommsen. Romisches Staatsrecht, vol. I. pp. 300 sqq. This salarium succeeded the earlier vasarium. a lump sum which the Roman officials had received to cover the costs of outfit and equipment (derived from vasa, baggage); cf. Hans Gartner, in: Kleiner Partly, vol. V, col. 1141.

³ Cassius Dio. Historia Romana, LXXIX. 22. 5.

²⁰ Arangio-Ruiz. op. at., note 7. pp. 114 sqq.: Watson. Mandate, pp. 103 sqq.: Michel. Gratuite, pp. 192 sq.

■ Cf. the literature quoted supra, p. 53, note 138; on the relationship between mandatum and procuratio cf. also Watson, Mandate, pp. 36 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPr 11. pp. 100 sq. From the late Republic onwards, independent procurators of higher social standing made themselves available to look after the interests of their friends. They, too, acted under a mandate: Okko Behrends, "Die Prokuratur des klassischen romischen Zivilrechts", (1971) 88 ZSS 247 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 101.

^{^[2100]} Cf., apart from C 4, 35, 1, Pap. D. 17, 1, 7.

^{^[2101]} Philosophers and 'Turis professores", incidentally, remained excluded; the latter tor the following reason: "est quidem res sanctissima civilis sapientia, sed quae pretio nummario non sit aestimanda nee dehonestanda" (Ulp. D. 50, 13, 1, 5; tor an analysis, ct. Dieter Norr, "lurispentus sacerdos", in: EENION, Festschrift fur Pan. j. Zepos, vol. I (1973), pp. 555 sqq.

Claudius fixed a maximum limit of 10 000 sesterces; cf. also e.g. C. 7, 72 of Diocletian's edictum de pretiis renun venalium (Siegfried Lauffer (ed.), Diokletians Pteisedikt (1971), p, 124); for further details about lawyers' fees cf. Ulp. D. 50, 13, 1, 9 sqq.; Paul. D. 19, 2, 38, 1; Michel, Grattiite, pp. 215 scjq.; Visky, op. cit., note 1, pp. 60 sqq. A pactum de quota litis was inadmissible: Ulp. D. 50, 13, 1, 12; Ulp. D. 17, 1, 6. 7; Pap. D. 17, 1, 7.

^{^[2103]} Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 7, pp. 117 sq., who consequently suspects interpolation.

^{^[2104]} Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 15, p. 286; Watson, Mandate, pp. 110 sqq.

³⁸ Cf. infra, pp. 534 sq. ^w Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 285 sqq.

^{^[2106]}Vinnius, Intitutiones. Lib. III. Tit. XXVII, 13, n. 1.

⁴ lacobus Gothofredus, Tractatus novus et practkus de salario (Gcnevae, 1666), Cap. I, III.

^{^[2108]} For details cf, D.J. joubcrt, "Die kontraktuele verhouding tussen professionele man en klient", 1970 Actajliridica 15 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Pothier, Tratte du contrat de mandat, n. 23; also Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. II, § 115 in fine.

* Tratte du contrat de mandat, n. 23 (quoted from a translation by B.G Rogers (ed.) (Lex Patria, 1979)).

Pothier says: "pour hit donner unefaibie marque de ma reconnaissance".

Pothier, Tratte du contrat de mandat, n. 26.

^{^[2113]} "Spitsvondighede", according to De Wet en Yeats, p. 341.

^4H Cf. e.g. Lauterbach, Collegium (heoretico-practicum. Lib. XVII, Tic. I, XV; Stryk, Vsus modernus pandectarum, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, § 18.

^4y Johann Gottlieb Heineccius, "Elements Juris Germanici" (in: Opera omnia (Genevae, 1748)), Lib. II, § CCCLXXXH.

f Glück, vol. 15, p. 322; "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 295.

³ Problem: was the honorarium then not really tantamount to merces? Why stilt maintain a distinction between operae liberales (contractual regime: mandatum) and other operae (locatio conductio)? A statement such as "[Die operae liberales werdetij nicht bezahlt, sondern hanorirt” (Demburg, Pandekten, vol. II, § 115 in fine) sounds like a petitio principii. Further problem: could an honorarium be charged, if it had not been expressly promised at the time of conclusion of the contract, but where the mandatary was a person who did not normally render services of the kind in question gratuitously? Cf. (in the affirmative) Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practiaim, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, XV; Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, § 18; Vinnius, Institutions*, Lib. Ill, Tit. XXVII, 13; Pothier, Trait? du contra! de mandat, nn. 24, 26. Contra e.g. Gliick, vol. 15, p. 291.

³² References in "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 295.

^s § 586 E I.

^{^[2120]} Cf. supra, p. 393; but according to § 675 BGB, many of the rules relating to mandate

are applicable, if the contract of service or for work has as its object the taking care of a

matter. For details, see Hans-Joachim Musielak, "Entgeltliche Geschaftsbesorgung", in:

Gutachten und Vorschläge zue Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. II (1981), pp. 1209 sqq.

^s "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 897 sq.

³⁵ As far as the "honoraria" of teachers are concerned, cf. § 196 I, n. 13.

⁵⁷ Cf. Gai. Ill, 162, However, where something was handed over for safekeeping without any reward being fixed, there was the more special contract of depositum: cf. Ulp. D. 16, 3, 1, 8. On this and other details relating to the object of mandatum, see Watson, Mandate, pp 78 sqq.

³³ Gai. Ill, 162.

⁵⁹Marc./Ulp. D. 17, 1, 12, 17.

® On the so-called "mandatum qualificatum", see supra, pp. 139 sqq.

^a Cf. supra, p. 133.

^{^[2128]} Cf. supra, pp. 45 sqq.

^s Cf. supra, pp. 56 sqq.

⁶¹ Supra, pp. 57 sq.

® Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 323 sqq.; Coing, p. 463.

® Gai. Ill, 157; Inst. Ill, 26, 7; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, VI; Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 254 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cic, note 7, pp. 105 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 88 sqq.

^{^[2133]} Paul. D. 17, 1, 22, 6.

® Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 7, pp. 109 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 92 sqq.

® Cf. Cels. D. 17. 1. 48. 1 and 2; but see Watson. Mandate, pp. 96 sqq.

’ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 17. 1. 59. 6; Paul. D. 17. 1. 46.

’ III. 156.

¹² III. 26. 6.

^{^[2139]} Cf. further Gai. D. 17. 1. 2. 6.

⁷¹ Vinnius. Institutiones, Lib. Ill. Tit. XXVII. 6. n. 1.

^{^[2141]} On the question whether there can be a mandatum tua gratia which is not consilium, cf. e.g. Vangerow, Pandekten, § 659. Conversely, it is arguable that not every kind of advice or recommendation should be regarded as not binding. Cf., for example, Ulp. D. 17, 1. 16 for a mandatum (in the nature of a proposal) mea et tua gratia. Furthermore, it has often been argued that a mandatum tua tantum gratia is binding, and thus provides the mandatarius with a claim against the mandator, where he would not have acted as he did but for the mandate (arg. Ulp. D. 17, 1, 6, 5: "Plane si tibi mandavero quod tua intererat, nulla erit mandati actio, nisi mea quoque interfuit: aut, si non esses facturus, nisi ego mandassem, etsi mea non interfuit, tamen erit mandati actio"; itp., cf. e.g. Watson, Mandate, p. 120): Stryk, Usus modernus pandectamm, Lib- XVII, Tit. I, §§ 8 sqq.; Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, XVI sq.; Voet, Cotnmentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, IV; Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 250 sqq. See also Windscheid/Kipp, § 412, n. 21, who, however, base the liability on a specific guarantee. Today, cf. § 676 BGB: "A person who gives advice or a recommendation to another is not bound to compensate him for any damage arising from following this advice or the recommendation, without prejudice to his responsibility resulting from a contract or delict."

* Gai. Ill. 155.

^{^[2143]} Gai. D. 17. 1. 2 pr. (taken from his Res cottidianael. Cf. also Inst. HI. 26 pr.

^m Inst. Ill, 26. 3.

^{^[2145]} Cf. supra, p. 35. note 6.

® Cf. e.g. Gai. D. 17. 1. 2. 2; Ulp. D. 17. 1. 6. 4.

^a Watson. Mandate, p. 116. Cf. further the detailed analysis of Seiler. Negotiorum gestio,

pp. 114 sqq., who confirms that it is the mandator, and not the mandatarius, whom the

classical lawyers regarded as negotiorum gestor in the case of mandata aliena tantum gratia. On the mandatum aliena gratia, see also Wieslaw Litewski, "Interesse des Auftraggebers, des Dritten und des Beauftragten", (1975) 78 BIDR 193 sqq. (227 sq.).

For the traditional argument along these lines cf. e.g. Vinnius, Institittiones, Lib. Ill, Tit. XXVII, 3; Pothier, Tratte du contrat de mandat, n. 17; Gluck, vol. 15, p. 249. Contra Watson, Mandate, pp. 116 sqq., who does not, however, present an alternative solution. ^H3 Cf. supra, pp. 35 sqq.

For examples cf. Gai. D. 17, I, 2, 3, 4 and 5; Inst. Ill, 26, 2, 4 and 5; for a discussion, see Litewski, (1975) 78 BIDR 193 sqq.

^{^[2151]} Inst. Ill, 26, 5.

⁸⁵ For details c(. supra, pp. 139 sqq.

^{^[2153]} Etymologically, "mandatum" is derived from "maims" and "dare" (cf. e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII, Tit. I, I ("Mandatum dictum a datione manus... et manus fidei signum erat."); Vinnius, Institutiones, Lib. HL Tit. XXVII pr.). In Rome, one did not shake hands as profusely as one does in modern Germany, for instance. The gesture of offering one's right hand was a most intimate sign of friendship, and was reserved for grand and important occasions. Cf. Michel, Gratuite, pp. 170 sq.; W.H. Gross, "Salutatio", in: Kleiner Pauly, vol. IV, col. 1524 sq.

⁸³ Gai. IV, 182. Was the actio mandati contrana famosa too? Cf. Fritz Schwarz, "Die Kontrarklagen", (1954) 71 ZSS 210 sqq.; Albanese, (1970) 21 lum 1 sqq.

™ Paul. D. 17. 1. 26 pr.; Gai. Ill. 160; Gai. D. 17. 1. 27. 3. For details, see Hamed A. Rabie. L'acte juridique "post mortem" en droit romain (1955"). pp. 85 sqq.; Watson. Mandate, pp. 125 sqq.; Manfred Harder, "Zum transmortalen und postmortalen Auftrag nach romischem und gelcendem Recht", in: Sein und Werden im Recht, Festgabe für USrich von Lubtow (1970), pp. 518 sqq. Today cf. § 673 BGB ("In case of doubt, a mandate is

extinguished by the death of the mandatary") and § 672 BGB ("In case of doubt a mandate is not extinguished by the death of the mandator"). The latter rule was introduced in conscious deviation from the ius commune (Windscheid/Kipp, § 411, 2), § 186 I 13 PrALR. art. 2003 code civil and § 1022 ABGB; cf. "Motive", in:" Mugdan, vol. II, p. 306; "Protokolle", in: Mugdan vol. II, pp. 954 sq. But sec Harder, Festgabe von Liibtow, pp. 529 sqq. for a reinterpretation more in line with historical precedent.

¹ Similarly, the mandate came to an end if, re integra, the mandator revoked (revocare; cf. Gai. Ill, 159) or the mandatary renounced (renuntiare; cf. Paul. Sent. II, XV, 1) the contract. The second of these propositions is, however, questionable, for a discussion, see Gltick, vol. 15, pp. 354 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 7, pp. 134 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 70 sqq.; Philippe Meylan, "Revocation et renonciation du mandat en droit romain classique", in: Studi in onore di Giuseppe Grosso, vol. I (1968), pp. 463 sqq. Cf. today § 671 BGB.

⁹ According to Harder, Festgabe von Liibtow, pp. 520 sqq.. this restriction is of post-classical origin.

^$ Watson, Mandate, p. 130.

⁵⁸ Paul. D. 17, l,26pr._;Gai. Ill, 160; Inst. Ill, 26, 10. Cf. today § 674 BGB: "If a mandate is extinguished other than by revocation, it is. nevertheless, deemed to continue in favour of the mandatary, until he knows or ought to know of its extinction."

^{^[2157]} C. 8, 37,’ 11; C 4, 11, 1.

⁵⁵ For details, see Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 7, pp. 142sqq.;J.C. van Oven, "Gaius, 3,

158: Mandatum post mortem mandantis". in: Symbolae Raphaeli Taubemchiag, vol. I (1956), pp. 529 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 133 sqq.; Harder, Festgabe von Liibtow, pp. 523 sqq.;

Kaser, RPr I. p. 578; but see Cesare Sanfilippo, "Ancora un caso di 'mandatum post mortem'?", in: Sodalitas, Scritti in onore di Antonio Guarino, vol. V (1984), pp. 2047 sqq.

^{^[2161]} Marc./Ulp. D. 17. 1. 12. 17. ’’’C.ai. III. 158.

"" Cf. supra, pp. 208 sq.

¹¹¹¹ This is conceded even by Klami, op. cit., noce 105, pp. 13 sqq.

¹ Watson, Mandate, pp. 198 sqq.

^{^[2165]} Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPr I, pp. 509 sq.

^{^[2166]} Donellus, Commentarii de Jure Civiii, Lib. XIII, Cap. XI, XI (n. 5).

^M For details of what follows, see Watson, Mandate, pp. 202 sqq.; MacCormack, (1972) \8 Labeo 158 sqq.

^B Ulp. D. 17, 1. 29 pr.

^{^[2169]} Ulp. D. 17, 1, 29, 3.

^{^[2170]} MacCormack, (1972) 18 Labeo 159.

^B D. 17, 1, 29, 3.

^raD. 17, 1, 29 pr.

^{^[2173]} Further on the liability of the fideiussor. see Ulp. D. 17. 1. 8. 8.

“ C 4. 35, 13 (Diocl. et Max.). Cf. further C 4, 35, 4 (Alex.); C. 4. 35. 9 (Diocl. et Max.); C 4, 35, 11 (Diocl. et Max.); Ulp. D. 17. 1. 10. 1.

^E Mod. Coll. X. II. 3; Paul. D. 17. 1. 26. 8.

' Ulp. D. 17, 1, 8, 10 ("... si tibi mandavi, ut hominem emeres, luque emisti, teneberis mihi, ut restituas, sed et si dolo emere neglexisti (forte enim pecunia accepta alii cessisti ut emerci) aut si lata culpa (forte si gratia ductus passus es alium emere) teneberis...").

“ Ulp. D. 50. 17. 23; Paul. D. 17. 1. 22. 11; Paul. D. 17. 1. 26. 7.

^{^[2177]} Watson. Mandate, pp. 198 sq.; Kaser. RPr II. p. 417.

¹² Cf.. for example, the glossator Martinus (according to Hoffmann. Fahrlässigkeit, p. 44); Brunnemann, Commentarius in Patidectas, Lib. XVII, ad L. Idemque. 10. pr. et L. 12. pr, nn. 1, 2. Cf. further the discussion in Gliick, vol. 15. pp. 262 sqq.

^{^[2179]} Schulz, CRL, p. 556. He refers to Pro Roscio Amerino oratio, XXXVIII —111 sqq., on

which, see Watson, Mandate, pp. 199 sqq.

® For the situation in modern South African law, cf. e.g. De Wet en Yeats, p. 341. But see art. 1992 II code civil (usually, however, ignored in the practice of the courts). Culpa levis or culpa levissima? A much-disputed question amongst the authors of the ius commune. During usus modernus and pandectism, the latter of these standards was usually advocated. For details, see Hoffmann, Fahrlassiykeit, pp. 44, 62, 95 sqq., 141 sqq., 212 sq.

^B Pothier. Tratte du contrat de mandat, n. 46.

^E Commentarii de Jure Civili, Lib. XIII. Cap. XI. XI: cf. further e.g. Windscheid/Kipp. § 410, n. 4; Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, p. 141.

^{^[2184]} As reported by Africanus in D. 47, 2, 62. 5.

^{^[2185]} The last part of Afr. D. 47, 2, 62, 5 is interpolated; here the compilers attempted to reconcile the decision with the fault principle by means of a fiction. Cf. e.g. Dietrich Norr, "Die Entwicklung des Utilitatsgedankens im romischem Haftungsrecht", (1956) 73 ZSS 95.

^{^[2186]} Cf. also Grotius, De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XII, § XIII: "ne quis... ex beneficio damnum sentiat."

^nfi Paul. D. 46. 1. 67. Sedes materiae has traditionally been taken to be Paul. D. 17. 1. 26.

6: "Non omnia quae impensurus non fuit mandatori imputabit, veluti quod spoliatus sit a

latronibus aut naufragio res amiserit vel languore suo suorumque apprehensus quaedam erogaverit: nam haec magis casibus quam mandato imputari oportet." For a discussion, see

Peter Stein, "Julian and liability for loss suffered in the execution of a contract in Roman

law", 1956 Butterworths South African LR 67 sq.; Watson, Mandate, pp. 157 sqq.; Heinrich

Honseil, "Die Risikohaftung des Geschaftsherrn", in: De iustitia et hire, Festgabe fur Ulrich von Liibtow (1980), pp. 488 sqq.

^{^[2193]} Ulp. D. 50, 17, 23 in fine.

⁰⁵ Cf. Hasse, Culpa, p. 403; Arndts, Pandeklen, § 293; Baron, Pandekten, § 306 II 2;

Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. II, § 116, 2 b; but cf. e.g. Donellus, Commentarii dejure Civili, Lib. XIII, Cap. XII, XV; Gliick, vol. 15, pp. 307 sqq.

^№ But see the comment in "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 302; "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 951 sqq.

Gl. Mandato ad D. 17, 1, 26, 6; contra e. g. Bartolus, Contmentaria, ad lib. XVI Digest.: "Vult glossa dicere, quod iste § de aequitate non debet servari: quia aequitas rigon praefertur... quod non est verum hie: cum rigor iuris huius § sit scriptus, et ideo tenendus, licet duritiam contineat: non obstante aequitate, quia non est scripta." ¹⁴¹ Tractatus de legibus abrogatis. Lib. XVII, Tit. I, 1. 26, 6.

^IL Cotmnentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII. Tit. I. XIII.

“ Lib. XVII. Tic. I. 26. 6 (vol. IV. Gencvae. 16261.

¹¹¹ De jure naturae et gentium, Lib. V. Cap. IV. § 4.

¹⁵ § 1014 ABGB. Cf. also Windscheid/Kipp. § 410. 2.

¹⁴¹¹ Trails du central de mandat, nn. 74 sq.

¹⁴⁷ Art. 2000 code civil provides for the recovery of damages which arose a {'occasion de la yesdon. Perhaps, this is not based on a mistaken analysis of Pothier, buc on Domat, Les loix \iviles. Liv. I, Tit. XV, Sec. II, VI. Cf. also Going, p. 463.

^14H Cf. e.g. Honsell, Festgabe von Liibtow, pp. 495 sqq.

^{^[2200]} Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, "Risikohaftung bei schadensgeneigter Tätigkeit in fremdem

Interesse", 1966 Recht der Arbeit 41 sqq.; Klaus Genius, "Risikohaftung des Gcschaftsherm",

(19731 173 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 481 sqq.

^H May the dominus negotii, by way of ratification (ratihabitio), transform what was originally (or might have been) negotiorum gestio into a contract of mandatum? In post- classical andjustinianic times, it was evidently thought that he could. Cf, most clearly, Ulp. D. 46, 3, 12, 4 ("... rati enim habitio mandato comparator"); Ulp. D. 50, 17, 60: "Semper qui non prohibet pro se intervenire, mandare creditur, sed et si quis ratum habuent quod gestum est, obstringitur mandati actione" (both texts itp.). Ratihabitio, in other words, provides the basis for a (fictitious) consent. In classical Roman law, however, ratihabitio was not of much significance. More particularly, for the granting of the actio negotiorum gestorum contraria it did not matter whether the principal had subsequently approved the transaction; what mattered was whether the gestio had been "utiliter", Ratihabitio could, however, limit the gestor's liability where negotium had been "male gestum" (Pomp./Scacv. D. 3, 5, 8); in certain other instances it could have the effect of bringing into existence a relationship of negotiorum gestio (esp.: collection of debts owing to the principal; C 2, 18, 9: "Si pecuniam a debitore tuo lulianus exegit eamque solutionem ratam habuisti, habes adversus eum negotiorum gestorum actionem" (Ant.)), but never of mandatum (for all details, see Seller, Negotiorum Gestio. pp. 61 sqq.). Confusion in the sources, as usual, created confusion amongst the writers of the ius commune. Some related ratihabitio to mandatum, others to negotiorum gestio, and there were even those who abandoned the mutual exclusivity of both these institutions and maintained elective concurrence of the actions arising from mandatum and negotiorum gestio as a consequence of ratihabitio. Cf. Gluck, vol. 5, pp. 333 sqq.; Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio. pp. 20 sq.

^{^[2204]} On Negotiorum gestio and quasi-contract generally, see Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 11 sqq.

^D Inst, fil, 27.

¹ Cf. supra, pp. 20 sq. The same tendency is already apparent in post-classical, Byzantine law. Thus, the establishment of a duty, on the part of the principal, to ratify the actions of the gestor is an attempt to assimilate negotiorum gestio and contract. Cf. also Ulp. D. 50, 17. 60 (first sentence).

Cf, for example, Ruhstrat, "Beitrage zur Lehre von der Negotiorum Gestio", (1849) 32 Archiv fur die civitistische Praxis 184 sqq.

- Cf. the discussion in Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 44 sqq. Thus, for instance, the requirement that the gestor must have acted in accordance with the interest and the actual or presumptive wishes of the principal, which § 683 BGB Says down for the actio negotiorum gestorum contraria, has very often been promoted to a general requirement for negotiorum gestio. Critical (apart from Wollschlager) also, for example, Seller, in: MUnchener Kommentar, op. cit., note 3, § 677, n. 43.

^{^[2209]} This is also emphasized, for instance, by Schulz, CRL, p. 624; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 1 sqq., 24 sqq.

^b Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 332 sqq.; Kastr, RPr II, pp. 417 sq.

^{^[2211]} As to Roman-Dutch and South Africa law, cf. Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, p. 8 ("...except to a very limited extent, the South African law of negotiorum gestio is the same as that recognized by the law of Justinian"). On negotiorum gestio in Louisiana, seeJ.M. Solis, "Management of the Affairs of Another", (1961-62) 36 Tulane LR 108 sqq.

^L De jure belli ac pads, Lib. II, Cap. X, 9.

^{^[2213]} § 228 I 13 PrALR; § 1035 ABGB. French law. on the other hand, recognizes the negotiorum gestio; cf. artt. 1372 sqq. code civil and Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 31 sqq.

Cf. e.g. John P. Dawson, Unjust Enrichment (1951), pp. 139 sqq.; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, n. 17.

^{^[2215]} John P. Dawson, "Negotiorum gestio; The Altruistic Intermeddler", (1961) 74 Harvard LR817.

² D. 50, 17, 36. ^Z2 Schulz, Principles, pp. 140 sqq. ²¹ Schulz, Principles, p. 140.

~⁴ Schulz, Principles, p. 238 even maintains that " 'Roman individualism' is nothing but a legend".

^{^[2216]} Cf. e.g. Schulz, Principles, pp. 189 sqq., 223 sqq.; Wieacker, Vom romischen Recht. pp. 14 sqq.; more specifically for negotiorum gestio: Theo Mayer-Maly, "Probleme der

negotiorum gestio", (1969) 86 ZSS 420 sqq.

^aCf. supra, e.g. pp. 115, 119, 131.

²⁷ Schulz, CRL. p. 624.

^{^[2220]}Ulp. D. 3, 5. 1.

Moritz Wlassak. Zur Geschichte der negotiorum gestio (18791. pp. 39 sqq.; Seller. Negotiorum gestio, pp. 2 sq., 11 sq., 38 sq.; 47 sq.

* lul. D. 5, 1, 74, 2; Pap. D. 3, 5, 30, 2; Pap. D. 3, 5, 30, 7; Paul. D. 3, 5, 40 ct al. The gestor «was thus avoiding missio in bona and, as its consequence, infamia.

³ lav./Lab. D. 3. 5. 42; Ulp. IX 3, 5, 5, 3; C 2, 18, 12 (Alex.) et al.

¹ Cf. e.g. Afr. D. 3. 5. 45 pr. (in fine) and 1; Pap. D. 30. 5. 30 pr. and 31 pr.

^{^[2225]} Cf. e.g. lul. D. 46. 3. 34. 4; Paul. D. 3. 5. 22; Ulp. D. 3. 5. 5. 4.

¹⁴ Cf. e.g. Proc./Pomp. D. 3. 5. 10; Afr. D. 3. 5. 45 pr.

^{^[2227]} Seller. Negotiorum gestio, e.g. pp. 314 sqq.; Kaser. RPr I. p. 587. On procuratio and negotiorum gestio specifically, see Watson, Obligations, pp. 193 sqq.; Seller, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 104 sqq.

^% Cf. Lenel, EP, p. 105.

^{^[2229]} The early history of negotiorum gestio and, particularly, of the formulae is largely a matter of conjecture. Much of what is simply stated in the text has been disputed. Thus, for instance, according to Magdelain, Consensualisme, pp. 181 sqq., there was only the iudicium ex iure civili; the formulae in factum conceptae never existed. Hans Kreller, "Das Edikt de negotiis gestis in der Geschichte der Geschaftsbesorgung", in: Festschrift Paul Koschaker, vol. II (1939), p. 207 sqq. and Vicenzo Arangio-Ruiz, // mandate in diritto romano (1949), pp. 29 sqq. maintain that the civilian iudicium was older than the praetorian one. Josef Partsch, Studien zuz negotiorum gestio (1913), pp. 34 sqq. has argued that the iudicia based on negotiorum gestio were narrowly defined (negotia absentis; sine mandatu); in all other cases actiones utiles were granted. Against these and other hypotheses, see Seller, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 316 sqq.

^{^[2230]} Seiler. Negotiorum gestio, pp. 47 sqq.; 320 sq.

³⁴ Cf. Ulp. D. 3. 5. 3 pr. (containing, possibly, originally the word "absentis" in the place of "alterius").

⁴³ Owing to their conservatism?: Mayer-Maly, (1969) 86 ZSS 419.

⁴ Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 48 sqq., 323 sqq.; Kaser, RPrl, p. 589.

^{^[2234]} See, too, Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 3 sq.

® "Die Mcnschenhulfe im Privatrecht", (1887) 25» 42 sqq. Cf. also Ernst Rabel, "Ausbau oder Verwischung des Systems? Zwei praktische Fragen", (1919-20) 10 RheinZ 94 sqq.

⁴⁴ For these and further examples, see Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 24 sq.

^{^[2235]} For details Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 28 sqq.

^{^[2236]} In modern German law, this is true even in many rescue cases, for according to § 323 c StGB, everybody is under a duty to render aid in an accident or common danger or emergency

situation where aid is needed and may be expected under the circumstances.

^{^[2238]} So called "Auch-gestioti": Seller, in: Münchener Kommentar, op. cit., note 3, § 677, nn. 9, 15; Roland Wittmann, Begriffund Funktionen der Geschäftsführung ohne Auftrag (1981), pp. 10 sqq.; Werner Schubert, "Der Tatbestand der Geschaftsffihrung ohne Auftrag", (1978) 178 Arckivjur die civilistische Praxis 425 sqq., 439 sqq.; Karl-Heinz Gursky, "Der Tatbestand der Geschäftsführung ohne Auftrag", (1985) 185 Archiv jUr die civilistische Praxis 13 sqq.

^4R For further criticism of the theory of human help cf. Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 28 sqq., 38 sqq.; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 19 sqq.; Seiler, in: Münchener Kommentar, op. cit., note3, Vor §677, n. 1; § 677, n. 12.

⁴⁵ Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 38 sqq.

³³ Ulp. D. 3, 5, 3, 10. For all details, see Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 40 sqq.

³ Ulp. D. 3, 5, 5 pr.

³² Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 3, 5, 33; for details see Ernst Rabel, "Negotium alienum und animus", in: Studi in onore di Pietro Bon/ante, vol. IV (1930), pp. 296 sqq.; Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 42 sqq. The gestor, under these circumstances, was presumed not to have acted with the intention of recovering his expenses. On the animus recipietidi (as opposed to the animus donandi) as a requirement for the actio negotiorum gestorum contraria, see Gluck, vol. 5, pp. 345 sqq., 383 sq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 430, 2; Van Zyl, Negotiorumgeslio, pp. 33, 37 sqq.; but see also Fritz Pringsheim, "Animus donandi", (1921) 42 ZSS 310 sqq. Today cf. § 685 BGB: "The manager does not have any claim if he did not have the intention to demand compensation from the principal. If parents or grandparents furnish maintenance to their descendants, or the latter to the former, it is to be presumed, in case ot doubt, that there is no intention to demand compensation from the recipient."

^{^[2244]} Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 6 sqq. ^S4 Mayer-Maly, (1969) 86 ZSS 418.

another's slave": Berger, ED, p. 562.

^s Lab./Paul. D. 3, 5, 18, 2; Ulp. D. 3, 5, 5, 7; Paul. D. 3, 5, 35; Seller, Negotiorum gestio,

pp 95 sqq.

^6flUlp. D. 3, 5, 5, 1.

^{^[2249]} Ulp. D. 3, 5, 5 pr.

⁶ Afr. D. 3, 5, 48. The correct interpretation of this text (interpolated?) is a controversial

matter. Cf., most recently, Seiler, Negotiorum gestio. pp. 26 sq.; Mayer-Maly (1969) 86 ZSS 417; D.H. van Zyl. Die Saakwaarnerningsaksie as Verrykingsaksie in die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg

(unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Leiden, 1970), pp. 29 sqq.; Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 43 sq.

^6S Cf. e.g. Seiler, in: Mimchene r Kommentar, op. cit., note 3, § 677, nn. 3 sqq., 18.

On voluntariness and amicitia, see Seller, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 38 sqq. On absentia, see Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 47 sqq.; Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 28 sqq., but also Grotius, Inleiding, III, XXVII, 1; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 71 sqq.

Ulp. D. 3, 5, 9, 1; for details, see Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 51 sqq.

^{^[2254]} Cels. /Ulp. D. 3, 5,9, 1 - On necessitas and utilitas, sec Mayer-Maly, (1969) 86 ZSS 423.

Cf., for example, Pomp. D. 3, 5, 10. According to Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 54 sqq., this difference reflects the dual origin of negotiorum gestio in procuratorship/curatorship on the one hand and cases of emergency help on the other; cf. also pp. 109 sq.

^{^[2256]} Similarly modern South African case law; cf. Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 42 sqq.

³ August Sturm, Das negotium utiliter gestum ( 1 878), pp. 104 sqq. Cf. also Windscheid/ Kipp, § 430, 2 b; for the notion of utility in modern law, cf. Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 83 sqq.

Ulp. D. 3, 5, 9, 1. The same applies in modern law; c(. e.g. Seiler, in: Miinchene r Kommentar, op. cit., note 3, § 683, n. 16. For the ins commune, see Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, p. 42.

Cf. Ulp. D. 17, 1, 50 pr. and Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 59 sqq.; Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 43 sq. Differently, for example, §§ 677, 683 BGB.

^{^[2259]} But even this was controversial: cf. C. 2, 18, 24 (Just.); for all details, see Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 86 sqq. Cf. also Glück, vol. 5, pp. 338 sqq.

Ratihabitio in classical Roman law was, of course, not a requirement for the actio negotiorum gestorum either; cf. supra, p. 434, note 8; in post-classical times, however, a duty on the part of the principal to ratify the actions of the gestor (if they were utiliter) seems to have been recognized: cf. Bas. Lib. XVII, Tit. I, IX (Heimbach, vol. II, p. 210)..

⁹³ Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 66 sqq.

Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, p. 32.

Furthermore, the law of delict today largely satisfies the demand for a liability of the gestor for damages, and it is therefore often not necessary to resort to the actio negotiorum gestorum directa.

^H3 For modern German law cf. e.g. Seiler, in: Münchener Kommentar, op. cit., note3, §683, nn. 3 sqq.

⁴ Cf. supra, pp. 431 sq.

^{^[2266]} Cf. e.g. Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 286 sqq.; Wittmann, op. cit., note 47, pp. 81 sqq.; Seiler, in: Münchener Kommentar, § 683, nn. 18 sqq.; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, n. 69.

³⁵ BGHZ 38, 270 sqq. For details and criticism, see Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 305 sqq.; Rainer Frank, "Die Selbstaufopferung des Kraftfahrers im Strassenverkehr", 1982 Juristenzeitung 737 sqq.

⁵⁷ Franz von Ktibel, in: Werner Schubert (ed.), Die Vorentwurfe der Redaktoren zum BGB, Recht der Schuldverhahnisse 2 (1980), pp. 978 sq.

^m % 683 BGB.

^{^[2270]} Wollschlager, op. cic.. note 5. pp. 313 sq.

⁹¹¹ Hans Hermann Seiler. "Uber die Vergütung von Dienstleistungen des Geschäftsführers ohne Auftrag", in: Festschrift fur Heinz Hübner (1984), pp. 239 sqq.

³ Cf. supra, p. 420, note 53.

^$ Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 311 sqq.; Seller, in: MUnchener Kommentar, op. cit., note 3, § 683, nn. 24 sq.

⁵⁸ In general, see Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 258 sqq.

^{^[2272]} Cf. e.g. Schulz, CRL, p. 621 (liability for omnis culpa); Franz Haymann, "Die Haftung des negotiorum gestor wegen Verschuldens im klassischen und iustinianischen Recht", in: Atti del congresso internazionale di diritto roimmo, vol. II (1935), pp. 451 sqq. (liability for dolus only); Arangio-Ruiz, Responsabilitd, pp. 205 sqq. (liability at first only for dolus, but towards the end of the classical period also for culpa). Cf. further Erich Sachers, "Die Haftung des auftragslosen Geschäftsführers", (1938) 4 SDH/309 sqq. and, especially, Hans Hermann Seiler, "Zur Haftung des auftraglosen Geschäftsführers im romischen Recht", in: Studien im

romischen Recht (1973), pp. 195 sqq.

^{^[2274]} Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 5, pp. 351 sqq.

⁹⁵ Cf also C 2, 18, 20, 1 (Diocl. et. Max.).

⁹⁷ For what follows, see Seiler, op. cit., note 94, pp. 196 sq.

¹⁰¹ Cf. e.g. Gliick. vol. 5. pp. 365 sqq.; Pothier. "Tratte" du quasi-contrat negotiorum

gestio" (appendix to Tratte du contrat d( mandat), nn. 208 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 430, 1.

See also Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 60 sqq.

“ Cf. also §§ 234.° 237 I 13 PrALR. art. 420 II OR.

“ Cf. also § 249 I 13 PrALR. § 1040 ABGB. art. 420 III OR.

^{^[2282]} Cf. § 683 BGB and supra.

The authors of the ius commune debated whether the gestor was liable for culpa levis or also culpa levissima: cf. the discussion and references in Gluck, vol. 5, pp. 352 sqq., and Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, pp. 44 sq., 63, 95 sq., 143 sqq., 213. The BGB does not draw this distinction; it differentiates only between culpa, culpa lata and diligentia quam in suis (cf. «§ 276 sq.).

¹⁰ Cf. the general types of situation as listed by Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 92 sqq.; further Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 76 sqq.; Johann Georg Helm, "Geschäftsführung ohne Auftrag", in: Gutachten und VorscMage zur Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. Ill (1983), pp. 344 sqq.

¹⁰ For instance, the problem of the right of recourse of a person who has paid somebody else's debt is often solved today by way of cessiones legis (assignment by operation of law) and similar devices; cf. e.g. Helm, op. cit., note 109, pp. 351 sqq.

¹¹¹ Cf., for example, the self-sacrifice of a motorcar driver, supra, p. 444.

^{^[2283]} Helm, op. cit., note 109, pp. 385 sqq. ^1,3 (1887) 34 ChD 234 (CA) at 248.

^M "Rewards for the Rescue of Human Life?", in: XXth Century Comparative and Conflicts

^{^[2285]} Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 25, 59. Cf further, Heilman, "The Rights of the Voluntary Agent Against His Principal in Roman Law and in Anglo-American Law", (1926) 4 Tennessee LR 34 sqq., 76 sqq.: Peter Birks, "Negotiorum gestio and the Common Law", (1971) 24 Current Legal Problems 110 sqq.; idem, "Restitution for Services", (1974) 27 Current Legal Problems 13 sqq.; Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio. pp. 170 sqq. On the American Restatement of Restitution (where § 2, due to its prominent position, obscures the fact that in reality it contains a body of rules bearing a considerable resemblance to the civil law) cf. Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 60 sqq.

Law. Legal Essays in Honor of Hesse! B. Yntema (1961) p. 142.

" This point has, most recently, been elaborated by Lee J.W. Aitken, "Negotiorum gestio and the Common Law: A Junsdictional Approach, (1988) 11 Sydney LR 566 sqq.

^{^[2288]} fenkins v. Tucker (1788) 1 H Bl 90; Ambrose v. Kerrisem (1851) 10 CB 776; Aitken, (1988) 11 Sydney LR 571 sqq.

¹¹ Closely related to negotiorum gestio; the praetor granted an action to a person who arranged a funeral at his own expense without being obliged to do so (Berger, ED. p. 343); for details cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 11, 7, 12, 2 sqq.; 11, 7, 14, 7 sqq.; Kaser, RPrll. p. 418; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, n. 160. Why was this situation not absorbed by the institution of negotiorum gestio? There is a strong public interest in a prompt and proper disposal of the body (cf. Ulp. D. 11,7, 12, 3 "ne insepulta corpora iacerent"); thus the claim lies even if the gestor has acted against the heir's wishes: cf. Ulp. D. 11, 7, 14, 13; Seiler, Negotiorum gestio. pp. 89 sq. In later

centuries, actio funeraria and negotiorum gestio merged; today, § 679 BGB takes care of the

problem, when it states: "The fact that the management ot the matter is opposed to the

wishes of the principal is not taken into consideration if, without the management of

the matter, a duty of the principal, the fulfilment of which is of public interest,... would

not be fulfilled in due time."

^{^[2295]} Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 58, 161.

^11,0 Holds worth, vol. VIII, pp. 269 sqq.; for details of the modern law cf. Goff and Jones, Restitution, pp. 280 sqq. On maritime salvage in Roman-Dutch law, see Van Zyl, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 14, 74 sqq.

² Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, n. 58. For details, see, for example, Goff and Jones, Restitution, pp. 264 sqq.; Aitken, (1988) 11 Sydney LR 585 sqq., 591 sqq.

¹²² Goff and Jones, Restitution, p. 264; for the historical background, see Holdsworth, vol. VIII pp. 248 sqq.

^{^[2297]} Cf. e.g. Buckland/McNair, p. 336.

⁰¹ Cf. for example, the criticism by Goff and Jones, Restitution, p. 267; Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, n, 136.

¹² In re Rhodes (1890) 44 ChD 94 (CA); for further details, see Stoljar, op. cit., note 2, nn. 134 sqq.

¹ ^fl Goff and Jones, Restitution, pp. 278 sq.; cf also Aitken, (1988) 11 Sydney LR 566 sqq., who points out that the historical connection between the—at first blush—rather * heterogeneous instances in which English law permits the recovery of expenses of those who

Jlioe intervened without prior solicitation in the affairs of others is jurisdictional: they were alronnected with either the Court of Admiralty or with the ecclesiastical courts. These

coins were controlled by civilian-oriented jurists who therefore had no hesitation to draw upomhe doctrine of negotiorum gestio.

^{^[2303]} Wagner v. International Railway Co. 232 NY 176. 133 NE 437 (1921) at 437 sq. Cf. further e.g. Haynes v, Harwood [1935] 1 KB 146 (CA).

^{^[2304]} Cf. e.g. Wollschlager, op. cit., note 5, pp. 284 sqq.; Wittmann, op. cit., note 47, pp. 65 sqq.; A.K. Blommaert, "Negotiorum gestio and the Hfe-rescuer", 1981 TSAR 123 sqq., 127 sqq. For a comparative analysis relating to rescue of life or limb cf. Stoljar, op. cit,, note 2, nn. 242 sqq.

¹³⁹ The latter situation is a comparatively rare phenomenon in life, although it dominates in philosophical discussions about suicide (according to Camus, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, p. 15, the only question that really matters), and particularly in theatre, opera and literature. In reality, attempted suicides are the rule, and they cannot simply be regarded as failures to commit suicide. As a rule, it is a very ambivalent will that underlies the suicidal act. For further information, see Reinhard Zimmermann, "Self-Determination, Paternalism Human Care?", 1979 ТИЛИ 183 sqq. On suicide in Roman law, see Andreas Wacke, Selbstmord im romischen Recht und in der Rechtsentwicklung", (1980) 97 ZSS 26 sqq:

^ш § 683 BGB.

^H Reinhard Zimmermann, "Der Selbstmord als Gefahrdungssachverhalt—Aufwen- dungs- oder Schadensersatz für den Retter?", 1979 Zeitschrift für das gesamte Familienrecht>* 103 sqq. і

^{^[2308]} Cf. today Gai. Ill, 154 a, b. On this text, see particularly Franz Wieacker, Societas, Hausgemeinschaft und Erwerbsgesellschaft (1936), pp. 126 sqq.; Mario Bretone," 'Consortium' c 'communio'", (1960) 6 Labeo 168 sqq.

^{^[2309]} On which see, for instance, Kaser. RPr 1, pp. 99 sqq.; idem, "Neue Literatur zur 'societas'", (1975) 41 SDH/281 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 331; Voci, DER, vol. I, pp. 59 sqq.; Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, La societa in diritto romana (1950), pp. 3 sqq.; Bretone, (i960) 6 Labeo 177 sqq., Herman van den Brink, lus Fasque (1968), pp. 262 sqq.

^{^[2310]} Kaser, RPr I, pp. 50 sqq.; Voci, DER, vol. I, pp. 23 sqq.

^{^[2311]} Cf., above all, Wieacker, Societas, pp. 126 sqq.

^H Comparable, probably, to an in iure cessio; Kaser, (1975) 41 SDHI284 sq. ⁹

Gai. HI, 154 b.

^D On how this was done cf. infra, pp. 465 sq.

¹ Wieacker, Societas, pp. 131 sqq., 153 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 573. Contra: Antonio Guarino, Societas consensu contractu (1972), pp. 13 sqq. According to him, the classical consensual societas has nothing to do, historically, with the pre-classical consortium. Only

pwf-classical law created a societas omnium bonorum that fulfilled a function comparable to that of the old consortium. For a critical discussion of Guarino's views, see Kaser, (1975) 41 SDH/278 sqq.; cf. also Kaser, RPr II, pp. 410. Originally, societas does not seem to have been able to be concluded sub condicione, for the question was disputed among the classical lawyers (C. 4, 36, 6 (Just.); Paul. D. 17, 2, 1 pr.; itp.). According to Wieacker, Societas. pp. 137 sq., this is one of the characteristics inherited by the consensual societas from the old consortium. The formal act which created the consortium of old entailed a change of status and could not therefore be conditional. Cf. also Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, p. 121 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 573. But see now Kaser (1975) 41 SDHI305; Guarino, Societas. p. 13. For yet another explanation cf. Watson, Obligations, pp. 130 sqq.

^E Alan Watson, "Consensual societas between Romans and the Introduction of formulae", (1962) 9 RIDA 431 sqq.; cf. also idem, Evolution, p. 21.

® Cf. e.g. Wolfgang Kunkel, "Ein unbeachtetes Zeugnis fiber das romische consortium", in: (1954) 4 Annales Faculte de Droit d'Istanbul 56 sqq.; Watson, loc. cit.

¹ On argentarii socii cf, most recently, Alfons Burge, "Fiktion und Wirklichkeit: Soziale und Strukturen des romischen Bankwesens", (1987) 104 ZSS 519 sqq.

^{^[2319]} Cf. Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 22 sqq.; Ulnch von Liibtow, "Catos leges venditioni et locationi dictae", in: Symbolae Raphael! Taubenschlag, vol. HI (1957), pp. 286 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 573 sq.; Guarino, op. cit., note 11, passim.

Wieacker, (1952) 69 ZSS 491 sqq. Previously (Societas, pp. 131 sqq.) Wieacker had emphasized exclusively the root of societas in consortium. For the opposite extreme (societas was since old a profit-oriented business organization—societa di industria—and has no historical connection with the consortium at all), see Guarino, Societas. But cf. Kaser, (1975) 41 SDHI278 sqq.

^{^[2321]}Ulp. D. 17, 2, 5 pr.; cf. also Gai. Ill, 148; Inst. Ill, 25 pr. An example of alicuius

negotiationis is to be found in Ulp. D. 17, 2, 52, 4 ("lq]uidam sagariam negotiationem

coierunt") (for further details and examples — venalicii, argentarii, danistae, etc.— see

Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 141 sqq.; on societates argentariae cf. Manuel J. Garcia

Garrido, "La sociedad de los banqueros ('Societas argentaria')", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo

Biscardi. vol. HI (1982), pp. 377 sqq.); of unius rei is to be found in Ulp. D. 17, 2, 52, 13 ("Si

vicini semipedes inter se contulerunt, ut ibi craticium parietem inter se aedificarent ad onera utriusque sustinenda"), and see Wieacker, (1952) 69 ZSS 501. For the later Republic, see Watson, Obligations, pp. 134 sqq.

^B D. 17, 2, 7. On this type of societas cf. also Paul and Ulpian in D. 17, 2, 8-13. Ferdinando Bona, "Contribute alia storia della 'societas universorum quae ex quaestu veniunt' in diritto romano", in: Studi in onore di Giuseppe Grosso, vol. I (1968), pp. 383 sqq., 395 sqq., argues that only Justinian made this the prototype of societas. But see e. g. Guarino, op. cit., note 11, pp. 26 sqq.

® Cf. Gai. Ill, 135, 154; cf. further, particularly, Daube, (1938) 6 Cambridge U 381 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 63 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 128 sqq.; Kaser, (1975)

[2328] SDHI299 sq.; but see also Wieacker, Societas. pp. 72 sqq. Societas could be a bilateral or even a plurilateral contract, depending on whether there were two or more socii; cf. e.g. Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 70 sqq. According to Guarino, op. cit., note 11, pp. 38 sqq., 82 sqq. the consensual societas typically comprised only two socii, and it was essentially the structure of such a societa "dualistica" which was reflected in classical law. For a critical discussion of this theory, see Kaser, (1975) 41 SDHI31Y sqq.

Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 17, 2, 63 pr.: "Verum est quod Sabino videtur, etiamsi non universorum bonorum socii sunt, sed unius rei, attamen in id quod facere possunt quodve dolo malo fecerint quo minus possint, condemnari oportere, hoc enim summam rationem habet, cum societas ius quodammodo fraternitatis in se habeat." This is the (later, i.e. since the 16th century) so-called beneficium competentiae: condemnation of the debtor only in id quod facere potest. Cf. further Ulp. D. 42, 1, 16; Wieacker, Societas. pp. 165 sq.; Watson, Obligations, p. 144; Wicslaw Litewski, "Das 'beneficium competentiae' im romischen Recht", in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. IV (1971), pp. 546 sqq.; Joachim Gildemeister. Das beneficium competentiae im ktassischen romischen Recht (1986"). pp. 27 sqq. and passim. Cf. also Holdsworth, vol. VIII. p. 195.

^J Of course, this common purpose was not to be illegal, immoral or impossible, otherwise the partnership was void; cf. Paul. D. 17. 2. 3. 3; Ulp. D. 17. 2. 57 and Thomas. TRL, p. 302. who draws attention to the interesting English case of Everett v. Williams of 1725; cf. (18931 9 LQR 196 sqq. ("Truth is stranger than fiction. The story of a highwayman filing a Bill in Equity for an account against his partner... is correct after all"’).

² Cf. Lend, EP, p. 297; Arangm-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, p. 30; Kaser, (1975)41 SDH/290 sqq. ("Quod A^s A⁵ cum № № societatem omnium bonorum coiit,.. Differently (without the words "omnium bonorum") Guarino, op. cit., note 11, p. 11.

³ The classical societas was, in modern terminology, a mere undisclosed association ("Innengeselhchaft"); it did not have any effects as far as third parties were concerned. For details, see, for example, Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 78 sqq.

^{^[2330]} Gai. Ill, 151. Cf. further Inst. Ill, 25, 4; Wieacker, Societas, pp. 285 sqq.

²⁵ Also, of course, if the partners mutually agreed to end their association (cf. Knutel,

Contrarius consensus, pp. 124 sqq.), or if the period agreed for the continuance of the

partnership expired.

^{^[2334]} Of a different opinion is Guarino, op. cit., note 11, pp. 56 sqq., 90 sqq., according to whom only a societas comprising two socii was dissolved by renunciation. A "societa pluralistica", on the other hand, continued to exist if only one partner decided to withdraw. Guarino draws the same distinction in cases of death, capitis deminutio and insolvency of one of the partners; cf. Societas, passim and idem, "Solutio societatis", (1968) 14 Labeo 139 sqq. Contra: Wieslaw Litewski, "Remarques sur la dissolution de la societe en droit romain", (1972) 50 RH 70 sqq.; Kaser (1975) 41 SDH/325 sqq.; cf. alsoJ.A.C. Thomas,

"Solutio societatis ex actione and dissensus sociorum", (1974) 48 Tulane LR 1103 sqq.

^{^[2336]} Gai. Ill. 151; Mod. D. 17. 2. 4; Inst. Ill. 25. 4. For further details Paul. D. 17. 2. 65. 3-6;

I.C. van Oven, " 'Societas in tempus coita' ", in: Studi in onore di Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, vol.

II (1953), pp. 453 sqq.; Ferdinando Bona, Studi sulla societa consensuale in diritto romano

(1973), pp. 117 sqq. The power to renounce at any time could not be excluded by way of agreement between the socii: Pomp./Ulp. D. 17, 2, 14; Paul. D. 17, 2, 17, 2; Wieslaw Litewski, "Les effets juridiques du pactum ne societate abcatur" (1978) 25 RIDA 279 sqq. ^2H Cf. Gai. Ill, 153; but sec also Ulp. D. 17, 2, 58, 2; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp.

166 sqq.

Gai. Ill, 152. Cf. further e.g. Paul. D. 17, 2, 65, 9 sq.; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 156 sqq. But see Watson, Obligations, pp. 131 sqq. "Qui societatem contrahit certam personam sibi elegit" is also the reason for the rule socii mei socius meus socius non est (Ulp. D. 17, 2, 20; Ulp. D. 50, 17, 47. 1). If, for instance, three socii run a taberna, and one of the socii accepts a fourth person as a socius in order to let him work in the shop, the latter does not become partner of the original societas. No. 1 and No. 4 form a subpartnership, of which Nos. 2 and 3, since they have not agreed to it, do not form part (Ulp. D. 17, 2, 19). Was No. 1 liable, towards Nos. 2 and 3, for the actions ot No. 4? According to Ulp. D. 17, 2, 21, he has to sue No. 4 and then to bring what he receives by way of damages into the societas with Nos. 2 and 3. What if No. 4 (the sub-socius) is not able to pay damages? "Et puto", says Ulpian, "omnimodo eum teneri eius nomine, quern ipse solus admisit. quia difficile est negarc culpa ipsius admissum." Does that mean that No. 1 is liable for culpa in eiigendo? This is what the text has usually been understood to mean (cf. e.g. Etienne Laffely, Responsabilitedu "socius" et concours (factions dans la sodete classique (1979), pp. 36 sqq., 44 sq.). Consequently it has often been regarded as spurious. It is more likely, however, that Ulpian held No. 1 liable for breach of contract. He was not allowed, under the partnership agreement, to hand over the management of the taberna to a subpartner; the latter has therefore been able to cause the damages only as a consequence of No. 1 's culpa. Cf., in this sense, Rolf Kniitel, "Die Haftung fur Hilfspcrsonen im rdmischen Recht", (1983) 100 ZSS 423 sqq.

^{^[2342]} On the "coincidence" in this respect of the contract of partnership with that of mandate cf. Story, op. cit., note 1, § 270.

³ Cf. also Story, op. cit., note 1, §§ 317 sq.; "[Partnership) is a mutual and reciprocal engagement of each partner with all the others, that the partnership shall be carried on with joint aid and cooperation of all; and, therefore, the survivors ought not to be held bound to continue the connection without a new consent, when the abilities, skill and character of the deceased partner either were, or at least might have been, a strong inducement to the original formation of the partnership"; Pothier, Trane du contrat de socicte, nn. 144 sqq.; Kaser. (1975) 41 SDH/34.

³² Ulp. D. 17, 2, 35; Pomp. D. 17, 2, 59 pr.

³³ Gai. Ill, 153; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 163 sqq.

^{^[2343]} Gai. Ill, 154; Mod. D. 17, 2, 4, 1.

^{^[2344]} Ulp. D. 17. 2. 63. 10; cf further Paul. D. 17. 2. 65 pr.; Ulp. D. 17. 2. 52. 14 and Thomas, (1974) 48 Tulane LR 1099 sqq.

^{^[2345]} Cf. infra, p. 460.

[2346] ^r

Cf. e.g. Wieacker, (1952) 69 ZSS 503 sq. But see Paul. D. 17, 2, 65, 15 (dealing,

however, with societas vectigalium); Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 176 sqq.; Kaser,

(1975) 41 SDMI 329 sq.; contra: Thomas, (1974) 48 Ttdane LR 1101 sqq.

Cf. in general Schulz, Principles, pp. 19 sqq., 140 sqq.; more specifically on societas, see

Schulz, CRL. p. 553; Franz Wieacker, "Das Gesellschaftsverhaltnis des klassischen Rechts"

(1952) 69 ZSS 315 sq.³⁹ But cf. infra, p. 459.

Cf. C. 8, 38, 2 (Alex.) ("Libera matnmonia esse antiquitus placuit"). For societas d.

Paul. D. 17, 2, 70: "Nulla societatis in aeternum coitio est."

⁴ Gai. Ill, 150; Ulp. D. 17, 2, 29 pr.

⁴ Cf. Gai. Ill, 149; cf. the example discussed in Inst. Ill, 25, 2.

■® Ulp. D. 17, 2, 29, 1.

* Cf. the report of the controversy in Gai. Ill, 149; Inst. Ill, 25, 2.

Cf. the discussion by Horak, Rationes decidendi, pp. 158 sqq.

⁴¹ Alan Watson. "The Notion of Equivalence of Contractual Obligation and Classical Roman Partnership", (1981) 97 LQR 279 sqq.

^{^[2356]} Evolution, p. 21.

* Gai. Ill, 149; Inst. Ill, 25, 2.

^{^[2358]} Inst. III. 25, 2.

® On the problems raised by capital-service partnerships (in which one partner contributes money, the other services), see Ben Beinart, "Capital in Partnership", 1961 Асы Juridka 124 sqq.; Bona, op. cit., note 27, pp. 24 sqq.; Kaser, (1975) 41 SDHI 312 sqq.

^{^[2360]} Arangio-Ruiz, Società, op. cit., pp. 101 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 138 sqq. Contra (such an arrangement was valid, not because it could be fair, but only when in fact it was fair) Watson, (1981) 97 LQR 283 sqq. The answer turns on the correct interpretation of the words "si modo" in Gai. Ill, 149 and on whether UIp. D. 17, 2, 29, 1 is partly interpolated or not.

² On Paul. D. 17, 2, 30 cf. Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 418 sqq.; Vangerow, Pandekten, vol. Ill, pp. 471 sq.; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 97 sqq.; Horak, Rationes decidendi, pp. 162 sqq.

³ Ulp. D. 17, 2, 29, 2.

³ Fabulae Aesopiae, I, 5. For details of its reception by Celsus, see Antonio Guarino, "La società col leone", (1972) 18 Labeo 72 sqq.

³ Ulp. D. 17, 2, 29, 2.

® Cf. supra, pp. 252, 255 sqq.

^{^[2366]} On societas leonina in modern law cf. Gluck, vol 15, pp. 425 sq.; Pothier, Tratte du contrai de soctete, n. 12; Story, op. cit., note 1, § 18; art. 1855 code civil; Christian Muller-Gugenberger, "Bemerkungen zur 'societas leonina': Fabel-haftes im Gesellschaftsrecht". in: Gesetzgebungstheorie, juristische Logik, Zivil- und Prozessrecht, Geda'chtnis- schrift für Jürgen Rodig (1978), pp. 274 sqq.; J.J. Henning, H.J. Delport, "Partnership", in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. 19 (1983), n. 370 (n. 30); Peter Ulmer, in: MunchmerKommentar, vol. Ill 2 (2nd ed., 1986), § 705, n. 118; Heenen, op. cit., note 1, n. 22.

^G7 Gai. IV. 61 (as restored in accordance with Inst. IV. 6. 30"). Cf. further e.g. Kaser. RPr I. pp. 644 sq. ^6H Ulp. D. 17. 2. 52. 4. Cf. further Ulp. D. 17. 2. 52. 3 and Ulp. D. 17. 2. 58 pr. and 1.

® Lab./Pomp. D. 17, 2, 60. 1.

merely "propter societatem"; cf. the example given by Bartolus, Commentaria, D. 17, 2, 61, § Socius 1: "Alio modo potest intelligi propter societatem, hoc est, quod societas fuit occasio remota. Verbi gratia: propter societatem habui necesse accedere ad curiam principis: et dum coram principe tractarem negotia, placui principi, ex quo donavit mihi castrum: certe hoc non facit contemplatione societatis, sed personae meae tantum: licet nunquam habuissem nee accessissem, nisi propter societatem." For further discussion, see Peter Stein, "Julian and Liability for Loss Suffered in the Execution of a Contract in Roman Law", 1956 Butterworth's South African LJ 64 sqq.; Giuseppe Gandolfi, "Damnum commune", in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. HI (1971), pp. 527 sqq.; Karlheinz Misera, "Zur Gefahrtragung bei der romischen societas", in: luris Professio, Festgabejiir Max Kaser (1986), pp. 201 sqq.

^{^[2369]} Cf. e.g. Franz Wieacker, "Haftungsformen des romischen Gesellschaftsrechts", (1934) 54 ZSS 35 sqq.; Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, pp. 188 sqq.

^{^[2370]} Cass./Paul. D. 17, 2, 65, 3. Prerequisite, however: "... quod utique observandum est, si dolo malo renuntiatio facta sit." Cf. further Paul. D. 17, 2, 65, 6; Bona, op. cit., note 27, pp. 79 sqq., but see Kaser, (1975) 41 SDHI 335 sq.

^{^[2371]} Example: "... plane si quis in hoc renuntiaverit societati, ut obveniens aliquod lucrum solus habeat, veluti si mihi totorum bonorum socius, cum ab aliquo heres esset relictus, in hoc renuntiaverit societati, ut hereditatem solus lucri faciat, cogetur hoc lucrum communicare" (Gai. Ill, 151); cf. also Cass./Paul. D. 17, 2, 65, 3.

^{^[2372]} Paul. D. 17. 2. 65. 4.

" For further texts cf. Paul. D. 2. 13.9 pr._; Pomp. D. 17. 2. 59. 1; Ulp. D. 17. 2. 63 pr.. 7.

⁷¹ Gai. D. 17, 2, 72; largely incorporated into Inst. Ill, 25, 9. Diligentia quam in suis in D. 17, 2, 72 is usually taken to be of post-classical origin; cf. e.g. Wieacker, (1934) 54 ZSS 67 sqq.; De Robertis, Responsabilitd. pp. 549 sqq. But see Herbert Hausmaninger,

"Diligentia quam in suis", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 271 sqq.; Laffely, op. cit., note 29, pp. 31 sq., 137; Liebs, RR. pp. 210 sq.

^{^[2376]} See, too, Hausmaninger, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 275 sq.

^{^[2377]} Ulp. D. 17, 2, 52, 2 in fine.

^B See Wieacker, (1934) 54 ZSS 57 sqq.

® Cf.. apart from Ulp. D. 17. 2. 52. 2 and Ulp. D. 13. 6. 5. 2. Paul. D. 17. 2. 65. 9: Ulp. D. 50, 17, 23; Paul. Sent. II, XVI. These texts have al! been suspected of interpolation; traditionally the liability of the socius for culpa has been regarded as being of post-classical origin. Cf. particularly Wieacker, (1934) 54 ZSS 52 sqq.; but, see more recently, Laffely, op. cit., note 29, pp. 22 sqq., 60 sqq., 137 sqq.; cf. also Hausmaninger, Festschrift Kaser, p. 275. For a further interesting case of liability for culpa (in eligendo?) (also, possibly, spurious), cf. supra, note 29.

⁸ Ulp. D. 17, 2, 52, 2.

^{^[2381]} Cf. supra, pp. 192 sq.

^{^[2382]} Cf. further Ulp. D. 17. 2. 52, 3.

^m The contribution of the partners to the societas could consist in money or other material assets, expertise or labour (or, of course, a combination of these); cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 17, 2, 5, 1; Pomp. D. 17, 2. 6; Proc. D. 17, 2, 80. "Pretium enim operae artis est velamentum" is a somewhat cryptic way of expressing this idea; cf. Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, p. 192; Wieacker, (1934) 54 ZSS 48; Laffely, op. cit., note 29, p. 29.

^a5 Cf. supra, pp. 397 sqq.

^{^[2384]} Cf. Wieackcr. (1934") 54 ZSS 45 sqq.; Laffely. op. cit.. note 29. pp. 46 sqq.. 52 sqq.

⁸⁷ For details, sec Wieacker. (19521 69 ZSS 332 sqq. Conversely, of course, the mere

existence of common property (res communes) did not entail societas, cither: UIp. D. 17, 2, 71' Pothier, Traite du contrat de societe, n. 2; Story, op. cit., note 1, § 3.

^{^[2387]}Cels./Ulp. D. 13, 6, 5, 15.

® For details, see Kaser. RPr I. pp. 590 sqq. Differently Guarino, op. cit.. note 11. pp. 60 sqq. (according to whom societas could be combined with communio only by way of a special pactum adicctuml; but see Kaser. (19751 41 SDMI 293 sqq.

® Paul. D. 10. 3. 1.

^{^[2390]} For an alternative way of organizing entrepreneurial activities (use of servi communes') cf. Andrea Di Porto, Impresa coliettiua e schiavo 'manager' in Roma antica (II sec. a.C.—II sec. d.C)" (1984). According to Di Porto, certain deficiencies of the Roman societas (as, for instance, the instability of its structure) could thus be avoided. But see Alfons Bürge, (1988) 105 ZSS 856 sqq.

⁷ On the law of partnership under Justinian, see Guarino, op. cit., note 11, pp. 41 sqq.; Kaser, RPrll, pp. 410 sqq.; idem, (1975)41 SDH/318 sqq.

⁵⁸ Inst. Ill, 25, 9; cf. further De Robertis, Responsabilita, pp. 545 sqq.

® Cf. Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, pp. 100 sq., 146 sqq., 215 sq.; Gliick, vol. 15, pp. 433 sqq.

^IC0 The diligentia quam in suis in § 708 BGB has repeatedly been criticized, and the courts have tried to limit its range of application in various ways. Cf, for example, BGHZ 46, 313 (317), relating to road-traffic situations; further Karsten Schmidt, "Gesellschaft bürgerlichen Rechts", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. Ill (1983), pp. 525 sqq-

¹⁽¹¹ D. 21, 1, 44, 1; cf further Ulp. D. 14, 1, 4 pr. and 1, Ulp. D. 14, 1, 1, 25, relating to a partnership of cxerdtores; Paul. D. 2, 14, 9 pr.; Paul. D. 2, 14, 25 pr.; Paul. D. 2, 14, T1 pr. relating to socii argentarii. For details, see Feliciano Serrao, "Sulla rilevanza esterna del rapporto di società in diritto romano", in: Studi in onore de Edoardo Volterra, vol. V (1971), pp. 743 sqq.; Guarino, op. cit., note 11, pp. 104 sqq.; cf. also already Wieacker, (1952) 69 ZS5 496.

^{^[2396]} On these fragments cf. e.g. Serrao, Studi Volterra, vol. V, pp. 744 sqq.; Claus, Stellvertretung. pp. 145 sqq., 354 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, pp. 106 sq.

"" Cf e.g. Buckland/Stern, p. 513; Thomas, TRL. p. 472; P.W. Duff, Personality in Roman Private Law (1938), pp. 159 sqq.; J.A. Crook, Law and Life in Rome (1967), pp. 233 sqq.; for further details especially Ferdinand Kniep, Societas pubticanomm (1896); Claude Nicolet, "Polybius VI, 17, 4 and the Composition of the societates publicanorum", (1971) 6 Tile Irish Jurist 163 sqq.; Maria Rosa Cimma. Ricerche suite società di publicani (1981Ì; for the social background cf. E. Badian. Publicans and Sinners f 19723. passim.

^{^[2398]} Paul. D. 17. 2. 65. 15.

[2399] "-p_ne Roman Law is an inexhaustible treasure of various and valuable learning; and the principles applicable to the Law of Partnership are stated with uncommon clearness... A slight glance at them will at once show the true origin and basis of many of the general doctrines, incorporated into the modern jurisprudence of Continental Europe, as well as into that of the Common Law" (Story, op. cit., note 1, p. IX).

¹⁵ For details, see Coing, pp. 464 sqq.

^{^[2401]} On the development of agency in general cf. supra, pp. 54 sqq.; on agency of partners, see especially Peter Stein, "The Mutual Agency of Partners in the Civil Law", (1958-59) 33 Tulane LR 595 sqq., and Story, op. cit., note 1, § 1, §§ 101 sqq.

^1(B This was done already by the glossators; cf. Stein, (1958-59) 53 Tulane LR 598.

It seems to have been taken first by the commentators: Stein, (1958—59) 33 Tulane LR 599 sq.; cf. also Coing, pp. 466 sqq.

^{^[2404]} "Titius et socii" was sufficient; the other socii did not have to be named; cf. e.g. Holdsworth, vol. VIII, p. 198; Coing, p. 468. Cf. further Story, op. cit., note 1, § 102. On the business name of a commercial partnership {"Firma") in modern law, sec Heenen, op. cit., note 1, nn. 127 sqq.

^ffl Coing, p. 468; cf. also Stein, (1958-59) 33 Tulane LR 600 sqq.; Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, n. 413.

^{^[2406]} Voet, Contmentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII, Tit. II, XII. Example: one of the socii manages the business at Perugia, the other at Florence. It seems to have been possible to limit liability to the amount of capital which they had originally invested: cf. Coing, p. 468; also

Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, n. 362 in fine. On the question whether the beneficium divisionis applied, cf. Stein, (1958-59) 33 Tulane LR 601.

^IB Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVII, Tit. II, XIII in fine.

^{^[2408]} Cf. Pothier, Traile du contrat de saciete, n. 96.

^{^[2409]} Grotius, De jure belli ac pacts, Lib. II, Cap. XI, 13; Pothier, Traite du contrat de societe, n. 96.

^{^[2410]} On the liability of members of a partnership to third parties, see Heenen, op. cit., note 1, nn. 91, 140 sqq. It is characteristic of a partnership (as opposed to other forms of business association) that all members are personally and without limit liable for partnership debts. On South African law, see Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, nn. 412 sqq.

^{^[2411]} On the need for a contribution by each member in modern law, cf. Heenen, op. cit., note 1, nn. 23 sqq.

^{^[2412]} Cf. e.g. Pap. D. 17, 2, 82 {classical, according to Kaser, RPr II, p. 410, n. 9).

^{^[2413]} Kaser, RPr II, p. 410. In the terminology of the later ius commune, societas was normally (though nor necessarily) quoad sortem, not merely quoad usum; cf. e.g. Wieacker, (1952) 69 ZSS 302 sqq., and particularly Ben Beinart, "Capital in Partnership", 1961 Acta Juridica 122 sqq., 144 sqq. On partnership property cf. also Story, op. cit., note 1, §§ 88 sqq.

[2414] -j-_{ne S}a_me applied incidentally, according to the English common law; only in equity was a remedy granted under certain (narrow) circumstances. For the details, see Story, op. cit., note 1, §§ 216 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 15, pp. 445 sqq.; Pothier, Traite du contrat de societe, n. 135.

^{^[2416]} Like most modern civil-law jurisdictions, German law distinguishes between civil partnerships (§§ 705 sqq. BGB) and commercial partnerships (as regulated in §§ 105 sqq. of the Commercial Code (HGB)). The latter type must have as its object the carrying on of a commercial enterprise (as defined in §§ 1-3 HGB) of a kind or size which is that of a fully fledged merchant. For an overview c(. Heenen, op. cit., note 1, nn. 68 sqq., 96 sqq. On the history of the commercial companies cf., for example, H. Kellenbenz, HRG, vol. I, col. 1935 sqq.

^{^[2417]} Cf. for instance, the analysis by Karsten Schmidt, op. cit., note 100, pp. 450 sqq.

Cf. "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 988 sqq., as opposed to "Motive", in: Mitgdan, vol. II, p. 344; Windscheid/Kipp, § 405; for an overview cf. e.g. Heenen, op. cit., note 1, n. 8.

^{^[2419]} § 718 I BGB.

^{^[2420]} §§ 741 sqq. BGB.

^{^[2421]} As a consequence. § 719 II BGB provides that a debtor may not set off a claim which he has against a single partner against a claim which belongs to the partnership property.

§ 719 I BGB. Furthermore, it is characteristic of the community of collective hand, that where a partner retires from the partnership (e.g. by giving notice, dying, or having bankruptcy proceedings instituted against him) and where-thcj^Artgifcrship mntinues among the other partners, the share of the retiring partpetactrues'tp the remaining partners:

^w A History of Germanic Private Law (1918), p. 159.

^{^[2424]} And propagated, in the course of the 19th century, most notably by Otto von Gierke; cf., for instance, Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht, vol. II (1873), pp. 923 sqq.

For further reference cf. G. Buchda, Geschichte und Krilik der deutschen Gesamthandlehre (1936); idem, HRG, vol. I, col. 1587 sqq.; cf. also e.g. Huebner, op. cit., note 129, pp. 139

~~ Karsten Schmidt, op. cit., note 100, pp. 471 sqq., 481 sqq.

^LB Karsten Schmidt, op, cit., note 100, pp. 491 sqq.

³¹ Cf. e.g. Werner Flume, Teil des Bürgerlichen Rechts, vol. I, 1, Die

Personengesellschaft (1977), pp. 54 sqq., 68 sqq. For a comparative analysis of the problem cf. Heenen, op. cit., note 1, nn. 6 sqq.; in France, for instance, civil and commercial partnerships are now legal entities by statute.

¹³⁵ Wegnerv, Surgeson 1910 TPD 571 at 579; Purdon v. Midler 1961 (21 SA211 (Alat230G.

^{^[2429]} Cf. Mutual and Federal Insurance Co. Ltd. v. Oudtshoorn Municipality 1985 (11 SA 419 (Al

at 433C-F (per Joubert JA), relating, however, to insurance contracts: "... Moreover, there is no magic in the expression uberrima fides. There are no degrees of good faith. It is entirely inconceivable that there could be a little, more or most [utmost] good faith. The distinction is between good faith or bad faith. There is no room for uberrima fides as a third category of faith in our law.... In my opinion uberrima fides is an alien, vague, useless expression without any particular meaning in law."

^{^[2431]} D. 17. 2. 63 pr. It is a common characteristic of all modern personal business associations: c(. Heencn. op. cit.. note 1. nn. 28 sqq.: on rights and liabilities flowing from the ius fraternitatis Heenen. op. cit.. note 1. n. Ill sqq.

¹³⁶ Cf. e.g. Broker & Co. v. Detner 1934 TPD 203 at 206 sqq.

^li9Cf. e.g. Better v. Van Niekerk 1960 (21 SA 779 (Al at 784F-785A. For a detailed comparative investigation of the principles of Roman law, 17th and 18th century civil law and the old common law cf. Story, op. cit., note 1, passim; for a comparison between (classical) Roman law and (modern) English law cf. Buckland/McNair, pp. 300 sqq.; j.M. Barrett. Erwin Seago. Partners and Partnerships in Law and Taxation, vol. I (19561. pp. 7 sqq. ("The law of partnership is a noted exception to the common expression: The Roman law has not had an appreciable influence on the English Law"l. In many respects, the English law reflects Roman ideas still more closely than modern Continental codes. Thus, for instance. Heenen (op. cit.. note 1. n. 41 states that "fi]t is unquestionably in England and in the United States that the 'personal' character of the partnership has been taken the furthest: any change in the members or even the simple withdrawal of a member results in the dissolution of the partnership; if the business is continued, a new partnership is created." (This is different in Germany. Italy and France: Heenen. op. cit.. note 1. n. 48.1

³⁰ Cf. e.g. Holdsworth, vol. VIII. pp. 194 sqq.

¹⁴ Another factor bringing partnership cases under the jurisdiction of equity was the impossibility of actions at common law between partners and the firm, or between two firms having a common member: ct. Sir Frederick Pollock. JI Digest of the Law of Partnership (11th ed.. 19201. p. 24.

^IL Verhandeling van het Recht omtrent Socie'teiten of Compagnieschappen en Andere Cenieenschappen (18021. An English translation (A Treatise on the Contract of Partnership) by

O.D. Tudor appeared in 1854. Van der Linden himself, incidentally, also wrote about the law of partnership in his Regtsgeleerd Practicadl en Koopman's Hctndboek fBoek IV, Afdeeling I, §§ XI sqq.), leaning heavily on Pothier's Treatise. Cf. Pothier, Traite du contra! de societe. nn. 8 sqq.

[2438]¹⁴⁵

For example in Besier v. Van Niekerk 1960 (2) SA 779 (A) at 783H-784A Purdon v. Mullet 1961 (2) SA 211 (A) at 217H.

¹⁶ Detyannis v. Kapousousoglu 1942 (2) PH A40 (W) ("... illegality as a ground of invalidation seems to be part of the general law of contract; as such it does not seem to me to be convenient to include it in a category of the essentials of partnership").

^w Criticismhas in so far been levelled at the qualification ("Where all..."). F.P. van den Heever, The Partiarian Agricultural Lease in South African Law (n.d.), p. 23, for instance, writes: "The ruling is about as sound as the argument that because an ostrich is a two-legged, animate being it is, prima facie, and in the absence of proof of some non-essential disqualification, a man." Cf. further De Wet en Yeats, p. 384.

'*⁸ Torbel v. Executors ofAttwell (1879) 9 Buch 195 at 200 sq. (per de Villiers CI).

^w Coing, p. 469.

® Cf. e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XVII, Tit. II, IV, as opposed to Van Bynkershoek, Quaestiones Juris Privatt (Lugduni Batavorum, 1744), Lib. Ill, Cap. X Van der Linden, Koopman's Handboek. Boek IV, Afdeeling I, § XII; further: Story, op. cit., note 1, §§ 5, 196. Roman law had accepted only a contractual arrangement to the effect that the partnership should continue to exist between the remaining partners: Paul. D. 17, 2, 65, 9 (often, however, regarded as interpolated; cf. e.g. Arangio-Ruiz, op. cit., note 5, p. 159, but see Kaser, RPr II, p. 412; idem, (1975) 41 SDHI323 sqq.); cf. also Inst. Ill, 25, 5.

^H Strydom v. Protect EiendomscCente 1979 (2) SA 206 (T) at 209C-D. Cf. also e.g. Mutter v. Pienaar 1968 (3) SA 195 (A) at 202G-H.

¹³² H.R. Hahlo, Ellison Kahn, The Union of South Africa: The Development of its Laws and Constitution (1960), p. 702.

^K Michalow v. Premier Milting Co. Ltd. 1960 (2) SA 59 (W) at 63B-G; Strydom v. Protect Eiendomsagente 1979 (2) SA 206 (T) at 209F-210C. In Potchefstroom Dairies and Industries Co. Ltd. v. Standard Fresh Milk Supply Co. 1913 TPD 506 at 513, partnership has been referred to as a "quasi-persona".

^{^[2445]} Cf. Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, n. 365; for the common law, see Story, op. cit., note 1, §§ 71 sqq., for the ius commune Gliick, vol. 15, pp. 375 sqq.

¹² Bester v. Van Niekerk 1960 (2) SA 779 (A) at 783F-784A.

¹³⁵ Annabhay v. Ramlall 1960 (3} SA 802 (D) at 805A-F; Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, n. 366. The societas omnium bonorum has possibly fallen into disuse in Roman-Dutch law; according to Grotius, Inleiding, III, XXI, 3, it was even "van oude tijden in Holland... verboden geweest". But see Pothier, Traite du control de societe, nn. 24 sqq. The French code civil forbade an absolute societas omnium bonorum except between husband and wife (art.

1837).

¹⁵ This may be due to the influence of English law, where such a distinction does not obtain either. On the situation under the ius commune ("II est manifeste que, pour nos anciens auteurs, la societe de commerce n'est qu'une variete, a paine differenciee, de la societe civile") cf. Levy-Bruhl, as quoted by Coing, p. 465. But cf. Pothier, Traite du central de societe, n. 56.

Shingadia Brothers v. Shingadia 1958 (1) SA 582 (FC) at 583H.

^№ Cf. e.g. Munro v. Ekerold 1949 (1) SA 584 (SWA) at 589; Oostkuizen v. Swart 1956 (2) SA 687 (SWA) at690H-691A; Shingadia's case, at p. 583; Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, nn. 407 sqq.

¹⁰³ For details, see Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, n. 391; Beinart, 1961 Actajuridica 118 sqq.

For details, see Henning/Delport, op. cit., note 57, n. 395. According to Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Fib. XVII, Tic. II, VI and Oosthuizen v. Swart 1956 (2) SA 687 (SWA) at 692A-E, movables which are in the possession of a partner at the date of entering into the partnership become ipso iure common to the partners, without genuine delivery. This is the transitus legalis of D. 17, 2, 1. 1 and 2, as understood by the jurists of the ius commune.

¹⁶² On the various circumstances under which a partnership is dissolved (apart, of course, from the bringing of the actio pro socio substantially the same as in Roman law), cf. Henning/Delport, op. cit.. note 57, n. 419. Cf. also Pothier, Traite du control de societe. nn. 138 sqq.; Story, op. cit., note 1, §§ 265 sqq. (who concludes [§ 267]: "This general coincidence of opinion, in assigning the same causes for the dissolution of partnership, in so many countries, shows, that the doctrine has its true foundation in the general principles of natural justice and reason, rather than in the peculiar institutions of any particular age or nation"; cf. also § 281: "Pothier, Vinnius, and other learned jurists, have done little more than to state the [Roman] doctrine with a few appropriate illustrations." For a comparative survey of the modern law, see Heenen, op. cit., note 1, nn. 4t sqq.

^IS For a discussion of the problems arising, see Beinart, 1961 Actajuridica 148 sqq.

^{^[2455]} Robson v. Theron 1978 (1) SA 841 (A).

^IS Robson's case at 854E.

^lffi At 857D.

¹⁶⁷ At 861G-862B. For a discussion of the problem of the goodwill in the context of the

dissolution of a partnership, cf. also Story, op. cit., note 1, §§99 sq.

^{^[2460]} Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 61.

■ Konrad Zweigert, "Seriositatsindizien. Rechtsverglcichcnde Bemerkungen zur Scheidung verbindlicher Geschäfte von unverbindlichen" 1964 Juristenzeitung 349 sqq.

^{^[2462]} 2. Corinthians 9, 7 (" IXapov yap Sott^avdfana 6 -вебе, ").

477

* Hence, for instance, provisions such as § 2301 I BGB: "The provisions relating to dispositions mortis causa apply to a promise of a gift made subject to the condition that the donee shall survive the donor." But see § 2301 II: "If the donor executes the gift by delivery of the object given, the provisions relating to gifts inter vivos apply." For details, see Hans- Joachim Musielak, in: Munchener Kommentar. vol. 6 (1982), § 2301, nn. 1 sqq.; on donatio mortis causa in Roman law, see Kaser, RPr I, pp. 763 sqq.; Yaron, Gifts in Contemplation of Death in Jewish and Roman Law i I960).

^{^[2464]} This aspect has been emphasized, in particular, by John P. Dawson, Gifts and Promises.

Continental and American Law Compared (1980).

⁶ Cf. e.g. § 2303 BGB; art. 913 code civil and, on the origins of forced heirship, Dawson,

op. cit., note 5, pp. 29 sqq.

^{^[2468]} System, vol. IV, p. 3.

^{^[2469]} A general character which the most divergent legal transactions may adopt.

^{^[2470]} This is already evident from the wide range of opinions as to the appropriate systematical niche for the law of donations. Justinian dealt with it in the context of acquisition of ownership; Buckland/Stein still place it under the heading "The Law of Property; lure civili Modes of Acquisition". Savigny's treatment of donation is part of his discussion of the principles relating to legal transactions in general. Others, too, have regarded the general part of the system of private law as the proper place to discuss donation (contra: Windscheid/Kipp, § 365, n. 18 (pp. 549 sqq.}). The Austrian ABGB places it between the general part of the law of obligations and the specific contracts, the BGB next to sale (i.e. as part of its section entitled "particular obligations"), the code civil alongside succession by will (both being gratuitous methods of acquisition).

^D Gian Gualberto Archi, La donazione (I960), pp. 23 sqq.; Michel, Gratuite. pp. 290 sqq.; Kaser, RPrl. pp. 601 sq.

¹ Cf. e.g. Archi, op. cir., note 10, pp. 85 sqq.; Biondo Biondi, "II concetto di donazione", in: Scritti giuridici. vol. Ill (1965), pp. 649 sqq.

^E Cf. the example discussed by Schulz, CRL, pp. 566: A pays what D owes to C. A's payment is at one and the same time a solutio with regard to C and (provided there has been an agreement between A and D to that effect) donatio in respect of D.

^B Or factual conduct: c(. e.g. lul. D. 39, 5, 14 ("Qui alienum fundum donationis causa excolit..."); C. 3, 32, 2, 1 ("... si non donandi animo aedificia alieno solo imposita sint"; Sev. et Ant.).

⁹ Cf. Marc. D. 24, 1, 49; lul. D. 12, 1, 20 ("... non ea menta pecunia daretur..."); lul. D. 39. 5, 1 pr.

^B Cf., for example, Paul. D. 39, 5, 34 pr.; C 5, 3, 1 (Sev. et Ant.)- The origin of the concept of animus donandi is a controversial topic. All references to it were regarded as interpolated by Fritz Pringsheim, "Animus donandi", (1921) 42 ZSS 1T3 sqq. Biondo Biondi has gone to the opposite extreme and accepts animus donandi, wherever it occurs, as classical (op. cit., note 11, pp. 680 sqq.). For a balanced assessment, see Archi, op. cit., note 10, pp. 33 sqq., 49 sqq.; Kaser, RPr 1, p. 160; for a full re-examination of the matter, see Sergio Broise. Animus donandi (19751 ("in luogo di una rigida contrapposizione fra diritto classico e dirittogiustittianeo, sipotrebbe suppore una lettta egraduate trasformazione dei testi lungo tutto I'arco di tempo die va daila fine delta giurisprudenza classica alia codificazione di Giustiniano" (PP, 48 sq.)).

^{^[2477]} Vat. 269.

^{^[2478]} Ulp. D. 43, 26, 1, 2.

^1M Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 43, 26, 1, 2 and 3; for details, see Biondi, op. cit., note 11, pp. 674 sqq.; Klaus Slapnicar. Gratis habitare, Unentgeltliches Wohnen nach romischetti und geltendem Recht (1981), pp. 70 sqq. According to Geoffrey MacCormack, "Gift, Debt, Obligation and the Real Contracts", (1985) 31 Labeo Til sqq. gift is the earliest type of transaction in simplesocieties. According to him, loans, deposits and pledges (i.e. the real contracts) were only subsequently separated from the class of gifts. This would fit in with the fact that commodatum is much better defined than the broad concept of donatio.

^{^[2480]} Hence, Schulz, CRL. p. 566 says that the classical donation can be defined only in a negative way. Since it did not give rise to obligations, there could, for instance, be no implied warranty of title or for latent defects: see Michel, Gratuite. pp. 294 sqq.

" Cf. supra, note 2.

Exception: pollicitatio. Cf. infra, pp. 508 sqq. On poliidtatio cf. p. 496.

^{^[2483]} This is the causa donandi which was based on the donor's intention to donate and on the corresponding will of the donee to receive the gift. Of course, it was particularly the former that was of vital importance for a donation and was therefore usually emphasized. But nobody had to accept somebody else's gifts against his will: "non potest Hberalitas nolenti adquiri" (Ulp. D. 39. 5, 19, 2); cf. further lav. D. 44, 7, 55 and Honsell/Mayer- Maly/Sclb, p. 345.

^{^[2484]} For a crisp and clear account of the development, see Watson, Evolution, pp. 6 sqq.

^{^[2485]} Eberhard F. Bruck, Uber Romisches Recht im Rahtnen der Kulturgeschichte (1954), pp. 121 sqq. But see also Wolfgang Kunkel, (1955) 72 ZSS 478, who draws attention to the fact that munificentia and liberalitas were highly rated virtues amongst the aristocracy during the later Republic and Principate. But they were often rather ostentatiously displayed and became an object of political calculation.

Livius, Ah urbe condita, Lib. XXXIV, IV, 9. Cf. generally vat. 250 sqq. and for the discussion of all details, Archi, op. cit., note 10, pp. 13 sqq., 145 sqq. and Franco Casavola, Lex Cincia (I960), passim. Cf also, more recently, Amparo Gonzalez, "The Possible Motivation of the Lex Cincia de donis et muneribus", (1987) 34 RIDA 161 sqq.

^{2(Cf. e.g. Misera, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 419 sq.; Holzapfel, op. cit., note 44, pp. 76 sqq. This is also the reason why the prohibition did not apply only between the spouses themselves but between all the persons belonging to their two family units: cf. Ulp. D. 24, 1, 3, 2-8; Ulp. D. 24, 1, 32, 16-21.}

Hence, for instance, the rendering of gratuitous services to each other or the use or occupancy by one spouse of servants, lands or other assets belonging to the other were not prohibited; cf. infra, note 69.

³ Cf. also Ulp. D. 24. 1. 5. 13; 14.

^{^[2512]} For an example of a donation which was regarded as valid because the receiving spouse

was left in the end with no net gain, see Ulp. D. 24. 1. 5. 8 (donatio sepulturae causa;

discussed by Misera. Bereicherungsgedanke, pp. 15 sqq.’).

^s The donor could not recover more than the value by which he was impoverished. Cf..

for example. Paul. D. 24. 1. 28. 3 {in fine"): If a husband gives his wife 10 and she uses it to

buy a slave worth 15. recovery could only be for 10. (On the other hand, if the wife bought

a slave worth 5. she would be liable only for 5 (this being the sum by which she was

ultimately enriched").")

^s For a detailed analysis, see Misera. Bereicherungsgedanke, pp. 6 sqq.; Archi. op. cit.. note

10. pp. 75 sqq.

³⁷ Emphasized by Dawson, op. cit., note 5, pp. 15 sqq. and passim.

^5HD. 24, 1, 2.

^5y Pap. D. 39, 5, 31 pr.; cf. Kaser, RPr I, p. 321.

^{^[2524]} The divorce rate soared towards the end of the Republic, a fact which may have influenced the perception and application of the prohibition (Misera, Festschrift Kaser, p. 425). The prohibition did not, however, originate as a reaction to the divorce problem (as Wilens, Over Schenkingen tusschen Edttgenooten in het Romeinsche Recht (1934), pp. 9 sqq., 90 sqq. and others will have it).

^a Ulp. D. 24, 1, 3, 1.

Quaestiones Rotnanae, VII and VIII; Misera, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 415 sq.

³ For details, sec Misera. Bereichemngsverbot, pp. 84 sqq.

⁸ Ulp. D. 24. 1. 5. 18; Paul. D. 24. 1. 36 pr.; if the object had been consumed or destroyed, its value could be recovered, but only to the extent that the donee was still enriched. Cf. Misera, Bereichentngsgedanke, pp. 84 sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 24. 1. 21 pr.; Pomp. D. 24. 1. 29. 1; Pomp. D. 24. 1. 31. 8.

Ulp. D. 24. 1. 32 pr.-2; Pap. vat. 294. 2: C 5, 16, 1 and 3 (both Ant.); Siber. (1933) 53 ZSS 103 sqq.; Archi, op. at., note 10, pp. 219 sqq.

^{^[2528]} Ulp. D. 24. 1. 9. 2; Gai. D. 24. 1. 10; Pap. D. 39. 6. 40.

¹ '^H Ulp. D- 24. 1. 11. 11; Hermog. ID. 24. 1. 60. 1. The divorce must be imminent: Paul. D. 24, 1,12. "If... the gift is made vaguely in contemplation of a possible divorce... the donation is void¹' (Van Schalkwyk v. Van Schalkwyk 1947 (4) SA 86 (O) at 96-7).

^m Misera, Festschrift Kaser, p. 433. The same author draws attention to the fact that, where a donation has in fact been made, the obligation to return or to make good the value is excluded where the recipient is no longer enriched. That shows that in actual practice the spouses were to a certain extent seen to be sharing in each other's assets. The same appears from the fact that where one spouse was permitted to use clothes or slaves, or to live in a house belonging to the other, this was not regarded as an infringement of the prohibition of donations between spouses. Cf. Pomp. D. 24, 1, IS: "Si vir uxoris aut uxor viri servis aut vestimentis usus vel usa fuerit vel in aedibus ems gratis habitaverit, valet donatio."

This text raises intricate problems. Does it imply that habitatio gratuita was, after all, regarded as donation (rather than commodatum; cf. supra, p. 191)? Slapnicar, op. cit., note 18, pp. 103 sqq., disputes that and translates "valet donatio" with: "it is to be treated as a donation" (rather than "the donation is valid"). He argues that while habitatio gratuita was commodatum, certain rules relating to donations were applied per analogiam (Pomp. D. 39, 5, 9 pr. as to the lex Cincia; Pomp. D. 24, 1, 18 as to the prohibition of donations between spouses). Thus he comes to the conclusion that even though the transaction was not

donation, it was invalid. But his view is unconvincing (cf e.g. Knutel, (1984) 184 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 190). The prevailing opinion is that even though the transaction was a donation, it was valid. Cf. e.g. Karlheinz Misera, "Gebrauchsuberlassung und Schenkung unter Ehegatten", (1972) 3 Index 397 sqq. The solution seems to be that Pomponius is using the term "donatio" in D. 24, 1, 19 in a wide and untechnical sense. Here, as in so many other cases, one should not rashly assume that the Romans used and developed a fixed and technical terminology. In this particular instance, the Roman lawyers generally seem to have used a dual terminology: sometimes we find them referring to a particular transaction as a donation, and then stating that a particular rule did, nevertheless, not apply to it; on other occasions they (more narrowly) used the term "donatio" only to refer to those transactions that fitted into the framework of this particular rule. See Hugo Burckhard, Zum Begriff der Schenkung (1899), pp. 15 sqq.; Misera, Bereicherungsgedanke, pp. 161 sqq.

^{^[2532]} Ulp. D. 18, 1, 38: "Si quis donationis causa minons vendat, venditio valet...." On verum pretium, see supra, p. 252.

Ulp. D. 18, 1, 38 in fine. Cf. generally Karlheinz Misera, "Der Freundeskauf unter Ehegatten im romischen Recht", in: Rechtswissenschaft und Gesetzgebung. Festschrift für Hduard Wahl (1973), pp. 25 sqq.; Broise, op. cit., note 15, pp. 119 sqq.

^{^[2534]} Ner./Ulp. D. 24, 1, 5, 5 (genuine; see Misera, Bereicherungsgedanke, pp. 120 sqq.; idem, Festschrift Wahl. pp. 34 sqq.)

^{^[2535]} Cf. Ulp. D. 18. 1. 38; Afr. D. 16. 1. 17 pr.; Pap. D. 24. 1. 52 pr.

^{^[2536]} Hans Hermann Seiler. "Utile per inutile non vitiatur", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976). p. 139: Zimmermann. Moderationsrecht. p. 129: differently. Misera. Festschrift Wahl. pp. 40 sqq., according to whom Neratius based his decision on the lack of a certum pretium.

^{^[2537]} Kaser. RPr II. p. 172.

⁷⁵ Coing, p. 240; Windscheid/Kipp. § 509.

^{^[2539]} Cf. e.g. Stryk. Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XXIV. Tit. I. § 6 with regard to "donationes... tempore nativitatis Christi" and "die natali donatio modica"; Huber. Praelectiones, Lib. XXIV. Tit. I. 4 ("Hinc etiam munera, quae sum modicae praestationes esculentorum, potulemorum; vel strenae natalitiae aut novi anni, inter coniuges non prohibentur"!. As far as remuneratory gifts are concerned, see. for instance. Brunnemann. Comtnentarius in Pandectas, Lib. XXIV. Tit. I. ad L. Quod autem 7. 3; Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XXIV, Tit. I, X; Lib. XXXIX, Tit. V, XVII.

^7H For details, seeH.R. Hahlo, The South African Law of Husband and Wife (4th ed., 1975), pp. 128 sqq. A variety of other modern legal systems have adopted the Roman prohibition of donations between spouses; see Holzapfel, op. cit,, note 44. pp. 99 sqq. for an overview.

^{^[2541]} On the rise of the term "liberalitas" in the imperial propaganda and on its meaning, cf.

Armin U. Stylow, Libertas und Liberalitas (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, München, 1972), pp. 58 sqq.

® Clemence Dupont. "Les donations dans les constitutions de Constantin". (19621 9 RID A 314 sqq.; as to the contemporary practice in general, see Dupont, pp. 308 sqq.

^a The famous "Constantinian Donation" provided the formal legitimation for the establishment of the Papal State; the document was drawn up by Roman clergymen in the second half of the 8th century. Constantine allegedly made the donation when he moved his residence from Rome to what came to be known as Constantinople (Byzantium, today Istanbul). The Catholic Church regarded the document as so important that every new Emperor (of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation) had to confirm it; whoever doubted its authenticity was regarded as a heretic. On all this, cf. Horst Fuhrmann, "Das frühmittelalterliche Papsttum und die konstantinische Schenkung", in: (1973) 20 Settimane di studio del Centre Italiano di Studi mil' Alto Medioevo; D. Waley, The Papal State in the 13th century (1961); P. Partner, The Lands of St. Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance (1972).

^{^[2544]} Constantine had been acquainted with the Christian religion from an early age. Amongst the servants of Diocletian's court (where he grew up) Christianity was widespread. Diocletian's wife and daughter inclined towards it, as did Constantine's own father, Constantius. Constantine was probably educated by Lactantius (one of the Fathers of the Church), who was a grammaticus (language instructor). One of Diocletian's co-emperors, Maximian, had a Christian wife (Eutropia); her daughter Theodora (also a Christian) became Constantius' wife (i.e. Constantine's step-mother; Constantine's mother was the famous concubine Helena). Their daughters (Constantine's step-sisters) received a Christian education. The decisive event regarding Constantine's attitude towards the Christian religion was, of course, the battle at the Milvian Bridge in Rome on 28 October 312 against the usurper Maxentius, and his famous vision preceding it. Constantine was baptized shortly before he died in 337. The new Christian ideas were bound to be reflected in Constantine's legislatorial activities. One of his (heathen) successors, Julianus Apostata, referred to him as "novator turbatorque priscarum legum" (Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae. Lib. XXI, 10, 8). Constantine's panegyrist Nazarius acknowledged the same, only from a different perspective: "Novae leges regendis moribus et frangendis vitiis constituiae. Veterum calumniosae ambages recisae captandae simplicitatis laqueos perdiderunt" (Nazarii Patiegy- rius Const. Aug., XXXVIII). On Constantine as a Christian ruler cf. e.g. Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine (1987), pp. 101 sqq.; Avril Cameron, "Constantinus Christianus", (1983) 73JRS 184 sqq.

^{^[2545]} "Multas saepe natas ex donatione, causas cognavimus in quibus vel adumbrata pro expressis vel inchoata pro perfectis vel plurima pro omnibus controversiam faciant, cum agentium visa pro ingenio ac facultate dicendi aut perfecta deformarent aut inchoata perficerent": vat. 249, 1.

⁵⁰ As is usually believed; cf. e.g. Archi, op. at., p. 236; Kaser, RPr II, p. 395. But see Simon, op. cit., note 84, pp. 116 sqq.

³ For details, see Francisco Samper Polo, "La disposicion mortis causa en el derecho Romano vulgar", (1968) 38 AHDE 87 sqq.

³² Codex Theodosianus 8, 17, 7.

⁵⁸ Pringsheim, "Liberalitas", in: Studi in memoria di Emiiio Albertario, vol. I (1953), p. 667.

^{^[2547]} Cf. e.g. Dupont, (1962) 9 RID A 308 sqq.

⁵⁵ Generally called venerabiles domus. These include the xenodochia (locus venerabilis in quo peregrini susdpiuntur), ptochotrophia (in quo pauperes et infirmi homines pascuntur), nosotrophia (in quo aegroti homines curantur), orphanotrophia (in quo parentibus orbati pueri pascuntur); brephanotrophia (in quo infantes aluntur); gerontocomia (in quo pauperes et propter senectutem solam infirmi homines curantur). Cf. e.g. C. 1, 3, 45, 3 (for the definitions, see P.W. Duff, Personality in Roman Private Law (1938), p. 178). As to the establishment and administration of these so-called "piae causae", cf. Hans Rudolf Hagemann, Die Stelhtng der Piae Causae nack justinianischem Rechte (1953), pp. 42 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 158. The history of the law of foundations can be traced back to them: cf Hans Liermann, Handbuch des Stiftungsreckts (1963), pp. 24 sqq. On the relief and welfare activities of the Church, based on Christian caritas, cf. generally Hagemann, pp. 5 sqq.; August Knecht, System desjustinianischen Kirchenvertnogensrechtes (1905), pp. 43 sqq.; also Gluck, vol. 39, pp. 448 sqq. Cf. further Eberhard F. Bruck, Kirchenväter und soziales Erbrecht (1956), pp. 31 sqq., 37 sqq.; Duff, pp. 189 sqq.; C.P. Joubert, Die Stigting in die Romeins-Hollandse Reg en die Suid-Ajrikaanse Reg (1951), pp. 29 sqq.

⁶ Cf. e.g. C. 1, 2, 25. The Greek Fathers of the Church had attempted to strike a compromise between the ideal of absolute poverty and the realities of a less perfect, secular (but none the less Christian) existence and postulated that part of the estate ought to be left to Christ (on behalf of the poor); for details, see Bruck, op. cit., note 95, pp. 1 sqq., 41 sqq., 55 sqq. Essential for these gifts pro animae redemptione was their voluntariness.

¹⁽⁵ Cf. generally Kaser, RPr II, pp. 282 sqq. As far as donations are concerned, cf. e. g. C. 8, 53, 35, 5 b ("... non ex hoc inutilis sit donatio, quod res non traditae sunt, nee confirmetur ex traditione donatio") and Inst. II, 7, 2 ("... et ad exemplum venditionis nostra constitutio eas etiam in se habere necessitatem traditionis voluit, ut, et si non tradantur, habeant plenissimum et perfectum robur et traditionis necessitas incumbat donatori").

^{^[2549]} Cf. e.g. Inst, II, 7, 2: "[PJerfiriuntur autem [donationes], cum donator suam

voluntatem scriptis aut sine scriptis manifestaverit."

^{^[2551]} Cf. e.g. C. 4, 21, 17 pr.; Pringsheim, (1921) 42 ZSS 275 sqq.

¹⁰³ C. 8, 53, 33 pr. (529 A.D.). ¹⁰⁹ C 8, 54, 36, 3 (531 A.D.flnst. II, 7, 2.

¹¹⁽¹ Certain provincial governors earned 300 solidi a year (of which 40-50 had to be passed on): Nov. 24-26.

C. 8, 53, 36 pr. On redemptio ab hostibus in classical law, see Kaser, RPr I, p. 291; in post-classical times, see Knecht, pp. 105 sqq.; Ernst Levy, "Captivus redemptus", in:

Gesammelte Schrijten, vol. II (1963), pp. 40 sqq.; generally Adalbert Erler, Der Loskauf Gefangener. Ein Rechtsproblem sett drei Jahrtausenden (1978). Usually, one was dealing with the redemption of Christian prisoners who had fallen into heathen hands; in a wide sense of the term, the donor was thus promoting pia causa; hence the favourable treatment of the donation.

¹² C. 8, 53, 36, 2.

¹³ Nov. 52. 2. As to gifts made by the Emperor. c(. C. 8. 53. 34. 1 a (and the case of Prince William of Orange, who promised to pay to "faeminae illustri" an annuity of 4 000 florins, as reported by Van Bynkershoek, Observations Tumultuariae, nn. 260, 1870).

¹⁸ Cf. supra, note3.

® For a detailed analysis, see Bruck, op. cit., note 24, pp. 101 sqq. (first under the title

"Ethics vs. Law: St. Paul, the Fathers of the Church, and the "Cheerful Giver' in Roman Law", (1944) 2 Traditio 97 sqq.).

^{^[2561]} Recounted by Bruck, op. cit.. note 24. pp. 137 sqq. (first in (19461 4 Seminar 45 sqq. sub titulo "The Ghost Story of the 'Cheerful Giver' in Medieval and Modern Civil Law"’).

^a Dawson, op. cit.. note 5. p. 86.

^E Ulp. D. 15. 3. 10. 7.

¹³ Ulp. D. 5. 3. 25. 11 (interpolated: Pierre Cornioley. Naturaiis obligatio (1964). pp. 256 sq.L

^m Cf. e.g. Levy. Obligationenrecht, p. 239: Ferdinando Bona. "Contributi alia storia della 'societas universorum quae ex quaestu veniunt' in diritto romano", in: Studi in ortore di Giuseppe Grosso, vol. I (1968), pp. 418 sqq.; but see Michel, Gratuite, pp. 279 sqq., who concludes that for the Romans remuneratio and donation were two different things.

^{^[2565]} Paul. D. 39, 5, 34, 1 (interpolated). This text deals with a rescue situation ("Si quis aliquem a latrumculis vel hostibus eripuit et aliquid pro eo ab ipso acdpiat, hacc donatio inrevocabilis est: non mcrccs eximii laboris appellanda est, quod contemplatione salutes certo modo aestimari non placuit"). Cf, most recently, Broisc, op. cit., note 15, pp. 89 sqq.

® C. 8, 55, 1 (A.D. 249).

^{^[2567]} Vat. 248; Codex Theodosianus 8, 13, 1 and 2; Levy, Obligatiownrecht, pp. 245 sqq.

⁰⁷ Coing, pp. 485 sq. For a particularly detailed discussion, see Voet, Commentarius ad Pandeclas, Lib. XXXIX, Tit. V.

⁰⁸ Grotius [Inleiding, III, II, 15) refrained from expressing an opinion on the matter. He

saw the registration requirement as an attempt by the Romans to check excessive liberality

("om de overdadighe mildheid in te tomen") and proceeded to state, with a touch of dry humour: "I do not find anything to this effect in our own laws, perhaps because there is no excess of liberality in this country" ("waer van ich in onzes lands wetten niet en vinde,

misschieri omdat de mildheid hier niet te groot is geweest"). The background story on how Grotius tried to establish the law of Holland is told ("ut mihi pro certo relatum") by Van Leeuwcn, Censura Foretisis, Pars I, Lib. II, Cap. VIII, 7. But for Grotius, all authorities agreed that the registration rule was in force in Holland; cf. e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXXIX, Tit. V, 18, who states that there is no reason to abandon this requirement, since fictitious alienations in fraud of creditors are so commonly practised; Van der Keessel, Praekctiones ad Grotium, HI, II, 15.

^№ Groenewegen, De legibus abrogatis. Cod. Lib. X, Tit. LXX, 1. 5 quotiescumque.

^{^[2574]} "Quotiescunque certa summa solidorum ab homine profertur, secundum con- setudinem regionis intellegi atque taxari debent": Groenewegen, loc. cit.; Stryk, Usus modernus pandectamm, Lib. XXXIX, Tit. V, § 4.

“ System, vol. IV. § 116 (p. 2101.

^IL § 367. 2. Cf. also RGZ 1. 313 (4.666 2/3 Reichsmark).

Thorpe's Executors v. Thorpe's Twfoi-(1886) 4 SC 488 at 490. Cf. further R.G. McKerron, "Registration of Gifts", (1935) 52 SAL] 17 sqq.; Coronet's Curator v. Estate Coronel 1941 AD 323 at 339 sqq.

¹⁴¹ See P.R. Owens, op. cit.. note 129. n. 125. Today, s. 43 of the General Law Amendment Act (70/1968) applies; no longer are donations invalid merely through failure to register the donation. Executory contracts of donation, however, must now be reduced to writing and signed by the donor or by a person acting on a written authority granted by him in the presence of two witnesses. Failure to comply with these formalities appears to render the contract unenforceable, not void (i.e. subsequent performance is not recoverable).

^{^[2576]} Cf. supra, pp. 492 sq. (note 90).

¹⁴⁵ For what follows, see Dawson, op. cit., note 5, pp. 29 sqq., 42 sqq.

^№ Art. 931 code civil. Cf. also am. 932 sq., 1339 code civil.

⁴⁸ This is already apparent from the systematical position of donation next to the law of succession.

¹⁴⁴ For an overview, see Dawson, op. cit., note 5, pp. 29 sqq., 123 sqq.; cf. also Coing, pp. 610 sqq.

^{^[2581]} Art. 913 code civil. The testator can dispose of 3 of his estate only if one legitimate child survives him, of j if two and of j if three or more legitimate children survive. For further details, see artt- 914 sq. The BGB provides for a compulsory portion ("Pflichtteil"): "If a descendant of a testator is excluded by disposition mortis causa from succeeding, he may demand his compulsory portion from the heir. The compulsory portion amounts to one-half the statutory portion. The parents and spouse of the testator have the same rights if they have been excluded from succeeding by a disposition mortis causa" (§ 2303).

^Q Cf. § 2325 I BGB: "Where a testator has made a gift to a third party, a compulsory beneficiary may claim, as supplement to his compulsory portion, the amount by which the compulsory portion would be increased if the object given were added to the estate." However, a ten-year limit is imposed as far as this retrospective review of gifts is concerned (§ 2325 III BGB). According to the French code civil, donations can also be cancelled or scaled down retrospectively if the total of the descendant's gifts exceeded the disposable quota. Here not even a time limit exists. Cf. art. 922 code civil.

¹³² For details, see Dawson, op. cit., note 5, pp. 70 sqq., 74 sqq.

^B Marcel Planiol, Georges Ripert, Traite pratique de droit civil francais (2nd ed., 1957), vol. V, p. 325.

^{^[2582]} Dawson, op. cit., note 5, p. 87.

¹⁵ § 128 BGB: "If notarial authentication of a contract is prescribed by law, it is sufficient

if first the offer and later the acceptance of the offer be authenticated by a notary."

¹³⁵ § 518 I BGB. The reasons given for the formality have been well summed up by

Dawson, op. cit., note 5, p. 134: to ensure care and deliberation by promisors; the need for

better evidence than the informal and ambiguous language often used in spontaneous expressions; the undesirability of allowing the strict requirements of form for testamentary gifts to be bypassed too easily; the need to prevent exploitation of the thoughtless and good-natured and to protect their creditors and heirs. Cf. "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 162; Protokolle, in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 743. Cf. also supra, pp. 85 sqq.

^{^[2588]} §518 II BGB.

The same applies in French law. As to how this requirement and the ensuing restriction of the concept of donation fits in with the new purposes for policing gift transactions, see Dawson, op. cit., note 5, pp. 54 sqq., 142 sqq., 221 sqq. He emphasizes that, for instance, promises made without recompense to render a service or to permit the use of some piece of property are exempt from all restrictions because they are not regarded as promises of gift, but fall into separate contractual categories. In England, on the other hand, they will all be void for want of consideration. On locupletior-pauperior cf. further, for example, Savigny, System, vol. IV, §§ 145 sqq.; Archi, op. cit., note 10, pp. 75 sqq.

^№ Burckhard, op. cit., note 69, pp. 76 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Savigny, System, vol. IV, § 153, pp. 86 sq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 365; Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. II, § 106, 2.

¹³ This, for Savigny, also settled the highly problematical question whether a remuneratory gift was a gift. For if the pursuit of selfish and egoistical purposes does not detract from the nature of the transaction as a gift, it would indeed be odd if the unselfish motive of gratitude for services rendered would. The qualification of remuneratory gifts has always been very controversial: Paul. D. 39, 5, 34, 1. Those who regarded donationes remuneratoriae as true donations and as such as being subject to all the positive rules governing donations (such as Savigny, System, vol. IV, § 153 or Windscheid/Kipp, § 368) tended to look at this text as an exception, which related specifically to rescue situations. Others regarded it as the expression of a general principle covering all instances of remuneratory gifts (cf. e.g. Miihlenbruch, Doctriria pandectarum, % 443). That led some writers to the conclusion that remuneratory gifts are not true donations at all, and,

¹⁰² Oawson, op. cit., note 5, p. 138.

^{^[2594]} "Die Lehre von der Voraussetzung (im Hinblick auf den Entwurf eines bürgerlichen

Gesetzbuches)", (1889) 74 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 230 sqq.

Cf. the account by Franz Haymann, Die Schenkung unter einer Auflage (1905), pp. 1 sqq.

^is?> Cf, particularly, Werner Lorenz, "Entgeltliche und unentgeltliche Geschäfte", in: lus privatmn gentium Festschrift für Max Rheinstein, vol. II (1969), pp. 547 sqq. One of the main problem areas is that of gifts with charge (donationes sub modo). Here it is often difficult to

decide whether the parties intended to conclude a donation or an onerous contract. On donations sub modo, see Savigny, System, vol. IV, § 175; Windscheid/Kipp, § 369; Haymann, op. cit., note 164, pp. 22 sqq.; Schulz, CRL. pp. 568 sq.; Michel, Gratuite, pp. 265 sqq.; Coing, pp. 486 sq.; on modem law: Lorenz, Festschrift Rheinstein, vol. II, p. 561; Dawson, op. cit., note 5, pp. 103 sqq., 166 sqq.

^1JIA For a classic "definition", see Currie v. Mha (1875) LR 10 Exch 153 at 162: "A valuable consideration, in the sense of the law, may consist either in some right, interest, profit, or benefit accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss, or responsibility, given, suffered, or undertaken by the other."

¹ For a recent summary of the position in modern law, see Treitel, Contract, pp. 52 sqq.; Basil S. Markesinis, "La notion de consideration dans la common law: vieux problemes; nouvelles theories", (1983) 35 Revue intematicmale de droit compare 735 sqq.; Clare Dalton, "An Essay in the Deconstruction of Contract Doctrine", (1985) 94 Yale LJ 1066 sqq.; cf. also infra, pp. 554 sqq.

^{zin general, see Arthur T. von Mehren (1959) 72 Harvard LR 1009 sqq.; cf. also B.S. Markesinis, "Cause and Consideration: A Study in Parallel", (1978) 37 CL.J 53 sqq.}

¹⁹³ Promises which have not been made against a consideration are actionable if they are "under seal" (i.e. contained in a sealed document).

^{^[2612]} Gai. DI, 89,

^{^[2613]} D. 2, 14, 7, 4. Cf. further e.g. Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 5; Ulp. D. 19, 5, 15; Paul. Sent. II, XIV. 1; C. 2, 3, 10 (Alex.) and Schmidlin, Rechtsregeln, pp. 97 sqq. In later times this rule was usually referred to in a slightly different formulation: ex nudo pacto non oritur actio.

^{^[2614]} On the terminology cf. Andre Magdelain, Le consensualisme dam {'edit du preteur (1958), pp. 5 sqq. Pactum/pactio is derived from pacisci/pacere and originally referred to redemption from liability, i.e. to the act by which the wrongdoer "bought off" the victim's right of vengeance: cf. e.g. 8, 2 of the XII Tables: "Si membrum rupsit, ni cum eo pack, talio esto"; for details, see Kaser, RPrI, pp. 171 sqq. Ulpianus (D. 2, 14, 1, 1) draws attention to the fact that the word for peace has the same root: "Pactum autem a pactione dicitur (inde etiam pacis nomen appellatum est)."

^{^[2615]} Cf. Gai. IV. 122: "Dilatoriae sunt exceptiones quae ad tempus valent, veluti illius pacti conventi,... ne intra quinquennium peteretur."

508

^{^[2616]} Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 7. Cf. e.g. Biondo Biondi, Contralto e stipulatio (1953), pp. 144 sqq.; Knutel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 63 sq. and, particularly, Gian Gualberto Archi, "Ait Praetor: 'Pacta conventa servabo¹ ", in: De iustitia et iure. Festgabe jur Ulrich von Lubtow (1980), pp. 373 sqq. Differently Magdelain, Consensualisme. pp. 49 sqq., who reads into ”[t]his rather high-sounding pronouncement" (Schulz, CRL. p. 470) the "charte du consensualisme". Cf. further on this passage Gyorgy Diosdi, "Pacta nuda servabo?", (1971) 74 BIDR 89 sqq.

^{^[2617]}Cf. Paul. D. 18, 5, 3; Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 5 sq. and Rolf Knutel, "Die Inharenz der exceptio pacti im bonae fidei indicium", (1967) 84 ZSS 133 sqq.

^{^[2618]} Paul. D. 18, 5, 3.

^{^[2619]} lav. D. 19, 2, 21; on this text, see, for example, J. A.C. Thomas, "Tenancy by Purchaser", (1959) 10 lura 103 sqq.

^{^[2620]} Pap. D. 18, 1, 72 pr.

^{^[2621]} Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1 pr.; Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 5; Knutel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 64 sqq. "

Cf. e.g. Grosso, Sisiema. pp. 187 sqq.

^{^[2623]} The most prominent examples of pacta appended to contracts of sale were the in diem addictio, the lex commissona and the pactum displicentiae. The former two gave the

vendor, the latter the purchaser the right to call ofTthe sale under certain circumstances. For details cf. infra, pp. 735 sqq. Practically less important were the pactum de retroemendo (the vendor is granted the right to buy back the thing sold; cf. Proc. D. 19, 5, 12; C. 4, 54, 2 (Alex.); Glück, vol. 16, pp. 199 sqq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 2T1 sqq.; on the subsequent history, see Theo Mayer-Maly, "Beobachtungen und Gedanken zum Wiederkauf, in: Festschrift für Franz Wieacker (1978), pp. 424 sqq.) and the pactum protimiseos ("si ita fundum tibi vendidero, ut nulli alii eum quam mini venderes"; cf. Paul. D. 19, 1, 21, 5; Hermog. D. 18, 1, 75; Gluck, vol. 16, pp. 156 sqq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 282 sqq. On the historical development of the modem right of pre-emption (§§ 504 sqq. BGB) from this (and other) root(s), cf. Klaus Schurig, Das Vorkaufsrecht im Privatrecht (1975"). pp. 36 sqq.. 49 sqq.

^{^[2625]} D. 2, 14, 7, 5. ¹⁴ Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 5.

^B Cf. further e.g. Grosso, Sistema, pp. 179 sqq.; Biondi, op. cit., note 5, pp. 144 sqq.;

Kniitel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 67 sqq.

^B Cf. supra, pp. 83 sq. and infra, pp. 622 sqq.

^{^[2629]} Cf. e.g. Fritz Pringsheim, "Id quod actum est", (1961) 78 ZSS 54 sqq.

^B This text has usually been regarded as corrupt; cf. e.g. Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 184 sqq.; but see e.g. Knutel, Stipulatiopoenae. pp. 286 sq.

® For a detailed discussion and examples, see Rolf Knutel, "Stipulatio und pacta", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 201 sqq.

²³ Ulp. D. 13, 5, 14, 3.

^{^[2633]} For what follows cf. Buckland/Stein, pp. 529 sq.; Schulz, CRL, pp. 560 sqq.;

Magdelain, Consensuaiisme, pp. 126 sqq.; Jules Roussier, "Le constitut", in: (1958) 3 Vari a,

Etudes de droit romain 1 sqq.; Salvatore Tondo, "In tema di 'constitutem debiti'", (1958) 4 Labeo 208 sqq.; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 229 sqq.

² Cf. Lenel. EP. pp. 247 sqq.

³ For details cf. infra, pp. 783 sqq.. 790 sqq.

^a Cf. Ulp. D. 13. 5. 18. 3.

³ Cf. C 4, 18, 3; Nov. 4. 1; Roussier. (1958") 3 Varia 142 sqq.; Frezza. Garanzie, vol. I. pp. 281 sqq.; Kaser. RPr II. p. 461.

^{^[2638]} Groencwcgcn. Tractatus de iegibus abrogatis, Cod. Lib. IV. Tit. XVIII. 2-3. Cf. further e.g. Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XIII. Tit. V. XIV; Windscheid/Kipp. § 476; but see Gliick. vol. 13. pp. 398 sqq.

^{^[2639]} See the detailed exposition by Gliick. vol. 13. pp. 373 sqq.

²*Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 13, 5, 18, 3.

Cf. C. 4, 18, 2, 1 sq. On the constitutum in the law of Justinian cf. Gian Gualberto Archi, "Contributi alia critica del Corpus Juris”, (1962) 65 BIDR 134 sqq.; Kaser, RPrll, pp. 383 sq.

^{^[2642]} Cf. infra, note 147.

³ Cf. Lothar Seuffert, Zur Geschichte der obligaforischen Vertrage (1881), pp. 75 sqq.; Guido Astud, "Pactum geminatum", in: Studi in onore di Enrico Besta, vol. I (1939), pp. 219 sqq.; Alfred Sollner, "Die causa im Kondiktionen- und Vertragsrecht des Mittelalters bei den Glossatoren, Kommentatoren und Kanonisten", (1960) 77 ZSS 262 sq.; Nanz, Vertrags- ⁶%_P]>^42sciq-

Once nuda pacta had become generally enforceable, there was little point in retaining constitutum as a special type of agreement. The BGB therefore no longer deals with it. For South African law cf. Percival Gane, The Selective Vaet. vol. Ill (1956), p. 29 (translator's note); for the situation preceding codification in Germany, cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 284.

^{^[2645]} Ulp. D. 4, 9, 1 pr.; cf. also Ulp. D. 4, 9, 3, 5 and Lend, EP. p. 131. Were there originally separate edicts for nautae on the one hand and caupones and stabularii on the other? Cf. Francesco Μ. de Robertis, "Receptum nautarum. Studio sulla responsabilita dell' armatore in diritto romano, con riferimento alia disciplina particolare concernente il caupo e lo stabularius", (1953) t2 Annati Ban 125 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Carriage by Sea", (1960)

7 RID A 489. On the origin of the edict, as far as nautae were concerned, in the Rhodian sea laws, see T.E. Donges. The Liability for Safe Carriage of Goods in Roman Dutch Law (1928). pp

8 sqq.

On the meaning of "recipere" cf. e.g. A.J.Μ. Meyer-Termeer. Die Haftung der Schiffer im vriechischen und romischen Recht (1978"). pp. 201. 209; also e.g. Gliick. vol. 6. p. 106.

" Otto Lend. "Kritisches und Antikntisches". (19291 49 ZSS 5.

¹⁶ Lab./Ulp. D. 4. 9. 3. 1.

* Cf. Ulp. D. 4. 9. 3. 1 i.f.

⁴⁷ D. 4. 9. 5 pr. On this text cf. particularly. Robert Feenstra. "Deux textes de Gaius sur la responsabilite" contractuelle: D. 19, 2, 40 et D. 4, 9, 5", in: Droits de Vantiquiti et socioiogie juridique, Melanges Henri Levy-Bruhl (1959), pp. 105 sqq. Cf. further Ulp. D. 4, 9, 1, 8 ("... et puto omnium eum recipere custodiam, quae in navem illatae, sunt...").

^{^[2648]} Ulp. D. 47. 5. 1. 4.

A caupona was essentially a combination of hotel and pub; however, it often comprised

a brothel too. Its reputation was so bad that it was regarded as degrading for a senator to

^{^[2652]} D. 4, 9, 1, I.⁵⁰

D. 4,9, 3, 1.

lunch or dine in a caupona. The owner was called "caupo" (from which is derived the German word for merchant: "Kauf’matin). For details, see Tonnes Kleberg, Hotels,

restaurants et cabarets dans I'antiquite Romaine (1957). pp. 3. 37 sqq.. 112 sqq.; c(. also Alfred Pernice, "Parerga", (1899) 20 ZSS 133 sqq. and the inscription mentioned by Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 329 sqq. On nautae cf. De Robertis, (1953) 12 Annali Bari

17 sqq. (disputing that they were badly reputed).

^{^[2657]} Was it not going too far to make nautae/caupones/ stabularii liable for custodia, i.e. also in cases where a fellow traveller (and not cither they themselves or one of their employees) had committed the theft? Answer: no. "nam est in ipsorum arbitrio, ne quern recipiant" (Ulp. D. 4, 9, 1, 1).

^s Cf. e.g. De Robertis. (19531 12 Annali Bari 51 sqq. and passim; Meyer-Termeer. op. cit., note 43, pp. 185, 191. Contra: Manlio Sargenti, "Problemi della responsabilita contrattuale", (1954) 20 SDHI 150 sq.

^{^[2659]} The term "nauta" in the context of the receptum refers to the exercitor navis; cf. Ulp.

D. 4, 9, 1, 2: "Qui sunt igitur, qui teneantur, videndum est- ait praetor 'nautae', nautam accipere debemus eum qui navem exercet: quamvis nautae appellantur omnes, qui navis

navigandae causa in nave sint: sed dc exercitore solummodo praetor sentit." Even where the

magister navis concluded the receptum, it was the exercitor who was bound; his obligation arose "vel per se vel per navis magistrum" (Ulp. D. 4, 9, 1, 2 i.f). On the position of exercitor navis, magister navis and others involved in the management of a ship, cf. Meyer-Termeer, op. cit., note 43, pp. 150 sqq.

" Cf. supra, p. 408.

³⁵ Cf. supra, pp. 398 sq.

^{^[2665]} Paul. D. 4, 9, 6, 1 sqq.; Ulp. D. 47, 5, 1 sqq.; Sargenti, "Osservazionj sulla responsabilita dell' exercitor navis in diritto romano", in: Studi in onore di Emilio Albertario, vol. I (1953), pp. 555 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Juridical Aspects of Carriage by Sea and Warehousing in Roman Law", in: (1974) 32 Recueils de la Societe Jean Boditi pour I'Histoire Comparative des Institutions 133 sqq.

^5e Thomas, (1974) 32 Recueils Boditi 136; cf. also Meyer-Termeer, op. cit., note 43, p. 194.

^{^[2667]}J.C. van Oven. "Actio de recepto et actio locati". ( 1956) 24 TR 137 sqq.: cf. also already Sargenti, Studi Albertario, vol. I, pp. 553 sqq.

^{^[2668]} e.g. Mcyer-Termeer, op. cit., note 43, pp. 185 sqq.

^a CRL. p. 565.

^a (1953) 12 Anna li Bari 83 sqq.

[2671]

Christoph Heinrich Brecht, Zur Haftung der Schiffer im antiken Recht (1962), pp. 99 sqq.

^M J.A.C. Thomas, "Carnage by Sea", (1960) 7 RIDA 489 sqq.

^{^[2673]} This was even the older type of transaction: Thomas, (1960) 7 RIDA 497; idem, (1974) 32 Remeils Bodin 138.

Thus it was necessary for the praetor to introduce, by reason of the special

circumstances of sea carriage, the actiones furti and damni in factum adversus nautas in order

to subject the nauta-locator to a special liability which was not inherent in the contract of locatio conductio rei: Thomas, (1960) 7 RIDA 497; idem, (1974) 32 Recueih Bodin 137 sq.

^f'⁷ (1960) 7 RIDA 500, 501.

"^H Cf. supra, p. 399.

^nv This line of argument is taken, for instance, by Meyer-Termeer, op. cit., note 43, pp. 177 sqq., 185 sqq.

^{^[2680]} Kaser, RPr I, pp. 508, 586.

’ Ulp. D. 4. 9. 3. 1.

² That was possible; cf. Ulp. D. 4, 9, 7 pr.

^{^[2683]} Giuseppe Ignazio Luzzatto, Caso fortuito eforza maggiore come limite alia responsabilita contrattuale (1938), p. 170; Arangio-Ruiz, Responsahilita, pp. 103 sqq.; Van Oven, (1956) 24 TR 148 sqq.; Magdelain, Consensualisme, pp. 148 sqq.; Thomas, (1960) 7 RIDA 498 sq.; cf. also Kaser, RPr I, p. 585, but cf. also RPr II, p. 408 (n. 57). According to De Robertis, (1953) 12 Annali Bari 61 sqq. and Brecht, op. at., note 63, pp. 112 sqq., these changes took place only in post-classical times. Against any such development, be it in classical or post-classical law, see however, E. Ude, "Das receptum nautarum, ein pactum praetorium", (1891) 12 ZSS 66 sqq. and Meyer-Termeer, op. cit., note 43, pp. 201 sqq.

⁷¹ Cf. e.g. Story, Bailments, §§ 458 sq., 464 sqq., 488; for Roman-Dutch law c(. Donges, op. cit., note 42, pp. 33 sqq.

^{^[2685]} Cf. e.g. Davis v. Lockslone 1921 AD 153 sqq.; Chr. van der Horst, in: Joubert (ed.), The

Law of South Africa, vol. 2 (1977), n. 166.

⁷ Cf. e.g. artt. 1782 sqq., 1952 sqq. code civil (s.v. depositum necessarium), ⁷⁷ §§ 701 sqq. On the liability of carriers in Germany, cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 384 i.f; Johann Georg Helm, "Haftung fur Schaden an Frachtgütern" (1966), passim; fora comparative analysis, seejurgen Basedow, Der Transportvertrag (1987), pp. 392 sqq.

⁷ Such exclusionary clauses have, on the basis of Ulp. D. 4, 9, 7 pr., always been regarded as permissible; cf., for example, Gluck, vol. 6, p. 115; Voct, Commentarhis ad Pandectas, Lib. IV, Tit. IX, XVII; Donges, op. cit., note 42, pp. 100 sqq.; for modern South

Cf. e.g. Ferdinand Christian Harpprecht and Wolfgang Adam Lauterbach, as quoted by Glück, vol. 6, p. 128 and discussed by Donges, op. cit., note 42, pp. 73 sqq.

^{^[2690]} Gliick, vol. 6, pp. 126 sqq.; cf. further Story, Bailments, § 488; Donges, op. cit., note 42, pp. 80 sqq.; on the codifications of the late 18th and 19th centuries (as, particularly, § 2459 II 8 PrALR and §§ 970, 1316 ABGB) cf. Ogorek, Gefahrdungshaftung, pp. 83 sq. Contra, however, the pandectists; cf., for example, Vangerow, Pandekten. § 648; CF. Muller. Ueber die de recepto actio und deren analog? Ausdehnung auf die Postanstalten (2nded., 1857); pp. 65 sqq.

^8,1 Tregidga & Co. v. Sivewright (1897) 14 SC 76 at 81 sq.; CSAR v. Adtmgton & Co. 1906 TS 964 at 970 sq. (but cf. also Stocks & Stocks (Ptv.) Ltd. v. T.J. Daly & Sons (Pts.) Ltd. 1979 (31 SA 754 (A) at 761G-H).

® Van der Horst, op. cit., note 75, n. 170.

^{^[2693]} Bssa v. Diuaris 1947 (1) SA 753 (A) at 775-6. Cf. also the judgment by Tindall JA pp. 765 sq.

⁹ Essa v. Divans 1947 (1) SA 753 (A) at 775.

^{^[2695]} Cf. e.g. Story, Bailments. §§ 488 sqq.

Cf. the references in Story, Bailments. § 495. He adds: "To bring a person within the description of a common carrier, he must exercise it as a public employment; he must undertake to carry goods for persons generally; and he must hold himself out as ready to engage in the transportation of goods for hire as a business, not as a casual occupation pro hac vice". On the early history of the "common" callings in general, see Simpson, History. pp. 229 sqq.

For a detailed comparison between the common carrier of English law and what is usually termed "public carrier" in South African law (a person who holds himself out to the public as undertaking the carriage of goods (or persons) as his profession; c(. Prinsloo v. Venter 1964 (3) SA 626 (O) at 627D-G), see Donges, op rit., pp. 62 sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Donges, op. cil., note 42, pp. 69 sqq.

^{^[2698]} § 489. Cf. further the detailed exposition of the law relating to common carriers by Sir

William Jones, An Essay on the Law of Bailments (1836), Appendix pp. 1-106.

^{^[2700]} (1703) 2 Ld Raym909 at 918.

^H Cf. also Best CJ, in Riley v. Home (1828) 5 Bing 217: "When goods arc delivered to a carrier, they are usually no longer under the eye of the owner; he seldom follows, or sends any servants with them, to the place of their destination. If they should be lost or injured by the grossest negligence of the carrier or his servants, or stolen by them, or by thieves in collusion with them, the owner would be unable to prove either of these causes of loss. His witnesses must be the carrier's servants; and they, knowing that they could not be contradicted, would excuse their masters and themselves. To give due security to property, the law has added to that responsibility of a carrier which immediately arises out of his contract to carry for a reward, namely, that of taking all reasonable care of it, the responsibility of an insurer. From his liability as an insurer, the carrier is only to be relieved by two things, both so well known to all the country, when they happen, that no person would be so rash as to attempt to prove that they had happened when they had not, namely, the act of God, and the King's enemies" (p. 220).

^{^[2702]} Cf. also Lane v. Cotton (1701) 12 Mod Rep 472: "... and the law will not expose him [sc. the carrier] to so great a temptation, but he must be honest at his peril. And this is the reason of the civil law in this case, which though I am loth to quote, yet inasmuch as the laws of all nations are doubtless raised out of the ruins of the civil law,... it must be owned that the principles of our law are borrowed from the civil law, therefore grounded upon the same reason in many things" (p. 482, per Holt CJ).

One of the main differences is that under the common law the carrier is liable in case of robbery (unless committed by public enemies). In Roman (and Roman-Dutch) law this fell under the exception of vis maior (or damnum fatale). On the liability of innkeepers under the English common law, cf. Story, Bailments, nn. 469 sqq. He states at the outset of his discussion that the strict (though not as strict as the common carrier's!) liability of an innkeeper is usually said "to be founded on the custom of the realm. In point of fact, the origin of the latter may be clearly traced up to the Roman law, from which the common law, without any adequate acknowledgements, has from time to time borrowed many of the important principles which regulate the subjects of the contracts." One important difference, however, lies in the fact that the common carrier (unlike the Roman nauta) is under an obligation to contract.

¹⁰ For what follows, cf. particularly W. J. Hosten, "Die Aanspreeklikheid van die depositarius en die vervoerder mgevolge die gemene reg", 1964 A da Jitridica 128 sqq. Lange, Schadensersatz und Privatstrafe, pp. I 1 1 sqq.

¹⁽¹³ Cf. also Domenico Maffei, Caso fortuito e responsabihta neW eta del glossatori (1957), pp. 23 sqq.; Hoffmann, Fahrlässigkeit, pp. 35 sqq.

¹⁰⁴ On the terminology cf Donges. op. at., note 42. pp. 41 sqq.: Hosten. 1964 Acta

Juridka 132 sq.: cf. also Windscheid/Kipp. §§ 384. n. 6. ¹¹¹⁵ Institutiones, Lib. Ill. Tit. XXV.

[2708] 2.

Stephan Frazer & Co. v. Port Elizabeth Harbour Board (19001 17 SC 231 at 234: Ma^ago v. Cole (19081 25 SC 434 at 436: Postmaster-General v. Van Niekerk 1918 CPD 378 at 382 sq.

¹¹¹ Tregidga & Co, v. Sivewright (18971 14 SC 76 at Hl, per Lord De Villiers CJ. Cf. further Davis v. Lockstone 1921 AD 153 at 158 sq., 164 sqq.; also Essa v. Diuaris 1947 (1) SA 753 (A) at 764 sq.

^IC8 Cf. Commentariits ad Pandectas. Lib. IV, Tit. IX, II.

Cf. e.g. Cluck, vol. 6, p. 120.

The same applies to the liability of the innkeeper in modern German law; cf. § 701 BOB.

^{^[2711]} The term occurs in Ulp. D. 2, 14, 5 and Paul. D. 2, 14, 6 ("Legitima conventio est quae lege aliqua confirmatur, ct ideo interdum ex pacto actio nascitur vel tollimr, quotiens lege vel senatus consulto adiuvatur.").

^{^[2712]} On donatio cf. supra, pp. 477 sqq.

® It must immediately be stated that among modern scholars there is no unanimity on this topic. The views put forward in the following lines have been substantiated, in particular, by Ziegler, Privates Schiedsgericht, pp. 47 sqq., 180 sqq., 246 sqq.; cf. also Giorgio La Pira, " 'Compromissum' e 'litis contestatio' formuiare", in: Studi in onore di Salvatore Riccobono, vol. II (1936), nn. 187 sqq. A different picture is presented, most notably, by Mario Talamanca, Ricerche in tema di "compromissum" (1958), passim; idem, "L'arbitrato romano dai 'veteres' a Giustiniano", (1974) 20 Labeo 86 sqq. He emphasizes (even for classical law) the informal arbitration agreement; the stipulationes poenae merely served to secure fulfilment of the obligations arising from it. In other words: he, more or less, regards as classical what is presented here as a postclassical conception.

^M On the terminology ("compromittere", as used in the praetorian edict) cf. Ziegler, Privates Schiedsgericht, pp. 8 sqq.

^1B Ulp. D. 4. 8. 11. 4.

^{^[2716]} Cf. further Ziegler. Privates Schiedsgericht, pp. 55 sq.

^{^[2717]} Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 4. 8. 19 pr.; Ulp. D. 4. 8. 17. 3.

^{^[2718]} A "compromissum plenum" ("quod... ad omnes controversias pertinet"") was

possible: Ulp. D. 4. 8. 21. 6.

^m Cf. e.g. C 2, 55, 1 (Ant.").

³ Cf. supra, pp. 78 sqq.

^D For details, see Walter Selb. "Episcopalis audientia von der Zeit Konstantins bis zur Nov. XXXV Valentinians III.". (19677 84 ZSS 162 sqq.; Ziegler. Privates Schiedsgerkht, pp. 167 sqq.; Giulio Vismara. "Ancora sulla 'episcopalis audientia'". (19871 54 SDHI53 sqq. Apart from episcopalis audientia, the special jurisdiction conceded by the Romans to the Jews was of some significance in the present context; cf. Ziegler. Privates Schiedsgerkht, pp. 175 sq.; generally: Kaser. RZ, p. 527.

^{^[2722]} 1. Corinthians 6. 1.

¹³ Cf. C 2, 55, 5 pr. (just.·).

^{^[2724]} Cf. C. 2. 55. 4. 6 sq. (Just.’). C. 2. 55. 4 pr. sqq. deal with a confirmation of this arbitration agreement by oath. But see Nov. 82. 11.1 (repealing again the possibility of such confirmation’).

^{^[2725]} Cf. Ulp. D. 4. 8. 13. 1 (interpolated?: Talamanca. Rkerche, op. cit.. note 113. pp. 125

sqq.. but see Ziegler. Privates Schiedsgerkht, pp. 51 sq.. 183’); C. 2. 55. 5 pr. (Just.’).

^e6 Ulp. D. 4. 8. 2; cf. further Ziegler. Privates Schiedsgerkht, pp. 50 sq.

" Even in case of an entirely informal compromissum sine poena ("... sub co pacto in scriptis vcl non in scriptis habito, ut eorum definitioni stctur"): C 2, 55, 5 pr.

¹ C. 2, 55, 4, 4; C. 2, 55, 4, 6; C. 2, 55, 5 pr, sq. This actio in factum was based (dogmatically) on a recognition in writing of the sententia arbitri on the part of both parties (subscripto), i.e. on a special agreement post sententiam arbitri, not on the (informal) compromissum. However, a tacit recognition of the award was sufficient too ("si sikntio earn roboraverint"); it was deemed to have taken place if the parties did not protest within a period of 10 days.

^{^[2729]} Nov. 82, H; Talamanca, Ricerche. op. cir., note 113, pp. 139 sqq.; Ziegler, Privates Schiedsgericht, pp. 239 sqq.

Cf. infra, pp. 539 sqq.

^{^[2731]} Commentaruis ad Pandectas. Lib. IV, Tit. VIII, III. For the modem South African

common law, cf. Catherine Smith, in: Joubert (ed.)> The Law of South Africa, vol. 1 (1976),

n. 458.

Cf. particularly C. 2, 55, 6 (women) and Ulp. D, 4, 8, 9, 2 (referring to the person who would otherwise have been judge in the same matter); Karl-Heinz Ziegler, "Arbiter, arbitrator und amicabilis compositor", (1967) 84 ZSS 376 sqq.

" Helmut Coing, "Zur Entwicklung des Schiedsvertrages im Jus Commune", in: Festschrift für Heinz Hühner (1984"). pp. 35 sqq.

^1MD. 17, 2, 76.

¹⁵⁵ Cf. further Paul. D. 4, 8. 19 pr. ("Qualem autem sententiam dicat arbiter, ad praetorem non pertinere Labeo ait, dummodo dicat, quod ipsi videtur"); Ulp. D. 4, 8, 27, 2: Ziegler. Privates Schiedsgericht, pp. 135 sqq.

Speculum iudiciale, Pars I. Lib. I. Partie. I. Rubrica De Arbitro et Arbitratore. § 1. 3.

^{^[2737]} Pillius. Tancredus. Gratia, Libri de iudkiorum ardine (ed.: F.C. Bergmann"). 1842. p. 107 (n. 36"). Cf. also already the Summa tocius artis notariae Rolandini Rudolphini Bononiensis, as quoted by Ziegler, (1967) 84 ZSS 381.

^LH Durantis, Speculum iudiciale. loc. dt., § 1, 2.

^{^[2739]} Durantis, Speculum iudiciale. §1,2. This was contrary to Roman law where, as far as the procedure was concerned, the arbiter was bound only by the terms of the compromissum: for details, see Ziegler, Privates Schiedsgericht, pp. 129 sqq.

¹⁴ Baldus, as quoted in an appendix to the rubrica "De Arbitro et Arbitratore" of Durantis¹ Speculum iudiciale. This, too, was contrary to Roman law; cf. supra, note 134.

^{^[2741]} On the pactum reservati dominii of the ius commune cf..e.g. Gliick, vol. 16, pp. 229 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 172, 7; Gottfried Schiemann, "Ober die Funktion des pactum reservati dominii wahrend der Rezeptionen des romischen Rechts in Italien und Mitteleuropa", (1976) 93 ZSS 161 sqq. In South African law, considerable confusion exists about the legal effect of such pacts reserving ownership; this is due to the decision by Lord De Villiers CJ, in Quirk's Trustees k. Assignees of Liddle & Co. (1885) 3 SC 322. For a discussion, see Μ. A. Diemont, P.J. Aronstam, The Law of Credit Agreements and Hire- Purchase in South Africa (5th ed., 1982), pp. 13 sqq. On the reservation of title in Roman law cf, most recently, Anton Meinhart, "Dogmengeschichtliches und Dogmatisches zum Eigentums vorbehalt", (1988) 105 ZSS 729 sqq.

⁴⁹ Cf, for South Africa, the provisions of the Hire-Purchase Act, 36/1942 and now the

Credit Agreements Act, 75/1980. On the legal nature of this type of contract (sale or lease?),

see Diemont/Aronstam, op. cit., note 148, pp. 20 sqq.

^Is) Cf. for Germany, the "Gesetz betreffend die Abzahlung sge Schaft e" (Act relating to instalment-transactions) of 16 May 1894 (pre-BGB!); cf. e.g. Hans-Peter Benohr, "Konsumentenschutz vor 80 Jahren", (1974) 138 ZHR 492 sqq.; Eike von Hippel, Verbraucherschutz (3rd ed. 1986), pp. 192 sqq.

^H For details, see Rolf Knutel, "Kauf und Pacht bei Abzahlungsgeschäften im romischen Recht", in: Studien im romischen Recht (1973), pp. 33 sqq.

^E Paul. D. 19. 2. 20. 2; idem. D. 19. 2. 22.

^{^[2748]} Contra: David Daubc. (19581 5 RIDA 430. 433: but see Knutel. op. cit.. note 151. pp. 35 sqq.

¹⁵¹ Paul. D. 19. 2. 20. 2 and 22. 1: cf. J.A.C. Thomas. "Tenancy by Purchaser". (19591 10 Zura 107 sq.: Salvatore Tondo. " 'Pignus' e 'precarium'". (19591 5 Labeo 200 sqq.: Knutel. op. cit., note 151, pp. 41 sqq. For a different interpretation, see Daube, (1958) 5 RIDA All sqq.

¹⁵ If there had been a lex commissoria, the sale could simply be called off by the vendor; If the sale was unconditional, it could be cancelled contrario consensu.

¹³⁵ Knutel, op. cit., note 151, pp. 47 sqq.

^{^[2750]} Daube, (1958) 5 RIDA 431 sq.; Thomas, (1959) 10 lura 108 sq.; Knutel, op. cit., note

151, pp. 51 sqq.

Cf. supra, pp. 250 sqq.

¹⁼⁹ Cf. infra, pp. 843 sqq. Apart from that, there was the actio doli (cf. e.g. Paul. D. 19, 5, 5, 3) which, however, also did not aim at enforcement of the agreement between the parties.

¹⁶¹¹ Pap. D. 1, 1, 7, 1.

^o Aristo/Iul./Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 2.

^lffi Cf. supra, p. 277.

^IS Lab./Pap. D. 19, 5, 5, 1; Paul. D. 19, 5, 5, 2; Max Kaser, "Oporterc und ius civile", (1966) 83 ZSS 37 sqq.

^{^[2754]} D. 19, 5; C. 4, 64; Kaser, RPr II, pp. 419 sqq. Cf also James B. Thayer, "Actio

Praescriptis verbis", (1944-45) 19 Tulan? I_R 62 sqq.; most recently, cf. Karlheinz Misera,

"Julian-Afrikan D. 19, 5, 24. Ein Beitrag zu 'agere praescriptis verbis' ", in: Sodalitas, Scritti

in onore di Antonio Guarino, vol. VI (1985), pp. 2591 sqq.

^,ffi Kaser, RPr I, p. 582.

^{^[2759]} As has been done for some time; cf. e.g. Pietro de Francisci, XvvaXKayfjM. vol. I (1913) and vol. II (1916), passim; Schulz, CKL, pp. 522 sqq.; but see e.g. Rabel, Gmndzuge. pp. 116 sqq.; Buckland/ Stein, p. 522; Jors/Kunkel/Wenger, pp. 243 sqq.; Biondi, op. cit., note 5, pp. 85 sqq., 101 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 580 sqq.; Raimondo Santoro, "II contralto nel pensiero di Labeone", (1983) 37 Annali Palermo 71 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, PP. 340 sqq.

On the question of how the innominate contracts fitted into Roman contractual theory, cf. Geoffrey MacCormack, "Contractual Theory and the Innominate Contracts", (1985) 51 SDHI 131 sqq.; but see Alberto Burdese, "Ancora in tema di contratti innominati", (1986) 52 SDHI442 sqq.

This notion already appears in Ulp. D. 2. 14. 1. 4; Ulp. D. 2. 14. 7. 1.

^ю Similar to the contracts re. there had to be "rei interventio". in the sense that something had to happen apart from the consent of the parties. Only here it was part performance, there performance (the real contracts were unilateral!'), here a rendering of services or a transfer of an object, there only the latter.

"In English legal terms, they were contracts made binding on executed consideration" (Thomas, TRL, p. 311).

^и On the whole fragment D. 19, 5, 5, see Paul Collinet, "Le Fr. 5, Dig. 19, 5 De Praescr. Verbis et in F. Act.: Application de la Methode critique de Decomposition des Textes", :n: Festschriffjur Paul Koschaker, vol. I (19391. pp. 70 sqq.; idem. La genese du digeste, du code et des institutions dejustinien (1952), pp. 182 sqq. The fourfold subdivision (do, ut des; facio, ut facias; facio, ut des; do, ut facias) is, incidentally, referred to by Blackstone, Commentaries, vol. II, pp. 44 sq., not, however, in the context of innominate real contracts, but in order to discuss the concept of "valuable consideration"; cf. Nikolaus Benke, "No inefficacy arises merely from the naked promise", (1987) 14 lus Commune 39 sqq.

^{^[2765]} It is. however, not exhaustive; cf. for example. Kaser. RPr II. pp. 420 sq. Post-classical jurisprudence conceived of the actio praescriptis verbis as a (subsidiary! actio generalis. The innominate contracts "constitute the nearest approach that Roman law made to a generalized system of contract" (Thomas. TRL. p. 3111. For a detailed analysis, see De Francisci. op. cit.. note 166. vol. I. pp. 85 sqq.; cf. also Santoro. (19831 37 Annali Palermo 95 sqq. and passim.

® Paul. D. 19, 5, 5, 1.

“ Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 2.

¹⁵ Paul. D. 19, 5, 5, 4.

¹⁷¹ Cf. e.g. Afr. D. 19, 5, 24, dealing with a transaction of the type of do ut facias containing elements of mutuum and mandatum Misera, Scritti Guarino, vol. VI, pp. 2591 sqq. For a recent discussion of further texts, see MacCormack, (1985) 51 SI)HI\oA sqq.; cf. also the comprehensive analysis by De Francisci, op. cit., note 166, vol. I, pp. 105 sqq-₇

^A Cf. supra, p. 355.

^{^[2770]} Ulp, D. 19, 3, 1; De Francisci, op. cit., note 166, vol. I, pp. 85 sqq; W.W. Buckland, "Aestimatum", (1927) 43 LQR 74 sqq.; idem, "Aestimatum", (1932) 48 LQR 495 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, pp. 522 sqq.; Thayer, (1944-45) 19 Tulane LR 63 sqq.; Kudret Ayiter, "The Aestimatum Contract", in: J.E. Spruit (ed.), Maior vigintt quitique annis. Essays in commemoration of the sixth lustrum of the Institute for Legal History of the University of Utrecht (1979), pp. 22 sqq.

^{^[2771]} D. 2. 14. 6.

^{^[2772]} Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 22. 1. 30; Scaev. D. 22. 2. 5. 1; C. 4, 32, H (all relating certain to exceptional cases of informal promises of interest; interpolated?). On these texts cf. Kaser, RPr I, p. 498, n. 37; RPr 11, p. 371, n. 17; also (on the Scaevola text, dealing with fenus nauticum) Wieslaw Litewski, "Romisches Secdarlehen", (1973) 24 lura 152 sqq., 165 sqq., and supra, p. 182, note 179 and p. 187.

^IS0 For details, see Hermann Dilcher, "Der Typenzwang im mittelalterlichen Vertragsrecht" (I960) 77 ZSS 273 sqq.

^{^[2774]} D. 2, 14, 1, 1.

^{^[2775]} Azo, Summa Codicis, Lib. II, Rubrica De Pactis, 1 ("Si enim ego et tu consentiamus: puta quod Socrates sit lapis, non est pactum").

^19:5 The commentators preferred "conventio" as the nomen generale; cf. Nanz, Vertragsbegriff, p. 45.

¹⁹¹ Azo, Summa Codicis, Lib. II, Rubrica De Pactis, 15.

^{^[2778]} The vestimentum "consensus" presented a specific difficulty: why did consensus give rise to an action only in the case of the consensual contracts and not also as far as pacta nuda were concerned (they are, after all, also based on consensus!)? Accursius (gl. Quinimo ad D. 2, 14, 7, 5) dismissed the problem in a rather playful manner: "Sed videtur quod nullum pactum sit nudum: cum quodlibet habeat in se consensum: unde vestiri consensu videtur... Respond, elegans, et tenuis vestis est consensus, quae non datur nisi certis contractibus enumeratis... qui cum sint favorabiles, et pingues, et calidi, levi veste vestiuntur."

^№ On these see specifically Pietro Vaccari, "Pactum vestitur contractus cohaerentia. La concezione dei patti aggiunti nella dottrina dei gios satori", in: Scritti di storia del diriito privato (1956), pp. 233 sqq.

^{^[2780]} Gl. Legitima ad D. 2, 14, 6.

For details cf. Francesco Calasso, La "convenientia" (1932); Paul Ourliac, "La 'convenientia' ", in: Etudes d'histoire du droit prive ojjertes a Pierre Petot (1959), pp. 413 sqq.; Pierre-Clement Timbal, Les obligations contractuelles dans le droit francais des XII!e el XlVe siecles d'apres la jurisprudence du Parlement (1973); cf. also Theo Mayer-Maly, "Der Konsens als Grundlage des Vertrages", in: Festschrift Jiir Erwin Seidl (1975), pp. 121 sq.; Nanz. Vertragsbegriff pp. 60 ^Sqi

Cf. particularly the Coutumes de Beauvaisis (1283) of Philippe de Beaumanoir, Cap. 34, artt. 998 sqq.

^{^[2783]} Antoine Loisel, Institutes coutumiires (3rd ed., Paris, 1611), n. 342, expressed the situation in a metaphorical way: "On lie les boeufs par les comes et les hommes par les paroles, et autant vautune simple promesse ou convenance, que les stipulations du droict Romain. " This is based on an addition to the Accursian gloss, which can be found in 16th- and 17th-century editions of that work (ad "iuris vinculum" in Inst. Ill, 13 pr.): "Verba ligant homines, taurorum cornua funes. Cornu bos capitur, voce ligatur homo", and gave rise to the French proverb: "Comme les boeufs par les comes on lie / Aus si les gens par leur mots font folie" (for all this, see Feenstra/Ahsmann, op. cit., note 205, pp. 38, 43).

^{^[2784]} Mevius, Decisiones, Pars V, Dec. CCCCVII.

^{^[2785]} Hugo Grotius, Inleiding, III, I, 52.

²⁷ "Aleam, quod mirere, sobrii inter seria exercent, tanta lucrandi perdendive temeritate ut, cum omnia defecerunt, extremo ac novissimo iactu de libertate ac de corpore contendant. Victus voluntariam servitutem adit: quamvis iuvenior, quamvis robustior, adligari se ac venire patitur. Ea est in re prava pervicacia; ipsi fidem vocant. Servos condicionis huius per commercia tradunt, ut se quoque pudore victoriae exsolvant" (XXIV, 3 and 4).

²⁸Cf. e.g. Gliick, vol. 4, pp. 281 sqq.

²⁹It meant originally that a man is bound, in court, by what he has said, even though he had meant to say something else; cf. Ekkehard Kaufmann, "Ein Mann—ein Wort", 1961 furistische Schulung 120 sqq.

-- Lib. I. Tit. XXXV. Cap. I.

⁷ Particularly, the fact was left out that the agreement between the two bishops had been in writing ("manuscriptiones nostrae tenentur et pittacia"’) and was therefore not an informal pactum.

"^K Johannes Teutonicus, gl. Promiserint ad. C. 12. q. 2. c. 66.

²⁹ An institute of canon law that was based on St. Matthew 18. 15-17: "Si peccaverit in te frater tuus, vade ct corripe eum inter te et ipsum solum: si te audierit, lucratus eris fratris tuum: si te non audierit, adhibe tecum unum vel duos, ut in ore duorum vel trium testium stet omne verbum: quod si non audierit, die ecclesiae: si autem ecclesiam non audierit, sit tibi sicut ethnicus et pubheanus."

^{^[2793]} For details of the development in canon law. cf. F. Spiess. De {'observation des simples conventions en droit canonique f 19287: Jules Roussier. Lefondement de Vobligation contmctuelle dans le droit dassique de I'Eglise (1933); Hermann Dilcher, (1960) 77 ZSS 281 sqq.; Alfred Sollner, "Die causa im Kondiktionen- und Vertragsrecht des Mittelalters bei den Glossatoren, Kommentatoren und Kanonisten", (1960) 77 ZSS 240 sqq.; Nanz, Vertragsbegriff. pp. 46 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Wescnbecius, Commentarii in Pandectas. Lib. If Tit. XIV, 10 (p. 57): "Etsi vero longa est disputatio, an in reliquis Curiis, in quibus secundum ius civile pronunciatur, ius Pontificium obtinere debeat: tamen communis opinio est, et ita usus observat, ut indistincte ex pactis Nudis, serio et deliberate initis, etiam in foro Civili hodie detur actio". One of the first influential writers who unequivocally adopted the rule of canon law in iure civili was Carolus Molinaeus (cf. supra, note 200), who stated: "Sed hodie in praxi hae et omnes leges et theoriae de formulis stipulationum supervacuae sunt, qui etiam extra scripturam publicam vel privatam, sive confessione partis sive testibus aut alias legitime appareat de conventione serio pacta et conclusa in re licita nee prohibita nee inter prohibitos auc inhabilis, pro stipulatione habetur et oritur efficax actio iuxta notatum in c 1, Extra de pactis, quod ita debet intelligi et restringi ct ita in utroque foro seeulari et ecclesiastico observatur".

²²² Wolter, Ins canonicum in iure civili, pp. 43 sqq., 91 sqq.

^{^[2796]} Wolter, Ins canonicum in iure civili, pp. 100 sqq.

²⁴ Cf. e.g. Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, i. On fides as basis of public international law, as conceived by Grotius, cf. Wolfgang Fikentscher, Defide et perfidia. Der Treuegedanke in den ’’Staatsparallelen’’ des Hugo Grotius aus heutiger Sicht (1979).

^{^[2798]} Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, 4. On the reception by Grotius of the Christian idea of the faithful God (cf., for example, 2. Timothy 2, 13), see Okko Behrends, "Treu und Glauben, Zu den christlichen Grundlagen der Willenstheorie im heutigen Vertragsrecht", in: L.L. Vallauri, G. Dilcher (eds.) Christentum. Sdkularisation und modernes Recht (1981), vol. II, PP,967 ^SC|C|-

Dejure naturae et gentium Lib. Ill, Cap. IV, § 2. Cf. also Grotius, Dejure belli ac pads. Prolegomena, 15 sq.

^{^[2800]} Characteristically, Grotius expounds his theory of contract as part of his discussion of the reasons for a just war; private persons, political entities and whole nations are all subject to the same rules. On the structure of Grotius' Dejure belli ac pads, cf. e.g. Wieacker, Privatrechtsgeschichte, pp. 290 sqq,; Hasso Hofmann, "Hugo Grotius", in: Μ. Stolleis (ed.), Staatsdenker im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert, pp. 65 sqq. On the central importance of contract within the system of natural law, cf. Franz Wieacker, "Die vertragliche Obligation bei den Klassikemdes Vernunftrechts", in: Festschrift fur Hans Wei~el (1974), pp. 7 sqq.

^{^[2801]} Cf. supra, pp. 68 sqq., 89 sqq; see also, for example, Wolfgang Adam Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practkum. Lib. XLV, Tit. f I ("... apud Romanos fere omnia negotia in stipulationem deducebantur, propter eius firmitatem... Quasi nodus enim est omnium obligationum").

^{^[2802]} Cf. supra, pp. 80 sqq.

^{^[2803]} Cf. supra, pp. 81 sq.

546

^{^[2804]} For details, see Romualdo Trifone, "La 'stipulatio' nelle dottrine dei glossatori", in: Studi in onore di Enrico Besta, vol. I (1939), pp. 171 sqq.; Nanz, Vertragsbegriff. pp. 36 sqq.

^{^[2805]} Nanz, Vertragsbegriff, p. 38; cf. also Francisco Brandileone, "La 'stipulatio' nelle carte italiane del medio evo", in: Melanges Fitting, vol. I (1907), pp. 101 sqq.

^{^[2806]} Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 7 sqq., 204 sqq.; Nanz, Vertragsbegriff, pp. 38 sq.

^{^[2807]} Bartolus had tried to extend the presumption to this term too, but his opinion has not been followed; cf. C. Karsten, Die Lehre vom Vertrage bei den italienischen Juristen des Mittelalters (1882), pp. 187 sqq.

^{^[2808]} The tabellio, in Rome, was a private, professional person who drew up written documents for private individuals (Berger, ED. p. 727). On the medieval notariate based on that tradition, cf. Armin Wolf, "Das offentliche Notariat", in: Handbuch der Quellen und Literatur der neueren europäischen Privatrechtsgeschkhte, vol. I (1973). pp. 505 sqq.; Winfried Trusen, "Zur Geschichte des mittelalterlichen Notariats", (1981) 98 ZSS 369 sqq.

^{^[2809]} Wesenberg/Wesener, p. 47.

¹ One important consequence of this was that contracts in general became subject to the regime of bona fides, which had governed the application and construction of consensual contracts in Roman law.

^{^[2811]} Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, p. 7.

" Voet, Commentarius ad Pandeclas. Lib. XLV, Tit. I, I; other authors equally disinclined to part with such a venerable institution of Roman law are discussed by Nanz, Vertragsbegriff. pp. 123 sq. In particular, they admired the "firmitas" of the Roman stipulation.

^{^[2813]} Inleiding. Ill, I, 52. In later centuries, a more positive attitude towards the stipulation prevailed once again. Savigny, for instance, stressed the advantages of this formal type of contract and regretted its abolition in contemporary practice: ObUgalionenrecht. vol. II, pp. 186 sqq; c(. also e.g. Puchta, Pandekten, § 250.

^H De legibus abrogates. Dig. Lib. XLV, Tit. I, 1. 1.

¹³ Cf. supra, p. 543, note 231 and p. 545.

Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLV, Tit. f I; his statement quoted above (note 12) has to be read in this light.

^{^[2817]} Cf. Lothar Seuffert, Zur Geschkhte der obligatorisdien Vertrdge (1881), pp. 68, 76 sq.

Hence, for instance, the recognition of pacta geminata; c{. supra, p. 513.

^D "Seriositatsindizien", 1964 Juristenzeitung 349 sqq.

^{^[2820]} Meiding, HI, I, 52.

^{^[2821]} Cf. also art. 1371 BW.

In the comprehensive dissertation on innominate real contracts by Paulus (D. 19, 5, 5) causa is, however, neither mentioned as a word nor stated as a requirement.

³ Cf. also gl. Causa ad D. 2, 14, 7, 2.

^{^[2824]} Cf. supra, p. 93.

³ Wolf, Causa stipulationis, pp. 12 sqq., 27 sqq.

^{^[2825]} Cf. Alfred Sollner, "Die causa im Kondiktionen- und Vertragsrecht des Mittelalters bei den Glossatoren, Kommentatoren und Kanonisten", (1960) 77 ZSS 222 sqq.; J.L. Barton,

"Causa promissionis again", (1966) 34 TR 41 sqq.; cf. also Berman, Law and Revolution, pp. 245 sqq. On post-classical Roman practice (stipulation increasingly became a causal transaction), see Kaser, RPr II, pp. 378 sqq.

^{^[2827]} Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 128 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, pp. 69 sqq.; cf. also infra, p. 681.

^{^[2828]} Thus, even in post-classical Roman law, whether a stipulation had been drafted abstractly or causally mattered only as far as the question of onus of proof was concerned. Cf. e.g. Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 123 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 379.

® Cf. further Riccobono/Kerr Wylie/Beinart, pp. 123 sqq.; Sollner, (I960) 77 ZSS 219 sqq.; on causa and synallagma cf., most recently, Raimondo Santoro, "II contratto nel pensicro di Labeone", (1983) 37 Annali Palermo 221 sqq.

³⁰ St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, Tertia Pars, q. 86, art. 6.

³ Summa theologiae, e.g. Prima Secundae, q. 72, art. 3. Forma and materia were grouped together as causae intrinsicac as opposed to the causae extrinsicae, (i.e. the causae efficientes and finales). Cf. further e.g. Sollner, (1960) 77 ZSS 183 sqq.; Gerhard Otte, Dialektik und Jurisprudenz (1971), pp. 193 sqq.

^{^[2832]} Sollner, (1960) 77 ZSS 236; cf. also Barton, (1966) 34 TR 59 sqq.

^{^[2833]} Ad C 4, 30, 13, n. 23.

³¹ For details, see Sollner, (1960) 77 ZSS 219 sqq., 223, In the case of stipulations, the document had to refer to an existing legally enforceable obligation. This was the negotium antecedens, which the glossators referred to as the causa stipulationis; the sources most often quoted in this context were C. 4, 30, 13 and Paul. D. 22, 3, 25, 4. The situation was thus

very similar to the well-known concept of a iusta causa traditionis. Paul. D. 41, 1,31 pr.

states: "Numquam nuda traditio transfert dominium, sed ita, si venditio aut aliqua lusta causa praecesserit, propter quam traditio sequeretur"; on which the gloss (gl. lusta causa) remarks:. idem in promissore per stipulationem...." ³⁵Baldus, adC. 4, 30, 13, n.

22.

³⁵ Sollner, (1960) 77 ZSS 249; contra: Barton, (1966) 34 TR 60 sqq.

^{^[2837]} Baldus, Commentaria in Decretates, I, De Pactis, n. 14.

^{^[2838]} Supra, pp. 538 sq.

³³ Argument: if a causa was required even for the validity of a stipulation, the same had to apply, a fortiori, to pacta.

⁴³ Baldus, Commentaria in Decretates, I, De Pactis, nn. 4 sq. (causa as vestimentum); cf. also Norbert Horn, Aequitas in den Lehren des Baldus (1968), pp. 187 sqq.

⁴ Commentaria, ad D. 2, 14, 7, 4, n. 1.

⁴² Cf. Seuffert, op. cit., note 17, pp. 96 sqq.

⁴ Cf. e.g. Wesenbecius, Comtnentarii in Pandectas, Lib. II, Tit. XIV, n. 10; Wissenbach, Exercitationes, Disp, IX, 35; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. II, Tit, XIV, IX; Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. II, Tit. XIV, § 1.

^{^[2841]} Cf. also John P. Dawson, Gifts and Promises (1980), p. 114 ("[cause] served as a

catch-word in the long campaign, led by the canonists, to expand the range of enforceable

promises.... In the gallery of ideas that have helped to liberate thought it therefore

deserves a small corner located out in a distant wing").

^{^[2845]} Coing, p. 403. Lord Mansfield (unsuccesfully) tried the same with regard to the doctrine of consideration: Pillans v. Van Mierop (1765) 3 Burr 1663 sqq.; cf. supra, p. 505, note 170.

⁴⁽¹ Pothier, Traite des obligations, n. 42.

^{^[2847]} Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, 'p. 66.

⁴³ Cf. e.g. E. Lorenzen, "Causa and Consideration in Contracts", (1919) 28 Yale LJ 621 ("There is in reality no definable 'doctrine' of causa. The term 'causa' includes a variety of notions which may equally well be derived from the nature of the juristic act and from considerations of equity" (p. 646)) and, more recently, Dawson, op. cit., note 44, p. 114 ("... in truth [causa] has no meaningful functions at all").

^{^[2849]} Cf. Zweigert/K6tz/Weir, p. 67. ⁵⁽¹ Art. 1131 code civil.

^flS The law schools of both Oxford and Cambridge followed the continental pattern. The teaching of civil law at Oxford started with the Bologna-trained Italian, Magister Vacarius, in about the middle of the 12th century. Guilelmus de Drogheda (who died around 1245) was appointed "Rcgcns in Lcgibus". For details, see H.G. Richardson, "The Oxford Law School under John", (1941) 57 LQR 319 sqq.

"^s Simpson, History, p. 400. Cf. further, especially William T. Barbour, The History of Contract in Early English Equity (1914), pp. 163 sqq. Generally on the influence of canon law on English law through the medium of the Court of Chancery, see, for example, Helmut Coing, "English Equity and the Denunciatio Evangclica of the Canon Law", (1955) 71 EQR 223 sqq.; John L. Barton, Roman Law in England, his Romanum Medii Aevi. pars V. 13 a. (1971), pp. 50 sqq.

^{^[2852]} Zwcigert/K6tz/Weir, pp. 60 sqq.; d. also e.g. Markcsinis, (1978) 37 LQR 55 (both doctrines "represent a kind of form —a check, one could say, on the unrestricted application of the philosophical doctrine of the autonomy of the will which is prepared to ascribe legally binding effects to the mere coincidence of the wills of the contracting parties").

'* De Vilhers AJA, in: Conradie v. Rossouw 1919 AD 279 at 323.

On the situation in other mixed legal systems cf. Markesinis, (1978) 37 Cambridge LJ 53 sq. (n. 3).

^? Cf. e.g. Alexander v. Perry (1874) 4 Buch 59 at 61: Ma tan and Van tier Merwe v. Sec retan. Boon & Co. 1880 Foord 94 at 95 sqq.; Tradesmen's Benefit Society v. Du Frees (1887) 5 SC 269 at 272 sqq. The history of the question is reviewed fully by De Vilhers AJA, in Conradie v. Rossouw 1919 AD 279 at 299 sqq.

^{^[2856]} South Africa, vol. II (1878), p. 121.

For a comprehensive yet eminently readable biography, see E.A. Walker, Lord de Villiers and His Times (1925).

^{^[2858]} On this terminology and on the bellum iuridicum between the so-called purists, antiquarians, pollutionists and pragmatists raging over the nature and the true sources of South African private law cf Reinhard Zimmermann, "Synthesis in South African Private law: Civil Law, Common Law and Usus Hodicrnus Pandectarum", (1986) 103 SALJ 259

⁷¹ 1904 TS 187 sqq.

^{^[2860]} (1904) 21 SC 323 sqq.

⁷⁵ 1919 AD 279 sqq. All three decisions are well worth reading.

^{^[2862]} Conradie v. Rossouw 1919 AD 279 (headnote).

^7K At 288 sq. and 309 sqq.

^{^[2864]} On other—English—lawyers who "have fallen into the error of treating causa and consideration as if they denote one and the same thing" (amongst them Blackstone, Sir Williams Evans (the translator of Pothier) and Sir Henry Maine), see John G. Kotze, Causa in the Roman and Roman-Dutch Law of Contract (1922), pp. 8 sq. He also quotes Pollock, who glosses over Maine's slip with the following charming observation: "The use of the specially English term Consideration to represent the Roman causa is too dangerous a liberty to be allowed to any lesser man than Maine."

^H" Cf. particularly his monograph on "Causa" in the Roman and Roman-Dutch Law of Contract (1922), passim, e.g. pp. 26, 31, 56; also e.g. Kennedy v, Steenkamp 1936 CPD 113 at 117.

^{^[2866]} Introduction, p. 224.

^s* On Roman-Dutch authors, cf. Kotzc. op. cit.. note 79. pp. 25 sqq.; Joubert. Contract, pp.

27 sqq.; J.C. Stassen. ''Causa in die Kontraktereg". (19791 42 THRHR 364 sqq. ^s3 Cf. supra, p. 549, note 20.

Ill, I, 9; III, I, 47. On onevenheid (comprising inter alia enrichment, delict and the real contracts), cf. Ill, I, 15 sqq.

^{^[2870]} III, I, 49. On toezegging door wetduiding, cf. Ill, VI.

⁸⁵ III, I, 50. On schriftelicke toezegging, cf. Ill, V.

^{^[2872]} III, I, 52.

® III, I, 53.

® Cf. the explanation of the meaning of toezegging welcke dient tot eenige andere handelinge in III, III, 1.

⁵⁰ Stassen, (1979) 42 THRHR 366 sq.

³ Inleiding, III, XXX, 14.

^$ The question arises why Grotius singled out these two situations. The answer may be that all (or nearly all) other pacta were enforceable as a matter of course, i.e. normally as consensual contracts (toezegging door wetduiding; cf. Ill, VI (entitled: "Van overkoming in 't gemeen"). In III, I, 53 Grotius clarifies that even promises of gift and auxiliary (incidental or accessory) agreements were now actionable. In Roman law, both had been enforceable only if couched in the form of a stipulation (the latter also if they had been added by way of pactum adiectum in continenti). No matter whether these subtleties have been complied with or not, the mere pactum can be regarded (according to Grotius) as a redelicke oorzaecke — counts as a contract — gives rise to an action. Cf., apart from Stassen, (1979) 42 THRHR 366 sq., especially Kotze, op. cit., note 79, pp. 28 sqq.; Lcc, Introduction, pp. 431 sqq., and De Villiers AJA in Conradie v. Rossouw 1919 AD 279 at 314 sqq., all offering somewhat different interpretations. One basic difficulty in understanding the contractual theory of Grotius is that he nowhere clearly states whether (in his view) (I) all pacts are actionable and (2) all promises must be based on a iusta causa. Both propositions can merely be inferred. But by still discussing, in a separate chapter, the express verbal contract (i.e. the stipulation of Roman law, although in modern dress), he shows that he has not (or rather: not totally) thrown off the shackles of Roman law (Lee, Introduction, pp. 432 sq.)

⁵⁸ Cf., particularly, Kotze, op. cit., note 79, pp. 25 sqq.

^{^[2876]} Cf, particularly, Kotze, op. cit., note 79, pp. 25 sqq.

⁹⁵ Cf, particularly, De Villiers AJA, in his erudite judgment in Conradie v. Rossouw 1919

AD 279 at 298 sqq.

* Cf. today, for example, Stassen, (1979) 42 THRHR 358 sq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 32 sqq. Neither De Wet en Yeats nor Kerr, The Principles of the Law of Contract (3rd ed.,

1982), in their textbooks deal with (iusta) causa as a special requirement for the validity of

contracts. Cf further Jans enJ A, in Saambou-Nasionale Bouvereniging v. Friedman 1979 (3) SA 978 (A) at 990B-993C. A (iusta) causa, however, continues to be required for bills of exchange; cf. s. 25.1 of the (South African) Bills of Exchange Act 34/1964, and F.R. Malan, Bills of Exchange, Cheques and Promissory Notes in South African Law (1983), pp. 71 sqq.

^{^[2882]} Cf the example discussed by Azo, supra, p. 538, note 192.

⁵⁸ Petrus Placentinus, Summa Codicis (Moguntina, 1536), Lib. II, Tit. III.

^{^[2884]} Placentinus, loc. at. Cf., much later, also Wolfgang Adam Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. II. Tit. XIV. IV.

^lrx’ For a comparative discussion of this problem, see Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 27 sqq.; for a very comprehensive comparative investigation of all problems relating to offer and acceptance, sec Rudolf B. Schlesinger, Formation of Contracts, A Study in the Common Core of Legal Systems (2 vols., 1968).

§ 145 BGB; for further details cf. §§ 146 sqq., particularly § 147 II: "An offer made to a person who is not present may be accepted only up to the moment when the offerer may expect to receive an answer under ordinary circumstances." Cf. also § 862 ABGB and Artur Nussbaum, "Comparative Aspects of the Anglo-American Offer-and-Acceptance Doctrine", (1936) 36 Columbia LR 920 sqq. ("Apparently it was only after the use of mail had become common in the 18th century that the traditional rule (sc. no binding effect to be attributed to an offer) was felt to be unsatisfactory" (p. 923)).

¹¹¹² The reason for this lies in the doctrine of consideration. No consideration is normally given for the offer, and hence the latter cannot bind the offeror. On South African law (where it is also accepted doctrine that an offer can be revoked, even though the doctrine of consideration has been rejected), cf. Ben Beinart, "Offers Stipulating a Period for Acceptance", 1964 Ada Juridica 200 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 36 sqq., 42.

¹¹¹ The practical effects of this rule arc to a certain extent modified by the so-called mailbox theory (dating back to Adams v. Lindsell (1818) 1 B & Aid 681 sqq.): the contract is concluded (and thus the offer can no longer be revoked) when the offeree dispatches his acceptance (by, for instance, throwing it into the mailbox), not only when it reaches the offeror.

^{^[2889]} Cf. infra, pp. 585 sqq.. 621 sqq.

^{^[2890]} Cf.. in particular. Franz Wieacker. "Die vertragliche Obligation bei den Klassikern des Vernunftrechts", in: Festschrift fur Hans Welzel (1974), pp. 8 sqq.; Theo Mayer-Maly, "Der Konsens als Grundlage des Vertrages", in: Fe stschrift für Erwin Seidl (1975), pp. 1 18 sqq.; idem, "Die Bedeutung des Konsenses in privatrechts geschichtlicher Sicht", in: G. Jakobs (ed.), Rechtsgettung und Konsens (1976), pp. 96 sqq.; Flume, AT, pp. 1 sqq.; Martin Lipp, Die Bedeutung des Naturrechts für die Ausbildung der AU gemeinen Lehren des deutschen Privatrechts (1980), pp. 130 sqq.; Hans Hattenhauer, Qrundbegriffe des Bürgerlichen Rechts (1982), pp. 58 sqq.; Nanz, Vertragsbegrijf pp. 135 sqq.

^{^[2891]} Cf. e.g. Gerhard Dulckeit, "Zur Lehre vom Rechtsgeschäft im klassischen romischen Recht", in: Festschrift for Fritz Schulz, vol. 1(1951), pp. 148 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 227 sqq.

¹¹¹⁷ Cf. still e.g. Pap. D. 1, 3, 1 (delictum contrahere); Kaser, RPr I, p. 523; Biondi, Contralto e stipulatio. pp. 197 sqq.; Franz Wieacker (1967) 35 TR 130 sq.; Honsell/Mayer- Maly/Selb, p. 250. But cf. also Wunner, Contractus, pp. 10 sqq., 26 sqq.; Werner Macheiner, "Zu den Anfängen des Kontraktssystems", in: Festsgabejiir Arnold Herdlitczka (1972), pp. 168 sqq.; Santoro, (1983) 37 Annali Palermo 31 sq.

™ Gai. Dl, 88 sq.; Wieacker, (1967) 35 TR 132 sq.; Wunner, pp. 42 sqq. On the contract-delict dichotomy, see also supra, pp. 10 sqq.

^{^[2894]} There is a vast literature on the Roman concept of contract; cf. e.g. Dulckeit, Festschrift Schulz, vol. I, pp. 152 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 523; Arnaldo Biscardi, "Some Critical Remarks on the Roman Concept of Obligations", (1977) 12 The Irish Jurist 371 sqq.; Santoro, (1983) 37 Annali Palermo 61 sqq. and passim (for the time of Labeo).

""Kaser, RPr II, pp. 362 sq.

^{^[2896]} Labeo's attempt (Ulp. D. 50, 16, 19) to confine the term "contractus" to "ultro citroque obligationem, quod Graeci awaWay fux vocant" is difficult to understand and possibly spurious. In any event, it has remained isolated and has never been followed up. Cf. e.g. Wunner, Contactus. pp. 33 sqq.; Benohr, Synallagma, pp. 10 sqq.; Macheiner, Festgabe Herdiitczka. pp. 172 sqq.; but see the comprehensive analysis by Santoro, (1983) 37 Annali Palermo 7 sqq.

^1E Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, 3.

^{^[2898]} Cf. supra, pp. 508 sqq.

^{^[2899]}Kaser, RPr II, pp. 362 sqq.

^{^[2900]} D. 2, 14, 1, 3.

^{^[2901]} Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, 3.

^{^[2902]} Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, 3

^{^[2903]} Thus, the Romans did not concern themselves with questions relating to the actual formation of the contract as such. They looked at contract (and consensus) as a single, undivided unit and not at the individual declarationes voluntatis of the parties involved. Only after a general theory of contract had been developed by the natural lawyers and contract had come to be analysed in terms of offer and acceptance did, in particular, the question when a contract inter absentee can be taken to be concluded (e.g.: is it necessary that the offeror be notified of the acceptance of his offer?) come into the purview of scholarly debate. For a historical analysis, cf. Jorn Augner, Vertragsschluss ohne Zugang der Annahme erklär ung: §151 BGB in recht shi st oris eher und recht sv er gl ei ehender Sicht (1985).

^{^[2904]} Cf. e.g. Silvio Perozzi, Istituzioni di Diritlo Romano (2nd ed.. 1928), vol. II, pp. 30 sqq.; Wieacker, Societas, pp. 80 sqq.

^m Very clear on this point is David Daube, "Societas as Consensual Contract", (1939) 7 Cambridge U 395 sqq.

Heinz Hiibncr, "Subjektivismus in der Entwicklung des Privatrechts", in: Festschrift jiir Max Kaser (1976), pp. 715 sqq., 720 sq.

^{^[2907]} Cf. supra, pp. 78 sqq., 82 sqq.

^{^[2908]} Cf. e.g. Daube, (1939) 7 Cambridge LJ 395 sqq.; Grosso, Sistema, pp. 53 sqq.

® Cf. infra, pp. 587 sqq.

^{^[2910]} Fritz Raber, "Hoc animo dare", (1965) 33 TR 51 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, pp. 365 sq.; Grosso, Sistema, pp. 53 sqq.; Thomas, TRL. pp. 225 sq.; Buckland/Stein, pp. 412 sqq.; Santoro, (1983) 37 Annali Palermo 184 sqq. (on "conventio re"); for thè law of stipulations cf, most recently, Make Dobbertin, Zur Auslegung der Stipulation im klassischen Romischen Recht (1987), pp. 51 sqq.

“ Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, 3.

^{^[2912]} Cf. supra, pp. 156 sqq., 165, 510 sq.

® Pietro De Francisci, SYNAAAAHVIA, voi. II (1916), pp. 498 sqq.; Melchiorre Roberti, "L' influenza Cristiana nello svolgimento storico dei patti nudi", in: Cristianesimo e diritto romano (1935), pp. 87 sqq.; but cf. Biondi, DRC, voi. Ili, pp. 214 sqq.; Ugo Brasiello, "SulT influenza del Cristianesimo in materia di elemento subbicttivo nei contratti", in: Scritti di diritto romano in onore di Contardo Ferrini (1946), pp. 505 sqq.

[2914] "yerinfieriichung" der schuldrechtlichen Bindung: RPr II. p. 366.

¹³³ Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, lsq.;Ulp. D. 50, 12, 3pr.; Grosso, Sistema, pp. 171 sqq.; Magdelain, Consensualisme. pp. 5 sqq.

^{^[2916]} De jure naturae et gentium. Lib. II, Cap. Ill, § 14; Lib. Ill, Cap. IV, § 1. For further details cf. Hans Welzel, Dze Naturrechtslehre Samuel Pufendorfs (1958) (e.g. pp. 43 sqq.); Notker Hammerstein, "Samuel Pufendorf", in: Μ. Stolleis (ed.), Staatsdenker im 11. und 18. Jahrhundert (1977), pp. 174 sqq., 180 sqq.

^{^[2917]} Liv. I, Introduction.

^{^[2918]} Cf. also supra, p. 540.

- On Roman law as "raison ecrite" and Domat's views in that regard cf. Jean Gaudemet, "Les tendances a 1'unification du droit en France dans les derniers siecles de FAncien Regime (XVIe-XVille)", in: La jo rmazione storica, vol. I, pp. 179 sqq.; Klaus Luig, "Der Gettungsgrund des romischen Rechts im 18. Jahrhundert in Italien, Frankreich und Deutschland", in: La jormazione storica, vol. II (1977), pp. 834 sqq. For much more hostile comment, see Christian Thomasius, InstitutionesJurisprudentiae Diuinae Italia (1702), Lib. II, Cap. XI, 63 ("Hine distinctiones... in nescio quas subspecies obscurissimas, quarum singulae infinitis litigiis inter Jurisconsultos dederunt occasionem ortae sunt"). On Thomasius' attitude towards the Roman law generally, see Wolfgang Ebner, Kritik des romischen Rechts bei Christian Thomasius (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Frankfurt, 1971).

^{^[2920]} Les loix civiles, Liv. I, Tit. I, 8.

^{^[2921]} Tratte des obligations, n. 4.

^IL Cf. in particular Malte Dicsselhorst. Die Lehre des Hugo Grotius vom Versprechen (19591;

Nanz, Vertragsbegriff, pp. 139 sqq. Cf. also § 861 ABGB; for a general evaluation of the

influences of the Roman ius commune and of natural law in the contract law of the ABGB, cf. Gunter Wesener, "Naturrechtliche und romisch-gemeinrechtliche Elemente im Vertragsrecht des ABGB", 1984 ZNR 113 sqq.

^{^[2925]} For details of the tradition on which Grotius built (particularly Molina and Lessius), cf. Diesselhorst, Hugo Grotius, pp. 4 sqq., 10 sqq., 39 sqq.

De jure belli ac pads, Lib. II, Cap. XI, 4. Cf. also Inleiding, III, I, 1 and 12; see further Okko Behrends, "Treu und Glauben, Zu den christlichen Grundlagen der Willcnstheoric im heutigen Vertragsrecht", in: L.L. Vallauri, G. Dilcher (eds.), Christentum, Säkularisation und modernes Recht, vol. II (1981), pp. 964 sqq.

^№ Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, 3 and 4.

¹⁴⁵ Reason: "... nudis animis actibus efficientiam juris tnbuere non fuerat congruum naturae humanae, quae nisi ex signis actus cognoscere non potest": Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. IV, 3.

^{^[2927]} De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, 14; cf. also Inleiding, III, I, 10: "Toezegging noemen wy een willighe daed eens mensches waer door hy aan een ander iet belooft, met meninghe dat den ander het zelve aennemen ende daer door op den belover eenig recht zal mogen verkrijgen." For details, see Diesselhorst, Hugo Grotius, pp. 106 sqq.. Ill sqq.

¹ The question has recently been asked whether Grotius' view of contract as the sum of two unilaterally binding promises does not reflect the psychological realities much better than the "mystification" of a consensus: Eugen Bucher, "Fur mehr Aktionendenken", (1986) 186 Archiv fur die ciuilistische Praxis 21.

^{^[2929]} Dejure naturae et gentium, e.g. Lib. Ill, Cap. IV; cf. further Make Diesselhorst, Zum Vermb'gensrechtssystem Samuel Pufendorfs (1976); Lipp, op. cit., note 105, pp. 141 sqq.; Nanz, Vertragsbegriff, pp. 149 sqq.

^I5U Grundsätze des Natur- und Vb'ickerrechts (Halle, 1754), § 438; Nanz, Vertragsbegriff, pp. 165 sqq. The term "Vertrag", incidentally, is derived from "sich vertragen", which means as much as to agree, to make peace, to be reconciled (with each other) and thus has connotations vaguely similar to the Latin "pactum".

■ ¹ Institutions § 27; cf. also Mayer-Maly, "Die Bedeutung des Konsenses", op. cit., note 105, pp. 98 sq.

¹² De jure naturae et gentium. Lib. Ill. Cap. VI. § 15.

^{^[2933]} De jure naturae et gentium. Lib. Ill. Cap. VI. § 16.

154- ^r

The doctrine of "Willenserklärung" (dcdaratio voluntatis) owes much to Wolfgang Adam Lauterbach; cf. his Disputatio de voluntate. as discussed by Mayer-Maly, "Die Bedeutung des Konsenses", op. cit., note 105, pp. 97 sq. and Festschrift Seidl, pp. 126 sq. Generally on the history of this concept, see Siegmund Schlossmann, "Willenserklärung und Rechtsgeschäft. Kritisches und Dogmengeschichtliches", in: Festgabe der Kieler Juristen- Fakultatjur Hanel (1907), pp. 48 sqq.; Hermann Dilcher, "Die Willenserklärung nach dem preussischen ALR 'frei, ernstlich und zuverlässig' ", in: Gedachtnisschrift für Hermann Conrad (1979), pp. 85 sqq.

Savigny dealt with the concept of contract and all questions relating to its formation within the general part of his system of private law (on the idea of a "general part" cf. supra, p. 31); he thus detached it from the law of obligations. Cf., for example, System, vol. Ill, pp. 7, 310, and Hammen, Savigny. pp. 95 sqq. This is also the approach adopted in the BGB which includes in book one its rules both on declarations of intention (WiUenserkla'rungen; §§ 116 sqq. BGB), and on contracts IVertrage: §§ 145 sqq. BGB). Book two (containing the law of obligations) commences only with § 241. On the reasons cf. "Motive", in: Mugdan. vol. I. p. 422. The generic term, covering both "Willenserklärung" and "Vertrag" is that of "Rechtsgeschäft" (legal act); cf. the title of Book I, section III (§§ 104-185 BGB). On the history of this concept cf. Flume, AT. pp. 23 sqq., 28 sqq.; Hattenhauer, op. cit., note 105, pp. 58 sqq.

In recent times, the concept of contractual liability based on consent has been questioned; cf., as far as England is concerned, Atiyah, Rise and Fall, passim, e.g. pp. 716 sqq.; for Germany cf. e.g. the discussion by Eugen Dietrich Graue, "Vertragsschluss durch Konsens?", in: G. Jakobs (ed.), Rechts%eltun% und Konsens (1975), pp. 105 sqq.

^{^[2937]} Cf. Harold j. Berman, Law and'Revolution (1983), p. 18.

^1M The translator's preface, p. X.

® Cf. especially A.W.B. Simpson, "The Rise and Fall of the Legal Treatise: Legal Principles and the Forms of Legal Literature", (1981) 48 University of Chicago LR 632 sqq.

“ Atp. 4.

¹¹ Cf. the analysis of A.W.B. Simpson, "Innovation in Nineteenth Century Contract Law_?", (1975) 91 LQR 247 sqq.

^{^[2942]} Rise and Fall, p. 345. Cf. also at pp. 388 sqq., where the rise of formalism and, in conjunction with it, principle-orientation is discussed.

^lfo Atiyah, Rise and Fall. pp. 398 sqq., 681 sqq.

^1M Simpson, (1975) 91 LQR 254.

^{^[2945]} (1822) 5 B Sc Aid 474 at 480. For further details concerning the reception of Pothier in England and (via England) South Africa, cf. Reinhard Zimmermann, "Der Einfluss Pothiers auf das romisch-hollandische Recht in Südafrika", (1985) 102 ZSS (GA) 168 sqq., 176 sqq.

^{^[2946]} System of the Modem Roman Law, translated by W. Holloway.

"Considering the amount of coincidence {if not more than coincidence) between English and Roman law in the main principles of Contract, I have felt justified in making a pretty free use of the Roman law for purposes of illustration and analogy.... On points of Roman law (and to a considerable extent, indeed, on the principles it has in common with our own) I have consulted and generally followed Savigny's great work." (Principles of Contract at Law and in Equity (1st ed.), foreword).

^{^[2948]} Cf. supra, pp. 554 sqq.

Simpson, (1975) 91 LQR 258 sqq.; Atiyah, Rise and Fall, pp. 446 sqq.

^ro (1818) 1 B & Aid 681. Cf. also Stefan A. Riescnfeld, "The Impact of Roman Law on the Common Law Systems", (1985) 1 Lesotho L.J 269 sqq.

^1,1 Frederick Pollock. Principles of Contract at Law and in Equity (1876'). p. 2.

^E Simpson. (19751 91 LQR 263 sqq.

System, vol. Ill. § 140.

^{^[2951]} Cf. supra, pp. 559 sq.

¹⁵ [1893] 1 QB 256 (CAI; on this aspect of the smoke ball case, see Simpson. (19851 14 Journal of Legal Studies 375 sqq. Cf. further especially Heilbut, Symons & Co. v. Buckleton

[1913] AC30(HL).

¹⁷¹¹ Cf. e.g. Kindersley vein Haynes v. Haynes (18611 1 Dr & Sm 426 at 433: "When both

parties will the same thing, and each communicates his will to the other, with a mutual agreement to carry it into effect, then an engagement or contract between the two is

constituted"; Atiyah, Rise and Fall, pp. 405 sqq. (esp. p. 407).

^{^[2957]} Cf. e.g. Simpson, (1975) 91 LQR 257 sqq.

On the connection between canon law (laesio fidei) and the growth of assumpsit, sec R.H. Helmholz, "Assumpsit and Fidei Laesio", (1975) 91 LQR 406 sqq. On the emergence and rise of the action of assumpsit generally, see A.W.B. Simpson, History, passim.

^ra Simpson, History, pp. 248 sqq.

® Simpson, (1975) 91 LQR 257.

⁸¹ For a recreation "of the historical background and significance of this landmark in the history of contract law and its relationship to the seedy world of the late nineteenth-century vendors of patent medical appliances", cf. A.W.B. Simpson, "Quackery and Contract Law: The Case of the Carbolic Smoke Ball", (1985) 14 Journal of Legal Studies 345 sqq. The brief account that follows in the text is based on Simpson's analysis.

^E The defence was led by H.H. Asquith. Q.C.. who became Home Secretary shortly afterwards, and later Prime Minister (1908-1916).

^{^[2963]} [18921 2 QB 484; the trial was before Hawkins J ("assisted by his fox terrier Jack, which always sat on the bench with him": Simpson, (1985) 14 Journal of Legal Studies 362).

¹⁸¹ [1893] 1 QB 256.

^{^[2965]} Simpson, (1985) H Journal of Legal Studies 378.

^1H6 § 657 BGB.

^1H7 This term is of very recent origin (second half of the 19th century") and has not managed to establish itself in popular parlance; cf. Hans Hermann Seiler, in: Mtinchener Kommentar, vol. Ill, 2 (2nd ed., 1986), § 657, n. 1.

^IHR "Contractual theory": cf. e.g. Vangerow, § 603, n. 2; Windschcid/Kipp, § 308.

^1S9 "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 290.

^№ Jost Wiechmann, Der Ausschluss des Rechtsweges bei den offentlichen Belohnungsversprechen (1987), pp. 56 sqq.

⁰ Bloom v. The American Swiss Watch Company 1915 AD 100.

^{^[2972]} Bloom's case at 107 (per De Villiers AJA).

^№ Bloom's case at 103 (per Innes Cj).

¹⁹¹ Karlheinz Dreiocker, Zur Dogmengeschkhte der Auslobung (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Kiel, 1969), pp. 10 sqq., 65 sqq.

^{^[2975]} Cf. supra, p. 496.

^№ In favour of a close historical connection, cf. Rudolf Dull, "Auslobung und Fund im antiken Recht", (1941) 61 ZSS 19 sqq. But see Dreiocker, op. cit., note 194, pp. 16 sqq.

¹⁹⁷ Cf. Dreiocker, op. cit., note 194, pp. 40 sqq. Cf., for example, Petronius, Satiricon, XCVII, 2: "Puer in balneo paulo ante aberravit, annorum circa XVI, crispus, moUis, formosus, nomine Giton. Si quis eum reddere aut commonstrare voluerit, accipiet nummos mille."

^ra Kaser, RPr I, p. 604.

^{^[2978]} Cf. supra, p. 568, note 147.

A promissio, according to Grotius, was designed, if accepted, to confer a ius upon

another person; the person who uttered a pollicitatio, on the other hand, did not contemplate

such a transfer of a right; cf. Dejure belli ac pacts. Lib. If Cap. XI, 3 sq. and Lib. If Cap. XI,

XIV. Pufendorf (De iure naturae et gentium. Lib. DI, Cap. V, 6) describes pollicitatio as an

"imperfecta promissio". Cf. also Geoffrey MacCormack, "A Note on Stair's Use of the

Term Pollicitatio", 1976 Juridical Review 124.

²¹¹¹ Cf, for example, Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. L, Tit. XU, I {"Pollicitatio est

solius offerentis promissio").

"°" Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, 3.

Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. L, Tit. XII (listing, however, a considerable number of

exceptions to the principle).

²¹¹ T.B. Smith, "Pollicitatio—Promise and Offer", in: idem, Studies Critical and

Comparative (1962), pp. 168 sqq.; cf. also Coing, p. 408.

^3B Tratte des obligations, n. 4.

³¹⁶ "Pactum est duorum consensus atque conventio, pollicitatio vero offerentis solius promissum."

²⁽¹⁷ Simpson, (1975) 91 LQR 259.

^2(IM John Austin, Lectures on Jurisprudence, vol. II (1885), p. 906.

^20y Cf. e.g. Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. II, § 9; Arndts, Pandekten, § 241; Baron, Pandekten, §211.

^{^[2994]} § 657 BGB.

^{^[2995]} Institutions of the Law of Scotland (4th cd.), vol. I (1826). Book I, Tit. X, IV; T. B. Smith, op. cit., note 204, pp. 168 sqq., 173 sqq.; cf. also D.I.C. Ashton Cross, "Bare Promise in Scots Law", (1957) 2Juridical Review 138 sqq. There is considerable confusion as to the use of the terms "promissio" and "pollicitatio" by Stair; cf. Alan Rodger, "Molina, Stair and the Jus Quaesitum Tertio", 1969 Juridical Review 130 sqq.; MacCormack, 1976 Juridical Review 121 sqq.

^{^[2996]} Percival Gane, The Selective Voet, vol. Vll (1957), Book L, Title 12, translator's note.

²³ Cf. supra, p. 543.

® Cf. e.g. Robert Feenstra/Margreet Ahsmann, Contract (1980), p. 21.

^{^[2999]} Printing and Numerical Registering Company v. Sampson (1875) LR 19 Eq 462 at 465.

^{^[3000]} Cf. e.g. Atiyah, Rise and Fail, pp. 398 sqq.; idem, "Contract and Fair Exchange", in: P.S. Atiyah, Essays on Contract (1986), pp. 329 sqq.; Arthur van Mehren, "A General View of Contract", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. VII, 1 (1982), nn. 72 sqq.; Ludwig Raiser, "Vertragsfunktion und Vertragsfreiheit", in: Hundert Jahre deutsches Rechtsleben, Festschrift zum lOOjahrigen Bestehen des Deutschen Juristentages, vol. I (1960), pp. 101 sqq.; Franz Wieacker, IndustriegeseUschaft undPrivairechtsordnutig, passim; Dieter Grimm, "Soziale, wirtschaftliche und politische Voraussetzungen der Vertragsfreiheit, Eine vergleichende Skizze", in: La formazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1221 sqq.; Giinther Honn, (Compensationgestorter Vertragspari tdt (1982), pp. 5 sqq., 18 sqq.: Emst Kramer, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nd ed., 1984), Vor § 145, nn. 2 sqq.

^{^[3001]} Cf. e.g. Werner Scherrer, Die geschichtliche Entwkklung des Prinzips der Vertragsfreiheit (1948), pp. 31 sqq.

Cf. Atiyah, Essays on Contract, op. cit., note 216, p. 330; or, in modern civilian parlance, defects of the will (cf. e.g. Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 119; Flume, AT, § 19).

~¹⁹ Cf. e.g. Schulz, Principles, pp. 223 sqq.

” For an overview cf.. in particular. A. Steinwenter. "Die Vertragstreue im bürgerlichen Recht", 1950 Jtiristische Blatter 173 sqq.

^{^[3005]} Cf. supra, p. 356.

^{^[3006]} Cf. supra, p. 356.

^{^[3007]} Cf. supra, p. 425, note 90.

Cf. supra, p. 455.

^{^[3009]} Cf. supra, pp. 317 sq., 318 sq

²²⁵ Cf. supra, pp. 259 sqq.

[3011]

Cf. supra, p. 537.

^22H Schemer, Riicktrittsrecht, pp. 23 sqq.; Going, p. 404. On paenitentia in Roman law, cf. e.g. Berger, ED, p. 616.

~²⁹ Cf. e.g. Schemer, Riicktrittsrecht, pp. 18 sqq.

²³¹¹ Schemer, Riicktrittsrecht, p. 27.

^{^[3015]} Cf. e.g. Samuel Stryk, Ustts modernus pandectarum, Lib. II, Tit. XIV, § 5; Augustin

Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. XXXIX, VII. Cf. further Going, p. 404.

For details, cf. Schemer, Rticktrittsrecht, passim A unilateral right of withdrawal from the contract was still rejected by the pandectists: for details, sec Leser, Rücktritt vom Vertrag, pp 2 sqq.

Friedrich Merzbacher, "Die Regel 'Fidem frangenti fides frangitur' und ihre Anwendung", (1982) 99 ZSS (KA) 339 sqq; further, sec Georges Boyer, Recherches historiques sur la resolution des contrats (1924), pp. 212 sqq., 235 sqq., 259 sqq.

^{^[3018]} Schemer, Rückt rittsrecht, pp. 92 sqq.; Going, p. 444.

^{^[3019]} §§ 325 sq. BGB; for details cf. Leser, Rücktritt vom Vertrag, passim. For a comparative analysis cf. G.H. Treitel, "Remedies for Breach of Contract", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. VII, 16 (1976), pp. 110 sqq. and Hans G. Leser, "Losung vorn Vertrag", in: Recht und Rechtserkenntnis, Festschrift fur Ernst Wolf (1985), pp. 373 sqq.

^{^[3020]} Cf. § 1 b AbzG (dealing with instalment sales) and § i HausturWG (dealing with door-to-door sales).

^{^[3021]} Cf. e.g. A.D. Weber, Systematische Entwicklung der Lehre von der natürlichen Verbind-

tichkeit (1784), § 90; for further details, see Leopold Pfaff, "Die Clausel: Rebus sic stantibus in der Doktrin und der osterreichischen Gesetzgebung", in: FestschriftjiirJoseph Unger (1898), pp. 272 sqq.

²⁵ De beneficiis. Lib. IV. XXXV. 3. ^23y 3. XXV—95.

*⁴¹¹ Enarrationes in Psabnos, V. 7.

^2,1 Secunda Pars. Causa XXII. Quaest. II. c 14.

²¹ Johannes Teutonicus, gl. Furens, ad C 22, q. 2. c. 14. Cf. further Robert Feenstra. "Impossibilitas and Clausula rebus sic stantibus", in: Daube Noster (1974), pp. 81 sqq. The wording of the condition is taken from a text by Africanus (D. 46, 3, 38 pr:.. si in codem statu maneat"), which does, however, not deal with the problem in question. The legal construction of the clausula remained that of an implied condition. A very similar construction, incidentally, appears in Taylor v. Caidwell (1863) 3 B &c S 826, the decision which broke with the principle established in Paradine v. Jane (1647) Aleyn 26 and became one of the roots of the modern doctrine of frustration of contract (cf. infra, pp. 582, 817].

² «'Johannes Teutonicus, loc. cit.

⁴⁴ Summa theologiae, Secunda Secundae, q. 110, art. 3, ad quintum; the general rule is expressed in the following terms: "Si vero non faciat quod promisit, tune videtur infideliter agere per hoc quod animum mutat."

^{^[3029]} Commentaria, D. 12, 4, 8, § Quod Servius, 3.

²¹⁶ Commentaria (Venetiis, 1586), ad D. 12, 4, 8.

^2f? Yason de Mayno, Commentaria, ad D. 12, 4, 8.

²⁴³ Andreas Tiraquellus, as quoted by Pfaff, Festschrift Unger, p. 229.

^{^[3033]} Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. XL, IV. For a detailed account of the historical development, c(. Pfaff, Festschrift Unger, pp. 225 sqq.; O. Fritze, "Clausula rebus sic stantibus", (1900) 17 Archiv fur Bürgerliches Recht 29 sqq.; cf. also Margarethe Beck- Mannagetta, "Die clausula rebus sic stantibus und die Gescha'ftsgrundlage in der Dogmengeschichte", in: La formazivne storied, vol. Ill, pp. 1263 sqq.

²²¹ Feenstra/Ahsmann, op. cit., note 214, p. 21.

^{^[3035]} E.M Nfeijers, "Essai historique sur la force majeure", in: Etudes d'histoire du droit, vol. IV (1966), p. 29.

On Grotius' attitude cf. Feenstra, Daube Noster. pp. 84 sqq.; Bcck-Mannagetta, in: La fomazione storka. vol. Ill, pp. 1270 sqq.

²⁸ Of. e.g. Pfaff. Festschrift Unger, pp. 282 sqq.; Erich Kaufmann, Das Wesendes Volkerrechts und die ctausula rebus sic stantibus (1911).

²⁸ Cf. supra, note 237.

²⁸ "Die Voraussetzung", (1892) 78 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 197.

^{^[3039]} Windscheid defined the term "presupposition" in terms of an "undeveloped condition": one party wishes the effects of a transaction to be dependent on a certain state of affairs without, however, elevating such presupposition, by way of an express declaration, to the status of a term of the transaction. Such party may refuse to render performance, if his contractual opponent was in a position to gauge, from the circumstances of the transaction, that the presupposition in fact formed an element of his intention. Cf. esp. Bernhard Windscheid. Die Lehre des mimischen Rechts von der Voraussetzung (18501: idem, in: Windscheid/Kipp. §§ 97 sqq. Contra e.g. Otto Lenel. "Nochmals die Lehre von der Voraussetzung". (18921 79 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 49 sqq.: cf. also Gerhard Kegel. "Empfielt es sich, den Einfluss grundlegender Veränderungen des Wirtschaftslebens auf Vertrage gesetzlich zu regeln und in welchem Sinn?", in: Verhandlungen des 40. Deutschen Juristentages (1953"). vol. I. pp. 143 sqq: for a recent analysis, cf. Ulrich Falk. Ein Gelehrter wire Windscheid (19891. pp. 193 sqq. The notion of "economic" impossibility (cf. e.g. RGZ 100.

129 (13011 may be mentioned as another attempt to cope with the problem of changed circumstances.

^{^[3041]} "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II. p. 1174. On the clausula cf. "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II. pp. 109. 471.

^{^[3042]} Arr. 2 I GG; cf. e.g. Ludwig Raiser, "Vertragsfreiheit heute", 1958 Juristenzeitung 4 sqq.;

Manfred Wolf, RechtsteschaftUche Entscheidungsfreiheit und t>ertra%licher Interessetutus gleich (1970), pp. 21 sqq.

^{^[3043]} Art. 1819; cf. further Saul Litvinoff, "Error' in the Civil Law", in: Joseph Dainow (ed.l.

Essays on the Civil Law of Obligations (19691. pp. 222 sqq.

" Supra, pp. 577, 578.

For a recent analysis of the "dynamic that operates in areas of doctrine caught between the commitment to objectivity, expressed as reliance on 'manifestation', and the commitment to subjectivity expressed as reliance on 'intent'" (p. 1065), cf. Clare Dal ton,

"An Essay in the Deconstruction of Contract Doctrine", (1985) 94 Yale LJ 1039 sqq.

“ Cf., for example, supra, pp. 87 sqq.

^{^[3049]} For a general discussion, see Konrad M. Kritzinger, "Approach to Contract: A Reconciliation", (100) 1983 SALJ 47 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 7 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, pp79 sqq.

^{^[3050]} Cf. e.g. Robinson v. Randfontein Gold Mining Co., Lid. 1925 AD 173; TroIIip v, Jordaatt 1961 (1) SA 238 (Al; Ocean Cargo Line Ltd- v. F. R. Warm? (Pty.) Ltd. 1963 (41 SA 641 (Al.

^lfl For these various meanings of iustus error cf. D.B. Hutchison/B.J. van Heerden, "Mistake in Contract, A Comedy of (Justus) Errors", (1987) 104 SALJ 522 sqq., who also draw attention to the anomaly that the iustus error doctrine is still applied in spite of the fact that the courts now generally appear to adhere to the (subjective) will theory, and no longer to the declaration theory. In fact, in recent years, there has been an unprecedented flood of decisions and case notes on the question of iustus error. Cf, most recently, Hortv Investments (Pty.) Ltd. v. Interior Acoustics (Pty.) Ltd. 1984 (3) SA 537 (W); Osman v. Standard Bank National Credit Corporation Ltd. 1985 (21 SA 378 (Cl; Du Toil v. Atkinson's Motors Bpk. 1985 (21 SA 893 (Al; Spindrifter (Pty.) Ltd. v. Lester Donovan (Pty.) Ltd. 1986 (11 SA 303 (Al; Nasionale Behuisingskommissie v. Greyiing 1986 (41 SA 917 (T); Standard Credit Corporation Ltd. V. Naicker 1987 (2) SA 49 (N); Carole Lewis, "Caveat Subscriptor and the Doctrine ofjustus Error" (1987) 104 SALJ 317 sqq.; A.J. Kerr, "Uses and Misuses of the Term Iustus Error. Questions concerning Error in Corpore", (1987) 104 SALJ 377 sqq.;J.S. McLennan, "Justus Error, Snatching of Bargains, and Rectification", (1987) 104 SALJ 382 sqq.

^{^[3052]} For a redefinition of iustus error in terms of quasi-mutual assent (an error is iustus when

the other party, due to his unreasonable reliance, cannot uphold the contract on the basis of quasi-mutual assent), cf. M.F.B. Reinecke/Schalk van dcrMerwe, 1984 TSAR 290 sqq.; Hutchison/Van Heerden, (1987) 104 SALJ 522 sqq.

^B Cf, for example, Voci, L'errore (1937); Gian Gualberto Archi, "Dal formalismo negoziale repubblicano al principio giustinianeo 'cum sit iustum vohmtates contrahentktm magis quam verborum conceptionem inspicere'", (1980) 46 SDHI1 sqq.

¹ Joseph Georg Wolf, Error im romischen Vertragsrecht (1961); Ugo Zilletti, La dottrina dell' errors nella storia del diritto roinano (1961); Franz Wieacker, "Irrtum, Dissens oder gcgenstandslose Leistungsbestimmung?", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan. vol. I (1963), pp. 383 ^sqa·.

" Error, pp. 23 sqq., 99 sq., 135 sq.

^{^[3056]} For some more general statements cf. Iul./Ulp. D. 2, 1, 15 ("non consentiant qui errent"); Iul./Ulp. D, 5, 1, 2 pr. ("error... non habet consensum"); Pomp. D. 39, 3, 30

("nulla enim voluntas errantis est"); Diocl. C. 1, 18, 8 ("cum errantis voluntas nulla sit"); Diocl. C. 1, 18, 9 ("cum nullus sit errantis consensus"). The identification theory is also in direct conflict with lul. D. 18, 1, 41, 1, a text regarded as genuine even by Wolf (Error, pp. 160 sqq.): cL e.g. Luigi Labruna, (1962) 8 Labeo 138.

" Theo Mayer-Maly. "Bemerkungen zum Aspekt der Konsensstorung in der klassischen Irrtumslehre", in: Melanges Philippe Meylan, vol. 1 (1 %3), pp. 241 sqq.; Wunner, Contractus, pp. 134 sqq., 144 sqq., 193 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 237; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 122.

²¹ Gai. Ill, 135.

^{^[3059]} Cf., in particular, Wunner, Contractus, pp. 145 sqq.

^{^[3060]} Cf. e.g. § 155 BGB ("If the parties to a contract which they regard as concluded have in fact not agreed upon a point upon which agreement should have been arrived at..."). In the terminology of the English common law, we are dealing in this alternative with mutual mistake. For a comparative discussion cf Dietrich Rothoeft, System der Irrtumslehre (1968), pp. 147 sqq. Earlier in this century, it was argued repeatedly that only a hidden lack of agreement (dissensus in the modern sense) vitiated the contract; texts such as D. 18, 1,9 pr. were thus explained solely in terms of alternative (1), and it was argued that unilateral error did not affect the validity of the contract: cf, in particular, Werner Flume, "Irrtum und

Pomp. D. 19. 2. 52. On this text cf. e.g. Wolf. Error, pp. 75 sqq.; Wunner. Contractus, pp. 199 sqq.; Wieacker, Melanges Meylan, pp. 398 sq.; Hans Hermann Seiler, "Utile per inutile non vitiatur", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 129 sq.; Okko Behrends, "Institutionelles und prinzipielles Denken im romischen Privatrecht", (1978) 95 ZSS 209 sqq.

³⁰ Cf. supra, pp. 74 sq.

³ Utile per inutile non vitiatur.

^{^[3064]} Cf. supra, pp. 75 sqq.

^{^[3065]} On this text and error in negotio in general, see Wolf, Error, pp. 86 sqq.; Wunner,

Contractus, pp. 207 sqq.

³¹ Contra: Flume, Festschrift Schulz, vol. I, p. 243; but see Wunner, loc. cit. For a different interpretation of this fragment (not based on lack of consensus), sec Wolf, loc. cit.

" For a modern definition of error in negotio cf. art. 1841 Louisiana Civil Code: "Error as to the nature of the contract will render it void. The nature of the contract is that which characterizes the obligation which it creates...."

³⁵ Cels. D. 12, 1, 32; cf. Wunner, Contract»!, pp. 210 sq.

^{^[3069]} D. 18, 1, 9, 2.

"^M Cf. Bruce W. Frier, "Roman Law and the Wine Trade: The Problem ofVinegar Sold As Wine"¹, (1983) 100 ZSS 268 sq.

^{^[3071]} Stein, Fault, p. 44.

On the question of terminology cf. Wolf, Error, pp. 121 sqq.; Pierre Cornioley, "Error in substantia, in materia, in qualitate", in: Stttdi in anore di Giuseppe Grosso, vol. II (1968), e.g. pp. 275 sqq., 293 sqq.; Robert Feenstra, "The Dutch Kantharos Case and the History of Error in Substantia", (1974)48 Tulane LR 853 sqq.; Frier, (1983) 100 ZSS 267 sq. It is highly unlikely that each of these terms had a fixed and distinct technical meaning. Substantia was probably, at least in Ulpian's parlance, a wider concept that went beyond the mere question of "material". Qualitas (cf. e.g. Paul. D. 19, 1, 21, 2), incidentally, docs not mean "goodness" in this context, but "characteristic" in the abstract; recognized already by Cuiacius ("dissensus in materia, qualitate ct substantia cadem sum"): Comment, in Tit. I De contrah. empt. Lib. XVIII Digest., ad L IX.

^{^[3073]} Paul. D. 18, 1, 10.

Cf. supra, pp. 311 sqq.

^{^[3075]} I share the widely held opinion that the Roman lawyers considered error in substantia only from the point of view of the insufficiency of the prevailing system of remedies for breach of warranty (cf. e.g. Feenstra, (1974) 48 Tutane LR 854) and that the doctrine was developed—in typically casuistic fashion (Kaser, RPr I, p. 238; Schulz, CRL, p. 529)—to fill an unsatisfactory gap in the protection of the purchaser. Hence, only the mistake of a purchaser who paid too much was considered significant. The latter point has, most recently, also been emphasized by Frier. Frier, (1983) 100 ZSS 257 sqq., disagrees, however, with the general view on the historical development of the doctrine of error in substantia. According to him, it was devised in the early classical period as a primitive means of protecting the purchaser from unconscionable results of enforcing the sale. However, by the late classical period more refined ways of protecting the purchaser within sale had been developed, and consequently the error in substantia doctrine had become so hemmed in by limitations "as to be all but insignificant in practice" (p. 272). Many jurists (Marcellus!) therefore wished to abolish it altogether. But Ulpian "with his usual respect for tradition" was unwilling to follow their lead; he preserved "the doctrine even in its sharply truncated form" (p. 273). In fact, however, Frier is forced to admit that Ulpian began to broaden the doctrine once more (e.g. p. 284), thus paving the way for its survival (and even further extension) in the European ius commune. Frier's argument is most ingenious and contains a wealth of interesting observations. It is. however, ultimately unconvincing, because some of the premises are shaky. Thus, for instance, Frier argues (p. 275) that early classical jurists considered the sale to be void whenever vinegar was sold as wine. He deduces that from the words "ego in vino quidem consentio" in Ulp. D. 18, 1, 9, 2: for how, Frier asks rhetorically, could Ulpian "agree" with Marcellus, except to overrule a previous decision? But surely it can make sense to express one's agreement with a firmly established view, particularly if one wants to emphasize (as Ulpian does) that he agrees with it only in part.

^{^[3076]} Cf. also, however, the notoriously difficult fragment of Paul. D. 19, 1, 21, 2, containing both a general statement and an example which appears to be in conflict with the approach adopted by the other Roman lawyers (and by Paul himself: D. 18, 1, 10): "Quamvis supra dicimus, cum in corpore consentiamus, de qualitate autem dissentiamus, emptionem esse, tamen venditor teneri debet...: veluti si mensas quasi citreas cmat, quae non sunt." Does "qualitas" here, after all, mean "quality", not "characteristic" in the abstract? Has a controversy been dropped from the original text, so that it can be considered an inept summary by the compilers? Has a "non" been left out before "esse" ("emptionem non esse")? On this text see, most recently, Stein, Fault, pp. 46 sq.; Wolf, Error, pp. 157 sqq.; Honsell, Qtiod interest, pp. 99 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Error in persona and error in

substantia", in: Laformazionestorica, vol. Ill, pp. 1219 sq., Marie Thercs Fogen, "Citrusholz und Fussschemel", 1982 RJ 165 sqq.; Frier, (1983) 177 ZSS 286 sq. The example concerns the sale of a table which was supposed to have been made of the wood of citrus tuia, a cypress-like tree growing in North Africa, which was characterized by its beautiful grain. Rich Romans liked to buy expensive tables; in one case more than one million sesterces appear to have been paid for a mensa citrea, and Cicero once bought a table for half a million sesterces: Honsell, Quod interest, p. 101; cf also Fogen, 1982 RJ 165, 170.

® On the Aristotelian background of the outrun clause, see Wolf, Error, pp. 139 sqq.; but cf. Frier (1983) 100 ZSS 284.

^{^[3078]} On the problem of vinegar sold as wine, particularly on the jurist's evaluation of acetic fermentation, cf. the detailed analysis by Frier, (1983) 100 ZSS 257 sqq., 274 sqq.

^{^[3079]} D. 18, 1, 41, 1.

⁴³ Cf. e.g. Wieacker, Melanges Meylan, p. 396, who tries to distinguish the facts of the two cases; cf. also Stein, Fault, pp. 44 sqq.; Thomas, in: La jormazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1212 sqq. But see Corniolcy, Studi Grosso, vol. II, pp. 274 sq., 280 sqq.; Feenstra, (1974) 48 Tulane LR 853 sqq. For a comprehensive discussion of D. 18, 1, 41, 1, see Fritz Sturm, Die

rechtsgeschichtliche Exegese (1972), pp. 62 sqq.

*⁹Ulp. D. 18, 1, 11, 1.

⁵⁽¹ Ulp. D. 18, 1, 11, 1.

^{^[3083]} Cf. supra, note 43.

^{^[3084]} Cf. e.g. Flume, AT. § 16, 2; for details, see Hans Josef Wieling, "Die Bedeutung der Regel 'falsa demonstratio non nocet' im Vertragsrecht", (1972) 172 Archiv Jur die civilistische Praxis 297 sqq.

Guido Donatati, "Falsa demonstratio non nocet", in: Studi di diritto romano, voi. I (1976), pp. 247 sqq.; Giuseppe Grosso, "Sulla falsa demonstratio nelle disposizioni d'ultima volontà", in: Studi in onore di Pietro Bon/ante. voi. II (1930), pp. 187 sqq.; Hans Josef Wieling, "Falsa demonstratio, condicio non scripta, condicio pro impleta im romischen Testament", (1970) 87 ZSS 197 sqq.

^{^[3086]} D. 35, 1, 17 pr.; cf. also Gai. D. 35, 1, 17, 1.

⁵⁸ Cf. e.g. Flume. Festschrift Schulz, vol. I. pp. 209 sqq.; Pasquale Voci. Diritto ereditario romano (2nd ed.), vol. II (1963), pp. 806 sqq.; Alan Watson, "Narrow, Rigid and Literal Interpretation in the Later Roman Republic", (1969) 37 TR 351 sqq.; Wieling, op. cit., note

[3088] passim; cf. also Kaser, RPr I, pp. 239 sq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 123.

⁵ Cf. e.g. supra, pp. 156 sqq., 165, 510 sq., 565.

® Cf. supra, pp. 510 sq.

^a Ulp. D. 2, 14, 1, 3.

^{^[3089]} Cf. also Paul. D. 45, 1,83, 1.

^f'³ "Si de alia re stipulator senserit, de alia promissor, perinde nulla contrahitur obligatio ac si ad interrogatum responsum non esset, veluti si hominem Stichum a te stipulatus quis fuerit, tu de Pamphilo senseris, quem Stichum vocari credideris": Inst. Ill, 19, 23.

For a different view, see Flume, Festschrift Schulz, vol. I. pp. 245 sqq. (the text deals only with dissensus in the modern sense); Wolf. Error, pp. 61 sqq. (stipulation is invalid, because the object of the transaction has not been identified); cf. also Wieacker, Melanges Meyian. pp. 4O0 sqq.; but see Wunner, Contractus, pp. 167 sqq.; Mayer-Maty, Melanges Merian, pp. 248 sq.; Fritz Raber. "Hoc animo dare". (1965) 33 TR 55 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 239.

"⁵ Cf. the example in Inst. Ill, 19, 23.

^{^[3093]} Error in corpore, to be more specific.

^t,? Cf. supra, pp. 589 sq.

^6M Ulp. D.45, 1.32.

^{^[3096]} Paul. D. 45, 1, 22.

¹¹ Cf. e.g. Atiyah. Rise and Fall, pp. 407 sqq.. quoting as an example Kindersley VC in Haynes v. Haynes (1861) 1 Dr & Sm426 at 433: "When both parties will the same thing, and each communicates his will to the other, with a mutual agreement to carry it into effect, then an engagement or contract between the two is constituted."

¹ Anon. "(1478) YB17EdwIV, Pasch, f. 1, pi. 2", in: C.H.S. Fifoot, History and Sources of the Common Law (1949), pp. 252 sqq. (253).

" ⁷² William Markby, Elements of Law (4th ed.. 1889), n. 622. Cf. also e.g. Lord Wright, in Norwich Union Fire Insurance Society Ltd. v. WH. Μ. Price Ltd. 11934] AC 455 at 463: "[T]he test of intention in the formation of contracts... is objective; that is, intention is to be ascertained from what the parties said or did"; Furmston, in: Cheshire, Fifoot and Furmston, Law of Contract (11th cd., 1986), pp. 27 sq.: "Agreement, however, is not a mental state but an act and, as an act. is a matter of inference trom conduct. The parties are to be judged, not by what is in their minds, but by what they have said or written or done.... The function of an Englishjudge is not to seek and satisfy some elusive mental element...." Further on the objective theory of contract and on the development from intent to responsibility, cf. Dalton, (1985) 94 Yale LJ 1039 sqq.; for Germany, cf. Gerhard Kege), "Verwirkung, Vertrag und Vertrauen", in: Festschrift für Klemens Pleyer (19B6), pp. 528 sqq.

⁷³ But see e.g. Treitel, Contract, p. 230.

^{^[3098]} Cf. the leading case of Smith v. Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597 at 607: a party is bound, if,

"whatever Ihis] real intention may be, he so conducts himself that a reasonable man would

believe that he was assenting to the terms proposed by the other party, and that the party

upon that belief enters into a contract with him". (Extreme) consequence: "It is even conceivable that a contract may be formed which is in accordance with the intention of

neither party" (Willislon, quoted by Dalton. (1985) 94 Yale LJ 1043).

³ For details, see Treitel. Contract, pp. 254 sqq.

¹⁵ It is usually said that the rcpresentee may rescind the contract. On the various meanings of "rescission" c{. Treitel, Contract, pp. 283 sqq.

^{^[3104]} Not every mistake has this effect: mistakes as to the person and as to the subject matter only if they are fundamental, mistakes as to the terms of the contract even though they may not have been fundamental. For details, sec Treitel, pp. 224 sqq.

^7f* As opposed to one which is common to both parties.

³⁹ In short, then, "Anglo-American law solves the problem of protecting the unerring party by giving relief only if there is no unerring party to the contract" (Timothy Hoff, "Error in the Formation of Contracts in Louisiana: A Comparative Analysis", (1978-79) 53 Tulane LR 374).

⁸³ So, too, Friedrich Kessler, Edith Fine, "Culpa in contrahendo. Bargaining in Good Faith, and Freedom of Contract: A Comparative Study", (1964) 77 Harvard LR 429; Diesselhorst, Sympotica Wieacker, pp. 206 sqq.

^a § 119 I: "A person who, when making a declaration of intention, is in error as to its content, or did not intend to make a declaration of such content at all, may rescind the declaration if it may be assumed that he would not have made it with knowledge of the facts and with reasonable appreciation of the situation." § 119 II: "An error as to the content of the declaration is regarded in the same way as an error as to those characteristics of a person or a thing which arc regarded in business as essential."

⁸² § 122 BGB.

⁸³ Cf. infra, pp. 613 sq.

^{^[3108]} Claus Wilhelm Canaris, Die Vertrauenshaftung im deutschen Privatrecht (1971), pp. 479

sqq., 532 sqq.

*Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPrl, p. 242.

® Frier. (19831 100 ZSS 274.

^{^[3112]} Cf. today e.g. § 119 II BGB. covering every attribute or characteristic of the object of the contract relevant for the determination of its value (except the value itself).

⁸³ See, for example, the discussion by Rudolf von Jhering, "Culpa in contrahendo, Schadensersatz bei nichtigen oder nicht zur Perfektion gelangten Vertragen", (1861) 4JhJb 106 sqq., stimulated by a decision of the District Court ("Landgericht") of Cologne dating from 1856 and applying French law; for a report of this decision, dealing with the incorrect transmission of a telegraphic order (the recipient was instructed to buy rather than sell certain shares), see (1859) 19 Zeitschrififor deutsches Rechl utid deutsche Rechtswissetischaft 456 sqq. This case raised the question of the protection of the reasonable reliance of the recipient of the telegram. For contemporary pandectist doctrine it posed a major problem, since a contractual claim could not be construed in view of the fact that the contract was void; nor could a delictual claim be granted, since Aquilian liability for pure economic loss was generally rejected (cf. infra, pp. 1036 sqq.) Jhering's culpa in contrahendo doctrine and Bahr's declaration theory (cf. infra, note 188) were attempts to grapple with this difficulty. The Latidsgericht of Cologne could resort to the famous general clause of delictual liability (art. 1382 code civil; on which, see infra, pp. 906, 1036) in order to achieve a satisfactory result.

® Cf. supra, pp. 237 sqq.

⁵⁰ In England, for instance, the question has been discussed whether an error in persona is possible inter praesentes; for details, see Treitel, Contract, pp. 225 sqq.

^Kb Mayer-Maiy. Festschrift Verdress, pp. 161 sqq.

^{^[3117]} Ulp. D. 29. 5. 3. 22.

¹¹¹⁷ Ulp. D. 14. 6. 3 pr.; Pomp. D. 14. 6. 20; Ulp. D. 17. 1. 29. 1.

^{^[3119]} C 5, 6, 1 (Sev. et Ant.).

^1(B Mayer-Maly. Festschrift Verdross, pp. 165 sq.; Winkel, op. cit.. note 95. pp. 277 sq.

^{^[3121]} On how imperial constitutions were published (and thus brought to the knowledge of those subject to them), cf. Fritz Schwind, Zur Fraqe der Publication im romischen Recht (2nd ed., 1973), pp. 155 sqq.

“ C. 1, 14, 9 (Vai. et Marc).

¹¹² Theo Mayer-Maly, "Einsicht und Erkundigungspflicht", (1976) 27 lura 1 sqq.; Winkel, op. cit., note 95, pp. 275 sqq.

^{^[3122]} They were allowed not to know the law (ius ignorare permissum est): cf. Paul. D. 22,

6, 9 pr.

^M*On rusticitas, e.g. C. 2, 2, 2 (Gord.) and Mayer-Maly, (1976) 27 lura 2 sqq.; idem,

"Rusticitas", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. I (1982), pp. 309 sqq.

^{^[3126]} Paul. D. 22, 6, 9, 5 in fine.

^{^[3127]} On the different restrictive strategies pursued, and criteria proposed by the Roman lawyers, see Winkel, pp. 79 sqq.

^{^[3128]} Cf. also Kaser, RPr I, p. 242; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 125-

^IIH Augustin Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. CCLXXXIX, I and II; Gliick, vol. 4, p. 164. The criterion of an error vincibilis appears to go back to Cuiacius (cf. Hiibner, Festschrift fur Kaser, p. 722), who had introduced it in respect of error iuris.

^{^[3130]} Voet, Commemarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXII, Tit. VI, VI.

^{^[3131]} Blasius Altomarius, as quoted by Coing, p. 417. Cf. further Peter Haupt, Die Entwicklung der Lehre vom Irrtum beim Rechtsgeschäft seit der Rezeption (1941), pp. 17 sqq. For the Pandectists, see Windscheid/Kipp, § 79 a.

⁰ Lauterbach, Collegium tlieoretico-practicum. Lib. XXII, Tit. VI, VIII.

^{^[3133]} Voet, loc. cit. Cf. also Codex Maximilianeus Bavaricus civilis I, 1,7,

¹³ Lauterbach, Collegium tlieoretico-practicum. Lib. XXII, Tit. VI, V sqq.; Struve, Syntagma, Exerc. XXIX, Lib. 22, tit. 6, LUX sqq.; Voet, loc. cit.

^{^[3135]}*Struvc, Syntagma, Exerc. XXIX, Lib. 22, Tit. 6, LX.

^{^[3136]} Voet, Commetttaritts ad Pandectas, Lib. XXII, Tit. VI, VII.

^X2f' Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum, Lib. XXII, Tit. VI, VIII.

^{^[3138]} Voet, loc. cit.

^{^[3139]} Pomp. D. 22, 6, 3.

^{^[3140]} Both Haupt (infra note 130) and Coing (p. 418), incidentally, draw attention to the fact that the authors of the ius commune dealt with ignorantia inns et facti in the form of a general doctrine (covering all areas of the law, including, particularly, criminal law). To what extent they specifically intended their propositions to be applied to the law of contract is occasionally unclear. In modern (German) criminal law the distinction between error iuris and error facti continues to be of great significance; cf. §§ 16 sqq. StGB and (e.g.) H.-J. Rudolphi, Unrechttbewusstseirt, Verbotsirrtum und Vermeidbarkeit des Verbotsirrtums (1969). In South African criminal law, the Appellate Division has recently set the cat among the

pigeons in S v. De Blom 1977 (3) SA 513 (A) by suddenly reversing the principle of error iuris non excusat. The decision has remained controversial (cf. recently, for instance, 5 v. Waeiines (Pty.) Ltd. 1986 (4) SA 1135 (N)).

^{L >} Haupt, op. cit., note 120. p. 20.

^{^[3142]} For what follows cf. Theo Mayer-Maly, "Rcchtsirrtum", in: HRG, vol. IV, col. 302 sqq.; as far as modern South African law is concerned, c{. Paul van Warmelo, "Regsdwaling", (1975) 38 THRHR 207 sqq.

"" Cf. e.g. The Summula de iuris et facti ignorantia of Bulgarus ("Quia leges ab omnibus sciri debent et intclligi, qui ignarus iuris in aliquo labitur, indignus videtur auxilio"), printed on pp. 244 sqq. and commented upon on pp. 73 sqq, in Hermann Kantorowicz, Studies in the Glossators of the Roman Law (1938).

¹¹³ Cf. still e.g. Grotius, De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XX. XLI11: "Sicut ergo circa leges civiles eos excusamus qui legum notitiam aut intellectum non habuerunt, ita et circa naturae leges par est eos excusan quibus am ratiocinationis imbecillitas aut prava educauo obstant. Nam ignorantia legis sicut inevilabilis si sit tollit peccatum."

^M Cf. Hans Kicfner, "Die gegenwärtige Bedeutung der Maxime Nui n'est cense ignorer la loi"\ in: E. v. Caemmerer, K. Zwcigert (eds.), Deutsche Latidesreferate eum VII. huernationalen Kongress für Rechtsvergleichung in Uppsala (1966"). pp. 87 sqq. The Code Civil presupposes, but does not spell out, this maxim.

^{^[3146]} Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. CCLXXX1X. I sqq. ^nri

Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XXII. Tit. VI. XIII.

^{^[3148]} That does not mean that all these types of errors were necessarily entirely irrelevant. A

motive, tor instance, could have become part of the content of the contract. Under certain

^14r' ".,. circa id, quod (contrahentes) principaliter respiciunt": cf. e.g. Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practictmt. Lib. XVIII. Tit. I. CV.

¹⁴ Cf. e.g. Lauterbach, loc. cit., CVI sqq.; Voct, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVIII, Tit. I, V; Glück, vol. 4, pp. 147 sqq. This is still the position in modern South African law: cf. e.g. Joubert, Contract, pp. 77 sqq.

^14MBut see e.g. Pothier, Tratte des obligations, n. 20.

circumstances, the clausula rebus sic srantibus (ct. supra, pp. 579 sqq.) could be invoked (in Louisiana error in motive can invalidate the contract in these cases: cf. supra, p. 582, note

260). An error concerning the value of the object ot sale could be taken into consideration under the rules relating to laesio enormis; the medieval authors in particular dealt with many error problems from this point of view (Feenstra, (1974) 48 Tttlane LR 855). And as far as mistakes about the quality of the object of sale were concerned, the aedilitian remedies (as incorporated into the actio empti) provided the answer. The exact delimitation between the respective areas of application ot the rules relating to mistake and the remedies for latent defects remains a matter of contention in modern German law: ct. e.g. Harm Peter Westermann, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. Ill, 1 (2nd ed., 1988). § 459, nn. 73 sqq. Of course, the problem that the same fact may be looked upon as an error in substantia or as 3 latent defect appears in other civilian jurisdictions too. For Louisiana ct. Hoff, (1978-79) 55

Tulane LR 357.

¹⁵¹¹ Cf. in particular Cuiacius, Comment, in Tit. I. De contrah. empt. Lib. XVIII. Digest., Ad. L. IX. whose comments appear to have gained considerable influence (Haupt, op. cit.. note

120. p. 111.

^{^[3156]} Cf. supra, p. 600.

^H For Natal cf. Hahlo/Kahn. The Union of South Africa (1960"). pp. 64 sqq. and Peter Spiller, A History of the District and Supreme Courts of Natal 1846-1910 (1986). On the process of reception of English law in South Africa generally, cf. Zimmermann, RHR, pp. 13 sqq.

System des Pandekten-Rechts (6th ed.), vol. I 1823, § 146.

^1H System, vol. HI, § 136.

^{^[3158]} Dwaling en Bedrog by die Kontraksluiting (1943), pp. 11 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, p. 22. Cf.

also loubert, Contract, pp. 77.

^IS A.L. Goodhart, "Mistake as to Identity in Contract", (1941) 57 LQR 235; cf. also Lewis

v. Averay [1972] 1 QB 198 (CA) at 206F.

Cf. e.g. Bird v. Sumeri'ille 1961 (3) SA 194 (A) at 204G-H; Landsbergen v. Van der Walt

1972 (2) SA 667 (R) at 669C-G; Kerr, Contract, pp. 26 sqq.

^{^[3164]} For details, see Trcitcl, Contract, pp. 224 sqq.; Thomas, in: La formazione storica, vol.

Ill, pp. 1203 sqq.

¹⁽* Cf. e.g. § 76 I 4 PrALR; art. 1110 code civil; art. 24, n. 2 OR; art. 1429, n. 3 codicc

civile; Gluck, vol. 4, pp. 158 sq.; Wachter, Pandekten, vol. II, p. 371.

For details, see Haupt, op. cit., note 120, pp. 25 sqq.; Klaus Luig, "Der Einfluss des Naturrechts auf das positive Privatrecht im 18. Jahrhundert", (1979) 96 ZSS (GA) 50 sqq.;

idem, Forschungsband von Zeiller (cf. infra, note 174), pp. 157 sqq.; cf. also Coing, pp. 418 sq.

^{^[3170]} De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, VI. On Grotius' views on error cf. further Diessclhorst, Hugo Grotius, pp. 91 sqq.; cf. also Robert Feenstra, "L'influcnce de la scolastique espagnole sur Grotius en droit prive: quelques experiences dans les questions de fond ct de forme, conccrnant notamment les doctrines de 1'erreur et de l'enrichisscmcnt sans cause", in: Fata Iuris Romani (1974), pp. 338 sqq.

ⁿ Cf. e.g. Diesselhorst. Hugo Grotius, pp. 97 sqq.

^{^[3172]} Cf. supra, pp. 567 sqq.

IV. 1. §25.

^m § 876. On the background and history of this section of the ABGB cf. Klaus Luig. "Franz von Zeiller und die Irrtumsrcgelung des ABGB", in: Sclb/Hofmcisrer (eds.), Forschunysband Franz von Zeiller (1980), pp. 157 sqq.

Cf. Haupt, op. cit., note 120, p. 36.

According to the ABGB, if the mistake was induced by a misrepresentation by the other party or if the other party ought to have noticed the mistake.

¹⁷⁷ Grotius, De jure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XI, VI: Pufendorf, De jure naturae et gentium. Lib. Ill, Cap. VI, § 6.

^{^[3175]} In French law, the problem is obviated by the general clause of delictual liability (art.

1382), which, in turn, derives from the theories of natural law; cf. infra, pp. 906, 1036; also

supra, note 88.

¹⁷⁹ (186lì 4JhJb 1 sqq. On Jhermg's views, as expressed in this famous article, cf. recently Erich Schanze, "Culpa in Contrahendo bei Jhcring", (1978) 7 lus Commune 326 sqq.; Dieter Medicus, "Zur Entdeckungsgcschichtc der culpa in contrahendo", in: Iuris Projcssio, Festgabe fur Max Kaser (1986), pp. 169 sqq.

¹⁸⁽¹ § 122 BGB. Along different lines still, § 99 II E I. For a comparative analysis cf. Friedrich Kessler, Edith Fine, "Culpa in contrahendo, Bargaining in Good Faith, and Freedom of Contract: A Comparative Study", (1964) 77 Harvard LR 429 sqq. They note a trend in French law, too, to compensate the innocent party by awarding him reliance damages, and even a tendency in the common law to employ the idea of culpa in contrahendo as a weapon to soften the rigours of the "objective theory" of contracts.

^s System, vol. Ill, § 138, n. (d).

^{^[3180]} Cf. e.g. Wieacker, Melanges Meylan, p. 385; Flume, AT, p. 445.

^{^[3181]} Windscheid/Kipp, § 76, n>

¹⁸¹ System, vol. Ill, §§ 135 sqq. and Beylage VIII (pp. 326 sqq.). On Savigny's error doctrine cf. Haupt, op. cit., note 120, pp. 40 sqq.; Flume, AT, § 22, 2; Klaus Fuig, "Savignys Irrtumslehre" (1979) 8 lus Commune 36 sqq.; Hammen, Savigny, pp. Ill sqq.

^{^[3183]} Cf. supra, note 88.

® Cf. supra, pp. 592, 612.

^M System, vol. III. § 138 (p. 294).

^1SH Cf. e.g. Winds cheid/Kipp, § 75; Emst Ziteimann, Irrtum und Rechtsgeschäft (1879), passim; '’Motive”, in: Mugdan, vol. I, p. 457; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 7 sqq. A different view was taken by the adherents of the so-called ’’declaration theory”, as developed since the 1870s: cf. e.g. Otto Bahr, ’’Ueber Irrungen im Contrahiren”, (1875) HJhJb 393 sqq.; Rudolf Leonhard, Der irrtum ah Ursache nichtiger Vertrage (2nd ed., 1907), pp. 14 sqq.

§ 122 BGB. The majority of pandectist writers had continued to protect the interests of the recipient of the declaration in a different manner: like the authors of the older ius commune, they regarded as operative only those mistakes for which the parly labouring under them could not be blamed (error invincibilis). It was disputed whether every type of fault or only gross negligence was to be taken into account in this regard. Cf., for example, the discussion by Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. I, § 101, who refers to Savigny's solution as ’’mathematically” and abstractly correct, but as practically unsuitable (and as not being in accordance with the sources of Roman law); cf. further e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 76 in fine and, for modern South African law, Joubert, Contract, p. 83.

¹ Cf. § 119 I BGB (”... may rescind the declaration if it may be assumed that he would not have made it with knowledge of the facts and with reasonable appreciation of the situation”); Ernst Kramer, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nd ed., 1984), § 119, n. 129. On the earlier discussion about error in persona in this context, cf. supra, pp. 611 sq.

This is in line with the principle of private autonomy: cf. Harder, (1973) 173 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 225.

^{^[3190]} §§ 119, 142 sqq. BGB. § 142 I BGB attributes ex-tunc effect to the declaration of rescission. Only a few of the pandectists had been prepared to follow Savigny and to regard the contract as null and void (cf. e.g. Wachter, Pandekten, vol. II, § 186, Beil. B). According to the majority view, only the party in error was allowed to invoke the invalidity of the transaction ("relative invalidity"); cf. e.g. Regelsberger, Pandekten, § 142, IV; Brinz, Pandekten, § 317, in fine. Towards the end of the century the term "Anfechtbarkeit" (rescindability) came into use and one started to require a declaration of rescission. It is interesting to note that this concept of "Anfechtbarkeit" can be traced back to Savigny too (who had, however, not applied it to error): System, vol. IV, pp. 536 sqq. For details, see Manfred Harder, "Die historische Entwicklung der Anfechtbarkeit von Willenserklärungen", (1973) 173 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 209 sqq.; cf. also Hammen, Savigny, pp. 123 sqq. For modern South African law ("The way in which error is raised is... by the party who relies on it pleading it") cf. Joubert, Contract, pp. 83 sqq. According to Hoff, (1978-79) 53 Tulane LR 337, there has been a general tendency in both civil-law and common-law systems to expand the idea of voidability or relative nullity and to contract the scope of the notion of absolute nullity correspondingly.

^{^[3191]} What mattered for adherents of the will theory was whether will and declaration coincided: without a corresponding will no (valid) declaration. Whether the deviation between will and declaration could be labelled error in persona, in objecto, etc. became more and more irrelevant. The fathers ot the BGB did not want to put judiciary and legal science into the strait-jacket of these categories of the ius commune. A similar attitude was adopted when it came to the codification of the law of unjustified enrichment: cf. infra, pp. 887 sq. Other civilian codifications (as. for instance, the Swiss, Austrian and Italian ones) still use the categories of error in objecto, ncgotio and persona; for an overview cf. Diesselhorst, Sympotica Wieacker, pp. 181 sqq. The system ot operative errors as recognized by the BGB (§ 119, cf. supra, note 81) is based on the analysis by Ernst Zitelmann as presented in his work on Irrtum und Rechtsgeschäft (1897). On the origin of § 119 BGB and on the theories of Zitelmann, cf. in particular, Rothoeft, op. cit., note 25, pp. 64 sqq., 92 sqq.; Werner Schubert, "Zu einer Edition unveroffentlichter Materialien zum BGB", (1975) 175 Archiv fin- die civilistische Praxis 430 sqq.; cf. also Hammen, Savigny. pp. 128 sqq.

^{^[3192]} Cf. already RGZ 64, 266 (269); further e.g. BGHZ 34, 32 (41).

^1,1 For the (abundant) casuistry cf. e.g. Kramer, op. cit., note 190, § 119, nn. 108 sqej.

Discussed by Feenstra, (1974) 48 Tulane LR 846 sqq. The Supreme Court of the

Netherlands did not regard the contract as void or voidable.

¹⁴⁷ Savigny, System, vol. Hl, § 137, p. 280.

¹⁵⁸ Savigny, System, vol. Ill, § 137, p. 282. Zitelmann, Irrtum und Rechtsgeschäft, p. 574, on

the other hand, criticized Savigny for distorting the sources.

^№ Savigny. System, vol. Ill, § 137, p. 283.

²³³ Savigny, System, vol. III. § 137, p. 277.

²³ Savigny, loc. cit.

²² Cf. also Haupt, op. cit., note 120, pp. 44 sqq.; Flume. AT, § 22, 2; Luig, (1979) 8 lus

Commune 54 sqq.; Hammen, Savigny, pp. 114 sqq.

²¹¹³ So Savigny himself {System", vol. Ill, § 138, p. 293). ²⁰⁴

Cf. e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 76 a, e).

^{^[3206]} Irrtum und kechtsyeschafi, pp. 435 sqq., 549 sqq.; cf. also Flume, AT, § 22, 3.

^{^[3207]} § 102 E I; "Motive·’, in: Mugdan, vol. I, p. 462.

²³⁷ "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. I, pp. 238 sq.; d. the analysis by Flume, AT, % 24, 1. 2C8 ’"panTt ins Blaue,... cine Vorschrift aufs Geratewohl': Sachmangelhaftung und Irrtum beim Kauf", (1949) 150 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 501.

²⁹ For a critical discussion of all modern views on § 119 II BGB, cf. Kramer, op. cit.. note 190, § 119, nn. 10, 89 sqq.; cf also Diesselhorst, Sympotica Wieacker, pp. 194 sqq.

^{^[3208]} Cf. the analysis by F.H. Lawson, "Error in substantia", (1936) 52 LQR 79 sqq. ¹¹

Cf. supra, pp. 612 sq.

¹ This distinction was, however, not employed in the context of error by Pufendorf: cf. the analysis by G.E. Mulder, "De dwalingslecr van Samuel Pufendorf en zijn commenta- toren", (1962) Rechtsgeleerd Magazijn Themis 111 sqq.; Feenstra, (1974) 48 TulaneLR 856 sq.

^{^[3211]} Cf. Mulder and Feenstra, loc. cit.^2X4 Traite des obligations, n. 18.

²¹⁵ Art. 1110 I code civil: cf. also art. 1358 I of the Civil Code of the Netherlands. But see artt. 1842 sqq. of the Louisiana Civil Code (18701 providing the following detailed regulation: "Error as to the thing, which is the subject of the contract, does not invalidate it. unless it bears on the substance or (!) some substantial quality of the thing" (art. 1842").

"There is error as to the substance, when the object is of a totally different nature from that which is intended. Thus, if the object of the stipulation be supposed by one or both of the parties to be an ingot of silver, and it really is a mass of some other metal that resembles silver, there is an error bearing on the substance of the object" (art. 1843"). "The error bears on the substantial quality of the object, when such quality is that which gives it its greatest value. A contract relative to a vase, supposed to be gold, is void, if it be only plated with that metal" (art. 1844"). "Error as to the other qualities of the object of the contract, only invalidates it. when those qualities are such as were the principal cause of making the contract" (art. 1845"). It is quite extraordinary to see how the code itself used to assume what would (for instance") in Germany be regarded as the role of a commentary. In 1984. these rules were replaced by the new art. 1950.

^J6 For details, see Lawson. (19369 52 LQR 81 sqq.: Rene David. "La doctrine de l'erreur dans Pothier et son interpretation dans la Common Law d'Angleterre". in: Etudes de droit civil a la memoire de Henri Capitant (19399. pp. 145 sqq.: cf. also Watson. Failures, pp. 24 sq.

^{^[3215]} Emphasized particularly by Lawson, loc. dt. Cf. also Hoff, (1978-79) 53 Tulane LR 353 ("very imprecise and uncontrollable device").

^{^[3216]} For a brief overview from a comparative perspective cf. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 108 sqq., 116sqq.;T.B. Smith, "Error in the Scottish Law of Contract", (1955)71 LQR 507 sqq.; Saul Litvinoff, "'Error' in the Civil Law", in: Joseph Dainow (ed.), Essays on the Civil Law of Obligations (1969), pp. 222 sqq., 253 sqq.

^{^[3217]} Grotius, Dejure belli ac pacts, Lib. II, Cap. XI, VI.

[3218] "fhe treatment of mistake is certainly one of the weakest aspects of (Anglo-American) contract law. The cases and 'rules' are contradictory and impossible to reconcile": Arthur I. Rosett, "Contract Performance: Promises, Conditions and the Obligation to Communi cate", (1975) 22 University of California at Los Angeles LR 1095.

²³ Cf. e.g. Lawson, (1936) 52 LQR 105: "In fact, the instinct of English law is to isolate a contract as far as possible from its environment. This, though operating inequitably on occasion, gives greater certainty and makes parties more careful in settling the terms of their contract. Perhaps therefore the ultimate distinction is between a paternally minded equity and strict law." Any evaluation of the comparatively narrow ambit of the doctrine of error in English law must also (for instance) take account of the fact that it is interrelated with and supplementary to the doctrine of misrepresentation (which civilian legal systems do not know) and that Continental safeguards such as (for instance) culpa in contrahendo are not available in English law.

^{^[3220]} (1936) 52 LQR 98. For a very thorough comparative analysis of German law and English law on the topic of mistake in general, see, however, Rothoeft, System der Irrtumslehre (1968), who demonstrates the functional equivalence of the solutions found in both legal systems. Cf. also Buckland/McNair, pp. 205 sqq.; Thomas, in: La formazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1203 sqq., 1208 sqq. and Timothy Hoff, "Error in the Formation of Contracts in Louisiana: A Comparative Analysis", (1978-79) 53 Tuiane LR 329 sqq., who concludes that the doctrine of error in a modern civil code has a coherence within the legal system and a measure of predictability that the common law has yet to achieve (p. 379). Hoff refers in this context to Louisiana's paucity of case law. The Louisiana Civil Code enunciates a particularly thorough and detailed theory of contractual error (contained in 30 articles), which is largely based on Pothier and the French Code Civil.

^{^[3221]} Kennedy v. Panama, New Zealand and Australian Royal Mail Co. Ltd- (1867) LR 2 QB

580 at 588 (per Blackburn J). For examples of the application of error in substantia in other

common-law jurisdictions, cf. Hoff, (1978-79) 53 Tuiane LR 355 sqq.

Trcitel, Contract, pp. 215 sqq. (also discussing Bell v. Lever Brothers, Ltd. [1932] AC 161 >).

²²" The leading case is Smith v. Hughes (1871) LR 6 QB 597.

²³⁵ For America, c(. e.g. Roscoe Pound, Jurisprudence, vol. IV (1959), pp. 453 sqq. and, more recently, Timothy Hoff, (1978-79) 53 Tulane LR 34b sqq. For England, see e.g. Pollock, Principles of Contract (7th cd., 1902). pp. 461 sqq., referring to error in negotio, in persona, in substantia, in corporc and in pretio.

Cf. Lord Atkin in Bell v. Lever Brothers Ltd. [1932] AC 161 (HL) at 217.

^;;M A.W.B. Simpson. "Innovation in Nineteenth Century Contract Law". (1975) 91 LQR 265 sqq.; cf. also Feter Stein, "Continental Influences on English Legal Thought", in: La /ormazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1124 sq.

^{^[3227]} Cf. supra, notes 14, 15.

^2l" Simpson, (1975) 91 LQR 268 sq. According to Simpson, the common law had traditionally dealt with mistake by way of an implied condition: the agreement was taken to have included a condition to the effect that a certain state of affairs existed; if that proved to be a mistaken assumption "the contract was off not because the parties had failed to reach consensus, but because that was what they had in fact (tacitly) agreed upon." This is vaguely reminiscent of Grotius' construction of error (supra, pp. 612 sq.).

^{^[3229]} Both rules supplement each other: cf. e.g. Flume, AT. § 16, 3 a. For criticism of the

apparent contradiction, see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 101 sqq.; but see Staudinger/H. Dilcher,

1979, §§ 133, 157, nn. 7 sqq.

^{^[3232]} Pap. D. 50, 16, 219. This maxim was almost literally taken over (via Pothier, Tratte des obligations, n. 91) into art. 1156 code civil: "On doit dans les conventions rechercher quelie a ete la commune intention des parties contractantes. plutot que se d'arriter au sans littered des tennes."

^{^[3233]} Paul. D. 32, 25, 1. § 157 BGB takes up this view in so far as it postulates a strictly objective criterion. The reference to "good faith" has a double root in the Roman bona fides and in the (Germanic) concept of "Treu itnd Glauben" in the late Middle Ages (on the latter cf. Wolfgang Stratz, Treu und Glauben, vol. I (1974), pp. 47 sqq.). In England, this maxim (in a slightly different form: "Quoties in verbis nulla est ambiguitas, ibi nulla expositio contra verba expressa fienda est", cf. Blackstone, Commentaries, vol. II, p. 379) became the origin of the "plain meaning" rule and is thus to a large extent responsible for the expression-oriented approach of the English courts :o contract interpretation.

^{^[3234]} Schulz, RLS. pp. 24, referring to Jhering, Geist, vol. II, pp. 45 sqq., 470 sqq.

^{^[3235]} For examples cf. Schulz, RLS. pp. 24 sqq.; Heinrich Honsell, "Das Gesetzesverstandnis in der romischen Antike", in: Buropaisdies Rechtsdenken in Geschichte und Gegenwan. festschrift fur Helmut Coing, vol. 1(1982), pp. 138 sqq.; cf. also Wieacker, RR. pp. 320 sq., 330 sqq.

¹ This is the "nimia subtilitas" to which Gains (IV, 30) refers; cf. also Gai. IV, 11.

^{^[3237]} Cf. e.g. Savigny. System, vol. Ill. p. 258: "Intention per sc is really the only important and effective thing, and only because it is an internal and invisible phenomenon do we need a sign by which we can recognize it" (cf the translation by Weir in Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 72).

^{^[3238]} Cf. in particular Otto Gradenwitz, Interpolationen in den Pandekten (1887), pp. 170 sqq.; also e.g. Fritz Pringsheim, "Animus donandi", (1921) 42 ZSS 273 sqq.; Emilio Albertano, "La crisi del metodo interpolazionistico", in: Studi in onore di Pietro Bon/ante, vol. I, pp. 611 sqq.

Cf. Horak, Rationes decidendi, p. 194 ("quellenfremde Getehrtenkonstruktion"); Kniitel, Stipulatio und pacta, Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 202 sq.

Cf. also the warning sounded, in a related context, by Robert Feenstra, "The Dutch Kantharos Case and the History of Error in Substantial (1974) 48 Tulane LR 849 sq.

³ Kaser. RPr I. p. 235.

^{^[3242]} Supra, pp. 567 sqq.

^{^[3243]} Cf. Alan Watson, "Narrow, Rigid and Literal Interpretation in the Later Roman Republic", (1969) 37 TR 351 sqq. This is a good example of the crucial importance of Republican jurisprudence for the development of Roman law. The decisive achievements of Roman law, according to the prevailing modern view, were already established by the end of the Republic. Wieacker, (1969) 2 The Irish Jurist 151 sq., writes: "First of all, I believe the development of an independent juristic technique made possible (perhaps for the first time in history) the solution of social conflicts according to a rational intellectual rule. In the second place there arose the great juristic abstractions, such as Person, Property, and Obligation, which all European legal systems have achieved only with the help of the Romans. Finally, it was already the Republic which had created the Praetor's ius honorarium, which supplemented the formalism of the old ius civile through a progressive legal ethic, i.e. through the ideas of bonum et aequum and bona fides, and through the struggle against dolus and the old rigidity of formalism. And all that was not only a mere promise of a great classical future, but had already been perfected in the finest technical detail."

In the same vein, see Frier, Roman Jurists, pp. 139 sqq.: "Around the middle of the second century B.C., Roman jurisprudence was profoundly transformed. [What emerged from this revolution was, first and foremost, the concept of] 'autonomous law'—a theory that not only became the guiding ethos of classical Roman law, but also is perhaps the single most important Roman contribution to the Western legal tradition" (pp. 156, 188 sqq.; on the doctrine of "autonomous law" cf. pp. 188 sqq.; 269 sqq.). For a comprehensive evaluation cf. now the authoritative study by Wieacker, Romische Rechtsgeschichte, pp. 519 sqq.

³¹ On which, see Kaser, RPr I, pp. 202 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 57 sqq.

² On these terms cf. supra, pp. 563 sqq.

^{^[3245]} On the interpretation of wills cf. Voci, DER, vol. II, pp. 885 sqq.; Hans Josef Wieling,

Testamentsauslegang im romischen Recht (1972), passim; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 241 sqq.; RPr II, pp. 84 sq.

^{^[3247]} Cf. supra, pp. 599 sq.

^3H Supra, 156 sqq., 165.

^{^[3249]} Supra, pp. 510 sq., 565

On the causa Curiana cf. Johannes Stroux, Summum ius summa iniuria (1926), pp. 29 sqq.; Gandolfi, op. cit., note 19, pp. 288 sqq.; Franz Wieacker, "The causa Curiana and Contemporary Roman Jurisprudence", (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 151 sqq.; idem, "La 'causa Curiana' e gli orientamenti della giurisprudenza coeva", (1968) 1 Antologia giuridica romanistka ed antiquaria 111 sqq.; Wieling. Testamentsauslegung, op. cit.. note 36. pp. 9 sqq.. 60 sqq.; Alan Watson. The Law of Succession in the Later Roman Republic (1971'). pp. 153 sqq.. 94 sqq.; J.W. Tellegen, "Oratores, lurisprudentes and the 'Causa Curiana' ", (1983) 30 RID A 293 sqq.; Richard A. Bauman, Lawyers in Roman Republican Politics (1983), pp. 341 sqq.; Frier, Roman Jurists, pp. 135 sqq.

On the jurisdiction of this court cf. Kaser, RZ. pp. 37 sqq.

^{^[3252]} Was Crassus merely an orator, or also a recognized jurist? Cf. Bauman, op. cit., note 40, pp. 341 sqq.

Cf. supra, pp. 24 sq. On the relationship between Crassus and Scaevola (they were of the same age and had held the quaestorship, aedileship, praetorship and consulship together), cf. Bauman, op. cit., note 40, pp. 341 sqq. He also discusses the question whether the causa Curiana had political overtones and whether it soured the relations between the two men.

"Gil II, 113.

^{^[3255]} On the "Roman Passion for Testacy" Maine, pp. 128 sq. ("No evil seems to have been considered a heavier visitation than the forfeiture of Testamentary privileges; no curse appears to have been bitterer than that which imprecated on an enemy that he might die without a Will"); Schulz, Principles, p. 156. But see David Daube, "The Preponderance of Intestacy at Rome", (1964—65) 39 Tulane LR 253 sqq. In support of the Roman dislike of intestacy, a famous remark by the elder Cato is usually referred to; according to Plutarch (Vitae. Cato maior, 9, 6), he had made three mistakes in his life, one of them being that he had remained without a will for an entire day. Daube, Roman Law. p. 73 finds it indefensible "to base on such an utterance by an eccentric one's estimate of the mores among, say, the tailors or carpenters or even the bankers of Rome.... The same Cato, let me remind you, remarked that he never made love to his wife except during a thunderstorm. Are we to

generalize this too?" Contrary to Daubc, the word a6KHAUT0c; used by Plutarch can, incidentally, have the meaning "without a will". According to Daube, it means "without serious, planned work".

^{^[3257]} On substitutio (pupillaris and vulgaris) Gai. II, 174 sqq.; D. 28, 6; Inst. II, 15 sq.;

Schulz, CRL, pp. 260 sqq.; Voci, DER, vol. II, pp. 160 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 688 sqq.

^{^[3259]} On the institution of postumi, see Kaser, RPr I, pp. 684 sq. The postumus did not even have to have been conceived at the time the will was made: Ulp. D. 28, 2, 4.

^4H Cf., for example, Mod. D. 28, 6, 1, 1.

^{^[3261]} Kaser, RPr I, p. 236, remarks that Scaevola's viewpoint was no mere formalism, but arose from the moral awareness of the educative force of compulsory form. For a sympathetic evaluation of the "legal" point of view, represented by Scaevola, cf. Wkacker, (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 157 sqq. He also emphasizes that "fb]efore the great court of the centumviri the skilled jurist Scaevola, as advocate opposing the famous orator Crassus, was in an uncomfortable situation. As a rule, the old aristocratic jurist stood as an impartial adviser above the parties; Scaevola's cousin, the augur, looked down with amused contempt

on the juristic ignorance of the average court speaker. We do not know what duty of friendship... induced him to enter into the legal arena. In any case he tried, at least in the beginning, to accommodate himself to the rhetorical style. At length the jurist broke through. Therefore one has the impression that in his plea rhetorical and juristic arguments were not quite happily combined." Cicero, who of course favoured Crassus' point of view, pays tribute to Scaevola with a rather malicious compliment: he was "iuris peritorum eloquentissimus, eloquentium iuris peritissimus" (De oratore. 1, XXXIX—180; cf. also Brutus XLI—151: "videtur mihi in secunda arte [i.e. jurisprudence] primus esse maluisse quam in prima [rhetoric] secundus"). Watson, (1969) 37 TR 366 draws attention to the fact that Quintus Mucius Scaevola himself was prepared to take a wider view; he refers to Pomp. D. 35, 2, 33 concerning the rather queer case of a senator who wore women's dinner dresses; how was a legacy of "women's clothing" to be understood under those circumstances? On whether Watson's argument can be construed as an implied attack on Quintus Marcius' integrity (in that he "cut his coat according to his cloth"), see Bauman, op.cit., note 40, pp. 349 sqq. Wieacker's evaluation of the causa Curiana and of the role of the two main protagonists in the case are rejected by Tellegen, (1983) 30 RIDA 300 sqq. The latter asserts that the accepted distinction "between oratores and iurisprudentes is fundamentally wrong", and that the causa Curiana cannot be appreciated properly if one assumes that the members of these professions were "opposite extremes" (pp. 294 sq.); but see the detailed analysis of the (different) roles of orators and jurists by Frier, Roman Jurists, passim (e.g. pp. 127 sqq., 184 sqq.); cf. also Wieacker, RR. pp. 666 sqq.

^{^[3263]} His speech was regarded as a masterpiece of forensic oratory; for details, see Wieacker (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 160 sq.; Tellegen, (1983) 70 RIDA 297 sq., 307 sqq.

In classical law, a pupillary substitution was in fact construed as containing a vulgar substitution and vice versa: cf. the constitutio by the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus referred to in Mod. D. 28, 6, 4 pr. In our own time, § 2102 I BGB can mentioned: the appointment of a reversionary heir contains, in case of doubt, also the appointment of a substitutional heir.

^{^[3265]} This was essentially the view of Stroux, op. cit., note40, pp. 29 sqq.: the causa Curiana marked the victorious breakthrough of rhetoric and intention-oriented interpretation against the archaic formalism of the older lawyers. Contra e.g. Wieacker, (1967) 2 The Irish Jurist 155 sqq., 161 sqq., who in turn, however, appears to play down the importance of this

^{^[3266]} On the distinction (and antagonism!) betweenjurists and orators, cf. e.g. Schulz, RLS,

underwent during the time of the late Republic (cf. e.g. pp. 252 sqq.; summary on p. 267). On "words vs. intent" within the context of pro Caecina, cf. pp. 128 sq.

pp. 53 sqq., 69 sqq., 108 sq.; Frier, Roman jurists, pp. 130 sqq.. 155 sqq.; Wieacker, RR,

pp. 668 sqq. Contra: Tellegen, (1983) 30 RIDA 293 sqq.

^W1 RLS, p. 76.

^fl1 Cicero. DP oratore, 1. LVII—244; Schulz. RLS, p. 54; Wieacker. RR, p. 668. Cf. also

the remarks by Tellegen, (1983) 30 RIDA 2Y4 sq.

For parallel developments with regard to the problem of interpretation of statutes, see

Honsell, Festschrift Coing, vol. I, pp. 143 sq. Contra: Behrends, Fraus legis, pp. 33 sqq. and

passim. Cf. also Wieacker, RR, pp. 670 sqq.

® So. too. Maycr-Maly. (19691 37 TR 591.

^M Bern. Istituziotii, vol. I. pp. 139 sqq. has tried to replace the clumsy and simplistic verba/voluntas doctrine by introducing a more refined distinction between typical (typifying) and individual (individualizing) interpretation (the former classical, the latter Justinianic). But it is not possible to draw a clear distinction between the two approaches; for terminological clarification, see Wieacker, (1966) 83 ZSS 438 sq.; Horak, Rationes decidendi, pp. 194 sqq.; c(. also Gandolfi, op. cit., note 19, pp. 83 sqq.

® For details cf. Voci, Wieling, Kaser, as quoted supra in n. 36.

® Lab. I). 18, 1, 80, 2.

^bl Paul. D. 18, 1, 40, 1.

^6MLab. D. 18, 1, 78 pr.

® Ulp. D. 45, 1, 41.

Hans Erich Troje, "Ambiguitas contra stipulatorem", (1961) 27 SDHI 95.

^{^[3279]} Ulp. D. 34. 5. ''12; cf. also Ulp. D. 50. 17. 67.

^{^[3280]} _ Paul. D. 50. 17. 114.

³ Cf. infra, pp. 639 sqq.

³⁶ Pringsheim. (19331 49 LQR 47.

^{^[3283]} Pringsheim. (19331 49 LQR 48.

For an overview of the various acts for which animus became—at some time or

other—an essential requirement, see Pringsheim, (1933) 49 LQR 49 sqq.. 379 sqq.; Kaser,

RPr II, pp. 87 sqq.

^7,1 D. 46, 2, 1 pr. Cf. also Gai. HI, 176: "novatione... nova nascitur obligatio ct prima

tollitur, translata in posteriorem."

^{^[3289]} Cf., most recently, Max Kaser, "Zu Novation und Delegation", in: Saturn Roberto Feenstra oblata (1985), pp. 141 sqq.

^a Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 45, 1, 75, 6.

^{^[3290]} Cf. e.g. Gai. П1, 177; Ulp. D. 46, 2, 8, 5; Pomp. D. 45, 1, 18; David Daube, "Novation of Obligations Giving a Bonae Fidei Indicium", (1948) 66 ZSS 91 sqq.; Robert Feenstra, "L'effet extinctif de la novation", (1961) 29 TR 400 sqq.; Franco Bonifacio, La novazione net diritto rotnano (2nd ed., 1959), pp. 123 sqq.; Sturm, Stiputatio Aauitiana. pp. 200 sqq.

^кэ Cf. supra, pp. 118 sq.

^M4 For details, see Apathy, Animus novandi, passim, e.g. pp. 261 sqq.

^{^[3293]} Apathy. Animus novandi, pp. 253 sqq. against earlier interpolatkmist views (e.g. Fritz Pringsheim. "Zur Geschichte des "animus novandi'". in: Studi in ouore di Vincenzo Агащю-Ruiz, vol. 1 (1952"). pp. 509 sqq.’).

® Ulp. D. 46. 2. 1 pr.

^{^[3295]} Justinian ultimately required the parties expressly to declare their intention to novate; cf. C. 8. 41. 8 and lust. HI. 29. 3 sq. On the significance of animus novandi injustinianic law. see Kaser. RPr II. pp. 450 sq.; Apathy. Animus novandi, pp. 266 sqq.

^{^[3296]} Bona fides and its Germanic counterpart "Treu und Glauben" have been instrumental in the shaping, first of the one, then of the other point of view; for details, see Okko Behrends, "Treu

und Glauben. Zu den christlichen Grundlagen der Willenstheorie im heutigen

Vertragsrecht", in: L.L. Vallauri, G. Dilcher (eds.), Christentum. Säkularisation und modernes Recht, vol. II (1981), pp. 957 sqq., 1001 sqq.⁹⁵ Cf. supra, pp. 567 sqq. ^{9For a general overview of the problems involved cf. Eike von Hippci, Verbraucherschutz (3rd ed., 1986), pp. 118 sqq.; Hein Kotz, "Welche gesetzgeberischen Massnahmen empfehlen sich zum Schutze der Endverbraucher gegenüber Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen und Formular vertragen", in: Verhandlungen des 50. Deutschen Juristentages (1974), Gutachten A; Th. Bourgoignie (ed.), Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts (1983); Hein Kotz, "Controlling Unfair Contract Terms: Options for Legislative Reform", (1986) 103 SALJ 405 sqq.}

^!2H Cf. in particular the by now classic work of Ludwig Raiser, Das Recht der allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen (1935).

® On the control of unfair standard contract terms by means of §§ 138, 242 and/or 315 BGB, cf. e.g. RGZ 62, 264 (266); RGZ 103, 82 (83 sq.); BGHZ 22, 90 (97 sqq.); BGHZ 38, 183 (186); BGHZ 41, 151 (155); BGHZ 54, 106 (109) and Wilhelm Weber, Die Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen, Eine rechtliche Gesamtdarstellunq (1967). pp. 364 sqq.

“ Cf. e.g.'RGZ 116, 274 (276); BGHZ 5, 111 (H5); BGHZ 47, 207 (216); Raiser, op. cit., note 128, pp. 264 sqq.

^H "[Judges] still had before them the idol 'freedom of contract'. They still knelt down and worshipped it, but they concealed under their cloaks a secret weapon. They used it to stab the idol in the back. This weapon was called the 'true construction of the contract' ": Lord Denning, in George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd. v. Finney Locky Seeds Ltd. [1983] 1 All ER 108 (CA) at 113J.

^uz Cf. e.g. Robert Fischer, (1963) 125 ZHR 205 sqq. and, more generally, Karl Llewellyn, (1938-39) 52 Harvard LR 703 (also referred to by Kotz, ((1986) 103 SALJ 407): "First, since they all rest on the admission that the clauses in question are permissible in purpose and content, they invite the draftsman to recur to the attack. Give him time, and he will make the grade. Second, since they do not face the issue, they fail to accumulate either experience or authority in the needed direction: that of making out for any given type of transaction what the minimum decencies arc which a court will insist upon as essential to an enforceable bargain of a given type, or as being inherent in a bargain of that type. Third, since they purport to construe, and do not really construe, nor are intended to, but are instead tools of intentional and creative misconstruction, they seriously embarrass later efforts at true construction, later efforts to get at the true meaning of those wholly legitimate contracts and clauses which call for their meaning to be got at instead of avoided. The net effect is unnecessary confusion and unpredictability.... Covert tools are never reliable tools."

^{^[3335]} Gesetz гиг Regelung des Rechts der Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen (ABGB). On this Act cf. e.g. Otto Sandrock, "The Standard Terms Act 1976 of West'Germany", (1978) 26 American Journal ofComparative Law 551 sqq.;N. Reich/K.-W. Micklitz, Consumer Legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany (1981), pp. 269 sqq.; H.R. Hahlo, "Unfair Contract Terms in Civil Law Systems", (1981) 98 SALJ 70 sqq.

“ §§ 9 sqq. ABGB.

^{^[3337]} Others can be found in §§ 266 sq. 1 5 PrALR; art. 1162 code civil (cf. also art. 1602 II. relating particularly to the contract of sale); § 915 ABGB. For details, see Troje, (1961) 27 SDHI 107 sqq.; Krampe, op. cit., note 114, pp. 15 sqq. The fathers of the BGB did not adopt the contra proferentem rule: "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. I, pp. 437 sq. The contra proferentem rule has also made its way into the English common law; it is already documented in 15th-century case reports. By and large today, the rule still plays a greater role in England than on the Continent; it is used here as a formalized and schematic way of reliance protection. For details, see Liideritz, op. cit., note 2, pp. 247 sqq.

^13,1 Cf. e.g. Ulmer/Brandner/Hensen. ABG-Gesetz (5th ed.. 19871. § 5. nn. 1. 31. Admonitions of this kind run like a red thread through the history of the ambiguity rule. Many authors have stressed that it can be reverted to only as an ultima ratio and that it must not be allowed to subvert or replace a thorough examination of "id quod actum est". Cf. e.g. Antonius Faber ("... non statim faciendam esse interpretationem contra venditorcm aut locatorem, sed ita demum, si nihil sit quod melius dici possit...") and Donellus ("... si ita quaeritur, ut nullis coniecturis possit constare, quidnam id sit, turn ambiguitas, quae tune vere relinquitur, contra stipulatorem interpretanda est"), both in Troje, (1961) 27 SDHI 104 sq. Cf. also Raiser, op. cit., note 128, pp. 265, 270 and Krampe, op. cit., note 114, pp. 24 sqq.

~ Already by the 15th century the contra proferentem rule had found its way into the English common law. It has come to be employed in situations where the content of the transaction is determined, on account: of an imbalance of power, by one of the contracting parties. Standard contract terms provide a prominent example. For details, see Liideritz, op. cit., note 2, pp. 247 sqq.; cf. also the comparative remarks by Krampe, op. cit., note 114, pp. 22 sq. Modern textbooks usually deal with the contra proferentem rule in connection with exemption clauses (cf. Treitel, Contract, pp. 171 sqq.). The subsidiary nature of the rule

“ "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. I. p. 712 and the remarks by Kramer, op. cit.. note 138. § 118. n. 1.

^IL Cf- supra, pp. 613 sq.

Paul. D. 44. 7. 3. 2. Cf. further Varro. De Lingua Latina, Lib. VI. 72 and Josef Partsch. "Die Lehre vom Schcingeschaft im romischen Rechte". (19211 42 ZSS 248 sq. (dealing with a promise given by an actor "in tragoedia" on the stage").

^{^[3339]} Most modern codifications therefore do not even deal with the problem.

¹⁵ Cf. Albanese. Atti negoziali, pp. 162 sq.: Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb. p. 121.

^{^[3340]} On the terms "simulate" und "simulatio" (derived from "similis") cf. Nadia Dumonl-Kisliakoff, La simulation en droit roma'm (JJ970), pp. IS sqq., 25 sqq.

^{^[3341]} Ulp. D. 18, \, 36; David Daube, "Generalisation in D. 18, 1, de contraVienda emptione", in: Studi in onore di Vitxcenzo Arangio-Ruiz vol. 1, pp. 192 sqq.

Contra, particularly, Partsch, (1921) 42 ZSS 227 sqq. who comes to the conclusion that simulated transactions were, as a rule, valid in classical Roman law. This view is based on unacceptable interpolation hypotheses. Giovanni Pugliese, La simulazione nei mgozi giuridici (1938), argues that the Romans decided the question casuistically, neither were simulated transactions always valid, nor were they always invalid. JI similar opinion is held by Kaser, RPi-I, pp. 242 sq. For the view adopted here, cf. e.g. Honscll/Mayer-Nlaly/Selb, pp. 120 sqq.

^H lav. D. 24. 1. 64. ^le Ulp. D. 19. 2. 46.

¹⁶⁸ Gai. D. 23. 2. 30. Marriages appear to have been simulated in order to avoid the

disadvantages arising from the Augustan marriage laws for unmarried persons.

^{^[3346]} Paul. D. 18, 1, 55.

^l7' For details, see Helmut Coing. "Simulatio und Fraus in der Lehre des Bartolus und Baldus", in: Festschrift fur Paul Koschaker, vol. Ill (1939), pp. 402 sqq.

^m Coing, Festschrift Koschaker, vol. Ill, p. 412; cf. also Blecher, (1974) 91 SAL/368; Otto Bahr, Urteile des Reichs gerichts mit Besprechungen (1883), pp. 59 sqq.

Fora similar view today cf. Kramer, op. cit., note 138, § 117, n. 10; Flume, AT, § 20, 2; but cf. Schroder, op. cit., note 172, pp. 42 sq.; Klaus Schurig, "Die Gesetzesumgehung im Privatrecht", in: Festschrift fur Murad Ferid (1988), pp. 404 sqq.

Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-practicum, Lib. XVIII, Tit. I, CXVI.

^{^[3351]} Very elaborate treatments of simulatio can be tound in Bartholomaeus Cipolla, De simulatio nib us and Johannes Bertachinus, Repertorium Juris; cf Partsch, (1921) 42 ZSS 234 and, particularly, Gunter Wesener, "Das Scheingeschaft in der spatmittelalteriichen Jurisprudenz, im Usus modernus und im Naturrecht", in: Festschrift fur Heinz Hubner(\9S4), pp. 340 sqq.

^I7H Blecher (1974) 91 SALJ 377 sqq.

^{^[3353]} Decretum Gratiani, Secunda Pars, Causa XXII, Quacst. II, c 21 (with further examples of simulation from the Old Testament). Blecher (p. 378) draws attention to the fact that we are dealing here with unilateral simulation, whereas the simulatio of the civil law is usually bilateral.

^IH0 "Hollandsche Consultation en Advijsen", in: D.P. de Bruyn (ed.). The Opinions of Grotius (1894), pp. 553 sqq. For details of the development, see Wesener, Festschrift Hübner,

In practice, this is nearly always the case; cf. e.g. Michaelis, Festschrift Wicacker, pp. 445 sqq,

Cf. e.g. Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-practicum. Lib. XVIII, Tit. I, CXVII. But see, for instance, the provision dealing with simulated transactions in the Codex Thcresianus (Wesener, Festschrift Hübner, p. 353).

^{^[3357]} For details, see A.W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1968), pp. 175 sqq., 208 sqq. On the annulment of laws passed by violence cf. pp. 132 sqq.

^{^[3358]} Cf, for example, the episode involving the praetor Asellio who was assassinated by moneylenders: supra, pp. 167 sq.

^{^[3359]} Cf., for example, the episode recounted in Plutarch, Vitae. Cato minor, 28, 1,

^{^[3360]} On him cf. e.g. Hans Georg Gundel, in: Kleiner Pauly, vol. 1, col. 1227 sq.

^{^[3361]} Lintott, op. cit., note 1, pp. 74 sqq.

^{^[3362]} Details in Lintott, op. cit., note 1, PP· 149 sqq, Cf. further the observations by Frier, Roman Jurists, pp. 52, 270 sq.

^{^[3363]} Lintott, op. cit., note 1, PP· 175, 204 sq. For a more detailed discussion of the morality of political violence, more particularly on Cicero's views ("misconceived and short sighted"), cf. pp. 52 sqq.; but see also Frier, Roman Jurists, pp. 118 sqq. On Roman reliance on self-help cf. also Gunter Wesener, "Offensive Selbsthilfe im klassischen romischen Recht", in: Festschrift Artur Steinwenter (1958), pp. 100 sqq.; Theo Mayer-Maly, RE. vol. IX A 1, 1961, col. 315 sqq.; Alfons Burge, "Vertrag und personale Abhängigkeiten im Rom der

651

* Lend. EP, p. 112.

^{^[3365]} After the lapse of one year, liability was confined to simplum: Ulp. D. 4. 2. 14. 1. Justinian broke down the amount of quadruplum into a (restitutionary) condemnation in simplum and a poena tripli. Cf. Ulp. D. 4, 2, 14, 10 sq. (itp.); Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 285 sq. and, generally. Kaser, RPr II, p. 429.

Cf. Ulp. D. 4, 2, 9, 8: "Cum autem haec actio in rem sit scripta ncc personam vim facientis coerceat, sed adversus omnes restitui velit quod metus causa factum est...Ulp. D. 4, 2, 9, 1: "Animadvertendum autem, quod praetor in hoc edicto generalker el in rem loquitur nee adicit a quo gestum." Very clear is Bartolus, Commentaria, ad D. 4, 2, 9, 8: "Haec actio est in rem scripta, ideo datur contra omnes, ad quos commodum pervenit ex metu."

^{^[3366]} Kupisch, op. cit., note 14, pp. 176 sqq.; Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 126 sqq.

³⁷ That the actio quod metus causa could be brought against (bona fide) third parties who had acquired the extorted thing has been disputed in the past; cf. e.g. Schulz, (1922) 43 ZSS 240 sqq.; Ulrich von Lubtow, Der Ediktsiitel "Quod metus causa gestum erit" (1932), pp. 168

sqq. But d. Ulp. D. 4, 2, 14, 5; Ulp. 4, 2, 9, 8 (both not interpolated) and Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 201 sqq.; Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 127 sqq. and particularly Kupisch, op. cit.,

note 14, pp. 199 sqq., who gives a detailed analysis of the historical development.

²⁶ Ulp. D. 4. 2. 14. 5 in fine.

^s Cf. Ulp. D. 4. 2. 14. 4: Inst. IV. 6. 27: Lcnel. EP. p. 112. On actiones arbitrariae in general, see Kaser. RZ, pp. 256 sqq.

^{^[3372]} Cf. e.g. Hartkamp. op. cit.. note 12. pp. 245. 274.

⁴¹ Inst. IV. 6. 21.

For speculations about the (political") background of the actio metus causa and its relationship with the leges de rebus repetundis, cf. in particular Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 250 sqq.; Kupisch, op. cit., note 14, pp. 228 sqq.; Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 120 sqq.

¹⁸ Cf. e.g. Lenel. EP, pp. 110 sqq.; Schulz. (1922") 43 ZSS 216 sqq.; idem. CRL, pp. 600 sqq.; von Lubtow, op. cit., note 37, pp. 81 sqq.; Ernst Levy, "Zur nachklassischen in integrum restitutio" (1951) 68 ZSS 361 sqq.; Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 189 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, p. 593; Kaser, RPr I, p. 244; cf. also, most recently, Alvaro D'Ors, "El comentario de Ulpiano a los edictos del 'metus' ", (1981) 51 AHDE2B7 sqq.; Hans Ankum, "Eine neue Interpretation von Ulpian Dig. 4, 2, 9, 5-6 über die Abhilfe gegen metus", in: Festschrift fur Heinz Hiibtter (1984), pp. 3 sqq.

^{^[3374]} Cf. e.g. Schulz, (1922) 43 ZSS 229 sqq.; von Lubtow, op. cit., note 37, pp. 218 sqq.;

Levy, (1951) 68 ZSS 422 sq.; Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 59 sqq., 285.

⁴⁵ Schulz, p. 604. Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 109 comments as follows: "Nur auf wenigen Gebieten des Juristenrechts erweckt... die neuzeitliche Interpolationen-Kritik durch Streichungen und Zusatze, zuweilen auch durch Umstellungen, so stark wie hier den Eindruck des Krampfhaften, die die angewandte Methode zu diskreditieren droht" (only rarely in modern contributions to the law of the Roman jurists does one find equally desperate and frantic efforts to spot interpolations and to amend the texts by way of deletions, additions and occasionally even by way of a rearrangement; efforts which threaten

to discredit the method applied).

^{^[3378]} Others, which could be used alternatively for the same purpose (namely that of restitutio in integrum) were the so-called rescissory (from "rescindere". "to pull down") actions modelled by the praetor according to the circumstances of each case and designed to

set aside the effects of quod metus causa gestum erat. They were based on a fiction, for the judge was instructed to treat the matter as if the transaction had not taken place. Thus, for instance, where ownership had been transferred under duress, the plaintiff was granted an actio in rem on the model of the rei vindicatio. Cf. Ulp. D. 4, 2, 9. 4 and 6 and 7; for details, see Kupisch, op. cit., note 14, pp. 134 sqq.; Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 138 sqq. The plaintiff apparently had the choice between this rescissory action (which did not involve a poena quadrupli) and the actio quod metus causa.

^{^[3380]} This is the main thesis of Kupisch's book on in integrum restitutio, op. cit.. note 14. pp. 123 sqq. It was hailed as "revolutionary" by Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 110, 116.

^{^[3381]} Kupisch, op. cit., note 14, pp. 145 sq., 228 sqq.; Kaser, (1977) 94 ZSS 115 sqq.; contra: Ankum, h'estschrift Hiibner, pp. 17 sq. This view appears to have prevailed among the authors of the ius commune too. Very clear on this point e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IV, Tit. II, VII: "... Sed nee refert, an ipse metum faciens, an tertius bonae fidei possessor, justo etiam munitus titulo, conveniatur, quantum ad hanc quadrupli persecutionem: neque enim existimandum est, ilium praestando quadruplum ex alieno admisso, seu illato per alium metu, poenam subiro: nam cum haec actio arbitraria sit, et inilio inspecto non nisi rei persecutionem comprehendat,... sic ut quadruplum non tamen metus Illati quam contumaciae commissae coercitio dicenda sit."

^4y Ulp. D. 4. 2. 14. 3 in fine.

^s Ulp. D. 44. 4. 4. 33.

³ Ibid.

^{^[3385]} Example: A forces B to promise (by way of stipulation) to C. B is able to raise the exceptio metus against C's condictio. On the exceptio metus, see Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 270 sqq.; Kupisch, op. cit., note 14, pp. 170 sqq.

³³ "Sed et si quis per vim stipulatus cum acceptum non faceret, fuerit in quadruplum condemnatus, ex stipulatu cum agentem adversus exceptionem replicatione adiuvari lulianus putat, cum in quadruplo et simplum sit reus consecutus. Labeo autem etiam post quadrupli actionem nihilo minus exceptione summovendum eum, qui vim intulit, dicebat."

^{^[3387]} Cf. also Schulz. CRL, p. 604.

^{^[3388]} Kaser. RPr 1. p. 245; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Sclb. p. 127. Cf. further the detailed analysis

by Hartkamp, op. cit., note 12, pp. 84 sqq., 148 sqq.

³⁵ Cf. e.g. De Wet en Yeats, pp. 43 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 104 sqq.; Wessels, Contract,

vol. I, nn. 1165 sqq.

³⁷ Ulp. D. 4. 2. 5.

⁵¹¹ Cf. Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. IV, Tit. II, XL ⁵⁹ Voct, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. IV, Tit. II, XII. Cf. also still art. 1114 code civil. ^{SThus, for instance, the term "relative invalidity" (used by A.S. Hartkamp, Der Zwang im Privatrecht (1971), pp. 174 sqq.) has a different meaning in French law and in German law. In the former it refers to situations where only one of the parties may invoke the invalidity (cf. supra, pp. 661, 672), in the latter to cases where the transaction is to be treated as invalid only with regard to certain persons (cf. e.g. § 135 BGB and Hubert Beer, Die relative Unwirksamkeit (1975)).}

^{^[3428]} Cf. e.g. Coing, p. 414 (referring to Molina, Pothier and Perezius).

^{^[3429]} Tractatus de nuditatibus, as quoted by Coing, p. 414.

Santi di Paola, Contributi ad una teoria della invalidila e della inefficacia in diritto romano (1966), pp. 13 sqq, 72 sqq., 83 sqq., 93 sqq. and passim; Kaser, RPr I, p. 247.

¹ Kaser, RPr 1, p. 246.

^E Ulp. D. 18, 1, 22.

® Mod. D. 18, 1, 62, 1. For details cf. supra, p. 243,

^{^[3434]} Kaser, RPr II, pp. 65 sqq., 92 sq.

²¹ Kaser, RPr II, p. 93.

^{^[3436]} Cf. e.g. Windschcid/Kipp, § 82; cf. further Heinz Hiibner, "Zum Abbau von Nichtigkeitsvorschriften", in: Festschrift jiir Franz Wieacker (1978), pp. 399 sqq. (also on the attempts by the natural lawyers to systematize the law in this regard on a rational basis). For the development of the principles of nullity in English law cf. Roberta Routledge. "The interaction of social and theoretical considerations in the development of the principle of nullity of contract in English law", in: La formazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1249 sqq.

^z On rescission cf. supra, p. 615. note 192.

^{^[3438]} § 142 I; but cf. still § 112 of the E I.

²¹⁴ Thus, for instance, it was deemed conceptually impossible to allow rescission of a transaction which was already null and void. This can, however, occasionally be desirable; for details cf. Theodor Kipp, "Ober Doppel Wirkungen im Recht, insbesondere über die Konkurrenz von Nichtigkeit und Anfechtbarkeit", in: Festschrift für Ferdinand von Martitz

^{^[3440]} Supra, p. 488. ³* Cf. supra, p. 180.

³⁹ Cf. Ulp. D. 45, 1, 1, 5. *° Supra, pp. 75 sqq.

⁴ Art. 20 II OR.

⁴ § 878 ABGB.

^4L § 139 BGB.

* Cf supra, p. 77.

Cf. Christoph Krampe, Die Kdnversion des Rechtsqeschqfts (1980), pp. 28 sqq.

⁴⁵ At p. 8.

⁴⁷ For details, see Krampe, op. cic, note 45, pp. 36 sqq.

^{^[3449]} Cf. e.g. Franz Wieacker. "Amoenitates luventianae". (19621 13 Iura 1 sqq.; Mario

Bretone. "Note minime su Celsus films". (19631 9 Labeo 331 sqq. D. 50. 17. 185.

¹¹ Cf. e.g. Peters, Flamman & Co. v. Kokstad Municipality 1919 AD 427 at 434: "By the Civil Law a contract is void if at the time of its inception its performance is impossible: impossibilium nulla obligatio (D. 50, 17, 185)"; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 76 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, p. 124. The rule is used in an entirely different context in Montsisi v. Minister of Police 1984 (1) SA 619 (A) at 635A-638G (per Rabie CJ); c(. the discussion by Derek van der Merwe, "Regulae iuris and the axiomatization of the law in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries", 1987 TSAR 300 sqq.

⁷ Joachim Hruschka, "Zwei Axiome des Rechtsdenkens", in: Aus dem Hamburger Rechtsteben, Festschrift für Walter Reimers (19791. pp. 459 sqq.

⁷⁷ Dejure naturae et gentium. Lib. Ill. Cap. VII. § 2; cf. Hruschka. Festschrift Reimers, p. 461.

^{^[3454]} The same still applies to § 306 BGB; cf. § 275 II BGB e contrario. For South Africa cf. De Wet en Yeats, pp. 76 sq.; Joubert. Contract, pp. 124 sqq. As to the terminology ("subjective" and "objective" impossibility!. c(. F. Mommsen. Unmoglichkeit, p. 5; Windscheid/Kipp. § 264. 1. Others (as. for instance. Savignyl had referred to absolute and relative impossibility.

^{^[3455]} Ven. D. 45. 1. 137. 5; Dieter Medicus. "Zur Funktion der Leistungsunmoglichkeit im romischen Recht". (19691 86 ZSS 83 sqq.

^{^[3456]} Gai. III. 97 а; Лиг. Ill. 19. 1.

⁴⁶ Gai. Ill. 97; Inst. HI. 19. 1.

^{^[3458]} Paul. D. 18. 1. 57 (with a detailed discussion about what happens when part of the house remains standing"); Frank Peters. "Zur dogmatischen Einordnung der anfänglichen, objektiven Unmoglichkeit beim Kauf", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (19761. pp. 289 sqq.; Arp. Ап[апфске Unmoglichkeit, pp. 107 sqq.

^лРар. D. 18. 1. 58*

^7,7 Pomp.. Paul.. Cels./Pomp. O. 18. 1. 4-6 pr.; Mod. D. 18. 1. 62. 1; Inst. Ill. 23. 5.

^8,1 Cels./Pomp. D. 18. 1. 6 pr.

^a Gai. D. 44. 7. 1. 10; Gai. Ill. 99; Ulp. D. 45. 1. 82 pr.; Inst. Ill. 19. 2 and 22.

^s Gai. D. 44. 7. 1. 9; Gai. III. 97; Paul. D. 45. 1. 83. 5: Mod. D. 45. 1. 103: Inst. Ill. 19. 2.

^N3 Cf. supra, pp. 293 sqq.. 296 sqq.

^{^[3462]} Ven. D. 45. I. 137. 4.

⁸⁵ Cf. Ven. D. 45. 1. 137. 4.

" Pomp. D. 19, 1, 55. In place of "in natura" one probably has to read "quam eum non esse in

rerum natura" (Mommsen). On the problem of slaves in hostium postestate and

impossibility cf. further Paul. D. 46, 3, 98, 8 and Medicus. (1969) 86 ZSS 87 sqq.

^M7 Gai. n. 45, 1, 141, 4; Inst. HI. 15. 5. Cf. also Ulp. D. 13. 4. 2. 6; Medicus. (1969) 86 ZSS 86 sq.; Arp, AnfatigHche Unmaglichkeit, pp. 77 sq., 86.

^8H C. 8, 37, 15: "Si quis spoponderat insulam, cum moriebatur, aedificare stipulatori, impossibilis videbatur huiusmodi stipulatio."

Gai. Ill, 97; sec further Wollschlager, Unmoglichkeitslehre. pp. 8 sqq.; Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit, pp. 66 sqq. (according to whom nullity is the natural and logical consequence ("sachtogisch richtige Rechtsfolge". p. 88) of impossibility of performance of a unilateral promise such as a stipulation; but see also e.g. pp. 100 sq.)

^{^[3470]} Cf e.g. Franz Wieacker, "Leistungshandlung und Leistungserfolg im bürgerlichen

Schuldrecht", in: Festschrift fiir Hans Carl Nipperdey, vol. I (1965), pp. 801 sq.; Wollschlager,

Unmoglichkeitslehre, pp. 10 sq.; but see Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit, pp. 97 sqq.

⁹¹ For this line of argument, see Medicus, (1969) 86 ZSS 69 sqq. Contra: Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit, p. 100; he maintains that the stipulation was inutilis because of (and in so far as there was) a divergence between the content of the promise and the reality, on account of which the promise appeared to make no sense, to be absurd, and in this sense: to be impossible (pp. 86 sqq.; on the meaning of the term "impossibilis" cf. pp. 78 sqq.)

* Cf supra, p. 277.

® Cf., in particular, Wollschlager, Unmoglichkeitslehre. pp. 11 sqq.; Peters, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 285 sqq.; Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit, pp. 101 sqq.

⁹¹ D. 18, 1, 15 pr.

^{^[3476]} We also find the condictio (indebiti) in Paul. D. 18, 4, 7.

⁹⁵ Paul. D. 18, 1, 57.

^{^[3477]} D. 18, 1, 62, 1.

^{^[3478]} Paul. D. 19, 1, 21 pr.

^{^[3479]} Lie. Ruf D. 18, 1, 70. For further details cf. supra, p. 242.

1® Por an attempt to rationalize and justify this differentiation, cf. Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit, pp. 106 sqq.: the sale of an object that did no longer exist was invalid because,

due to the deviation between reality and the intentions of the parties, the transaction lacked any sense or purpose. Meaningful, however (despite impossibility of performance!), and therefore not invalid, the sale of a liber homo as a slave. This is hardly convincing.

^D Cf. also Hausmaninger/Selb, pp. 286 sq. The argument of Peters, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 303 sqq., appears to be too radical.

^Iffi Cf. supra, pp. 241 sqq.

^1(B 1919 AD 427 at 434.

^{^[3481]} For details, see Wollschla'ger, Unmoglichkeit si ehre, pp. 18 sqq., 23 sqq., 31 sqq.

¹⁽⁵ Cf. supra, pp. 546 sqq.

¹⁰⁵ Obligationenrecht, vol. II, p. 290; on Savigny's view cf., most recently, Arp, Anfängliche

Unmoglichkeit, pp. 136 sqq.

The views of Donellus, as concained in his Commentarii de Jure Civili, are analysed by Wollschlager, Unmoglichkeitslehre, pp. 28 sqq.

^1UJ For what follows cf. Christian Wollschlager, "Die willemtheoretische Unm5g- lichkcitslehre im aristotelisch-thomistischen Naturrecht", in: Syrtipatica Franz Wieacker (1970), pp. 154 sqq.

° Inkiding. Ill, I, 19.

^{^[3488]} For details, sec Wollschlager, Sympotica Wieacker, pp. 156 sqq.

^{^[3489]} Summa Theohgiae, Prima Secundae, q. 13, art. 5, ad 1.

Summa Theologiae, Secundae Secundae, q. 89, art. 7 (sub: respondeo).

^1B Cf. e.g. Summa Theologiae. Secundae Secundae, q. 88, art. 1.

* In quatuor libros Sententiarum, Dist. 34, q. 1, art. 2, in: S. Thomae Aquinatis Opera Omnia, vol. I, Frommann, Holzboog, 1980 (ed. Robertas Busa), p. 604. Cf. also the regula iuris ("nemo potest ad impossibile obligari") in Pope Boniface's Liber Sextus Decretalium. Lib. V, Tit. XII, De regulis iuris, VI.

^1B On Pufendorfs views, see Wollschlager, Sympotica Wieacker. pp. 174 sqq.

^{^[3494]} III, I, 19.

^1,7 Die Unmoglichkeit der Leistung in ihrem Einfluss auj obligatorische Verhältnisse (1853"). pp 102 sqq.

F. Mommsen, Unmoglichkeit, pp. 117 sqq.

^{^[3497]} F. Mommsen, Unmoglichkeit, pp. 5 sq.; cf. further Dernburg, Pandekten, vol. II, § 16; Windscheid/Kipp, §§ 264, 315.

But see Alois Brinz, (1857) 5 Kritische Überschau der deutschen Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschqft 281 sqq.

^a §§ 264,315.

^{^[3500]} Cf. supra, p. 681.

¹³ On the concepts of positive and negative interest cf. supra, pp. 243 sq., 298 sq.

“ G. infra, pp. 1032, 1033 sq.

^{^[3503]} Dejure naturae et gentium lib. Ill, Cap. VII, § 2; cf. also § 1295 ABGB.

¹² Cf. infra, pp. 1036 sqq.

^.Cf. Savigny, System vol. HI, pp. 293 sqq.; F. Mommsen. Unmoglichkeit, pp. 107 sqq.

^12K Cf. supra, pp. 244 sq.

¹³ Cf. supra, p. 245.

⁰⁰ Cf. also De Wet en Yeats, p. 78; Joubert, Contract, p. 128 for South African law.

^H Cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 315, n. 7; but cf. "Mative", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 98; "Protokolle", in: Mugdan. vol. II, pp. 615 sqq.

¹² § 122 BGB; cf. supra, p. 602.

^B Unmoglichkeit der Leistung (1907) and Uber Unmoglichkeit der Leistung und heutige Praxis (1911), both today in Ernst Rabel, Gesammelte Aufsatze, vol. I (1965), pp. 1 sqq., 56 sqq.

^B Cf. e.g. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 204 sqq.; Alfred Sollner, in: Münchener Kommentar (2nd ed., 1985), § 306, n. 3; Urich Huber, Leistungsstorungen, in: Gutachten und Vorschläge гиг Überarbeitung des Schnldrechts, vol. I (1981), pp. 813 sqq.; for a vigorous countercritirism, see Arp, Anfängliche Unmb'gtichkeit, pp. 35 sqq. and passim.

⁵ Such reasonable reliance is lacking in cases where the content of the contract is patently absurd, as, for instance, where the inevitable hippocentaurus is sold. In these cases (which tend to crop up in textbooks rather than in court decisions) invalidity is the appropriate answer of a legal system (Rabel, Gesammelte Aufsatze, p. 47, who refers to an Obligationshindemis der hoheren Dumttiheit"). Along these lines, for instance, the Indian Contract Act declared an agreement to discover treasure by magic to be void (cf Pollock, Principles of Contract (7th ed., 1902), p. 402). Also § 878, "1 ABGB ("What is downright impossible fgeradezu unmoglich], cannot be the object of a valid contract") is usually interpreted as covering only these types of cases; this interpretation goes back to Ernst Rabel ("Zur Lehre von der Unmoglichkdt der Leistung nach Osterreichischem Recht (1911)", in: Gesammelte Aufsatze, vol. I, pp. 79 sqq.), but is in conflict with what the legislator intended to express with this rule (Wollschlager, Unmoglichkeitslehre, pp. 100 sq.). "Normal" objective initial impossibility (i.e., for instance, the object to be sold perished before conclusion of the contract) does not affect the validity of the transaction (arg. § 923 ABGB); thus, the positive interest may be claimed.

^{^[3513]} Cf. e.g. Rabel. Gesammelte Aufsatze, vol. I. p. 68; Arp, Anfängliche Unmoglichkeit,

pp. 43 sqq., 167 sqq.

^{^[3515]} (1910) 65 Seujferts Archiv, n. 160.

⁰⁸ In the case of generic obligations there is always merely subjective impossibility if the debtor does not possess any goods of the kind to be supplied (as long as goods of this kind still exist); cf. e.g. § 279 BGB ("If a debt described by class is owed, and so long as delivery of this class of object is possible, the debtor is responsible for his inability to deliver, even though no fault may be imputed to him"). In the present case, however, the debt was not described by class (1 000 boxes of new potatoes from the Canary Islands), but the 1 000 boxes aboard the Thekla Bohien were owed.

¹⁵ Cf. UE 1. 1 sq. (with additions by Cuiaciusl; also Macrobius. In somnium Scipionis, Lib. II, 17, 3 and Chorus, Handelen, pp. 24 sqq.

^{^[3518]} Generally on the question of how effective Republican legislation was, cf. Bleicken,

op. cit, note 144, pp. 217 sqq.

^{^[3520]} It was the lex Voconia; cf. Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 20, 50 sqq.; Hans Ankum.

"Verbotsgesetze und Ius Publicum", (1980) 97 ZSS 291; for a different view (lex Poetelia Papiria, 326 B.C.), see Fritz Sturm, (1982) 99 ZSS 432.

⁴⁸ Giovanni Rotondi, Leges pubticae populi Rotnani (1912), pp. 155 sqq.; Kaser,

Verbotsgesetze, pp. 16 sqq.; cf. also Wieacker, RR, pp. 286 sq.

¹⁴⁷ Certain close relatives were excepted.

UE 1, 2. On the content and function of the lex Furia cf. Gai. II, 225; Uwe Wesel,

"Uber den Zusammenhang der lex Furia, Voconia und Falddia", (1964) 81 ZSS 310 sqq.; Alan Watson, The Law of Succession in the Later Roman Republic (1971), pp. 163 sqq.; Kaser,

Verbotsgesetze, pp. 33 sqq.

^H Cf. supra, pp. 166 sqq.

^E Kaser. Verbotsgesetze, pp. 39 sqq.; idem. RPr I. pp. 276 sq.; Hans-Georg Knothe. Die

Geschaftsfahiqkeit der Minderjahriqen in geschichtlicher Etitwicklunq (1983), pp. 53 sqq. (57)

¹³ Cf. supra, p. 483.

¹⁵¹ Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, p. 26.

¹⁵ For details cf. supra, pp. 483 sq.

¹³⁵ Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 27 sq.; Behrends, Fraus legis, pp. 23 sq.

^{^[3530]} The same applies, of course, to leges minus quam pcrfectae.

¹³ Cf. generally Kaser, (1984) 101 ZSS 1 sqq.; more specifically with regard to illegal

transactions, sec Behrends, Fraus legis, pp. 21 sqq.; Walter Selb, "Gedanken zur romischen

"lex imperfecta" und zu modernen Normvorstellungen in der Rechtsgescbichte", in: Festschrift für Heinz Hübner (1984Ì. pp. 253 sqq.

Though not, of course, leges in the narrow, technical sense.

¹⁶¹¹ Cf. supra, pp. 145, 177 and A. Arthur Schiller, "Senatus Consulta in the Principate", (1958-59) 33 Tulane LR 500 sq.

^{^[3534]} Cf. e.g. Chorus, Handelen, pp. 35 sqq., who emphasizes that the difference between leges perfectae and imperfectae was of less practical consequence than might appear at first blush; further cf Selb, Festschrift Hübner, pp. 253 sqq.

^Ib~ For details, see Kaser, Verbotsgesetze. pp. 50 sqq., 62 sqq.

^{^[3536]} Nov. Theod. 9 (dated 7th April 439); on this novella (the "Lex non dubium"), see Friedrich Endemann. Uber die civilrechtliche Wirkung der Verbotsgesetze nach gemeinem Rechte (1887), pp. 24 sqq.; Chorus, Handelen. pp. 42 sqq.

^{^[3537]} "Secundum pracdictam itaque regulam, quam ubique servari factum lege prohibente ccnsuimus, certum est nee stipulationem eiusmodi teuere... nec sacramentum admitti." This provision caused the medieval lawyers much headache, particularly in view of the fact that breach of a promissory oath entailed the sin of periurium. For details, see Chorus, Handelen, pp. 213 sqq.

^,ffi C. 1, 14, 5.

^{^[3539]} For details, see Chorus, Handelen, pp. 177 sqq.; Endemann, op. cit., note 163, pp. 29 sqq., 41 sqq.; Coing, pp. 414 sq.

^{^[3540]} According to Zweigcrt/Kotz, p. 73, in all systems of the world illegality is seen as a fact which invalidates contracts. For a comparative analysis of what makes a contract illegal, see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 74 sqq.; for South Africa cf. Leon E. Trakman, "The Effect of Illegality in South African Law", (1977) 94 SAL.J 311 sqq., 468 sqq. and Joubert. Contract, pp. 129 sqq.

⁶ On the history and application of § 134 BGB cf. Hans Hermann Seiler, "Uber verbotswidrige Rechtsgeschäfte (§ 134 BGB)", in: Gedachtnisschrift fur Wolfgang Martens (1987), pp. 719 sqq. Article. 1131 code civil (relating to "I'obligation... surune cause itiicite"; cf. also art. 1133 defining what "itticite" means); § 879 ABGB and art. 201 OR do not contain this kind of clause.

^lfiy Cf, e.g. Theo Mayer-Maly. in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nd cd., 1984), § 134, n. 1; contra: Flume. AT, § 17, 1.

^ro Gesetz uber den Ladenschluss, 28. 1 1. 1956.

^{^[3544]} Dieter Medicus, Allgettteiner Teil des BGB (2nd ed., 1985), nn. 648 sqq. Seiler, Gedachtnisschrifi Martens, pp. 719 sqq. demonstrates that the courts have arrogated to themselves a far-ranging discretion to decide about the invalidity or otherwise of transactions violating statutory prohibitions. Their decisions are hardly predictable, and legal certainty is most detrimentally affected; cf. also already Endemann, op. cit-, note 163,

p. 125. More and more statutory prohibitions are issued by the modern legislator without any indication in their "sanctio" as to the fate of transactions infringing the prohibition. According to Seiler, invalidity should be restricted to cases where the illegality is grave and obvious, particularly where the core areas of criminal law are affected; § 134 BGB should not be (ab)used to transform ephemeral considerations of economic expediency into private law (p. 731). This would, in fact, entail a renaissance of the category of leges minus quam perfectac. For the development of English law in this regard, see Routledge, in: La formazione storica, vol. Ill, pp. 1254 sqq.

^{^[3546]} Mayer-Maly, op. cit., note 31, § 134, n. 88; contra: Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 113 sqq.

^{^[3547]} C 1, 14, 5 pr.

^и On the importance of the subjective element (the intention to act against the spirit of the law—Umgehungsabsicht), see Giovanni Rotondi, Gli atti infrodde alia legge nella dottrina romana e nella sua evoluzione posteriore (1911), pp. 145 sqq.; Heinrich Honseil, "In fraudem legis agere", in: Festschrift JUr Max Kaser (1976), pp. 112, 124 sqq.; Behrends, Fraus legis, pp. 15 sq. On the meaning of the term "fraus" in "fraus legi facta", cf. also Ivo Pfaff, Zur Lehre vom sogenannten in fraudem legis ayere (1892), pp. 62 sqq.; Rotondi, pp. 11 sqq.; Hugo Kruger/Max Kaser, Fraus, (1943)'63 ZSS 140 sqq.

^D. 1,3,29.

^{^[3549]} D. 1, 3, 30: "Fraus enim legi fit, ubi quod fieri noluit, fieri autem non vetuit, id fit."

¹⁷⁷ On fraus legi facta in the history of the ius commune, see Pfaff, op. cit., note 174, pp. 20 sqq.; Rotondi, op. cit., note 174, pp. 160 sqq.; Helmut Coing, "Simulatio und fraus

in der Eehre des Bartolus und Baldus", in: Festschrift fur Paul Koschaker, vol. Ill (1939), pp. 402 sqq. For South Africa cf. Dadoo Ltd. v. Krugersdorp Municipal Council 1920 AD 530 at 543; Aquilius, "Immorality and Illegality in Contract", (1942) 59 SALJ 333 sqq.

^17H Cf., e.g., supra, pp. 622 sq.

^{^[3553]} For details, sec Jhering, Geist, vol. II, 2, pp. 441 sqq.; Wieacker, Vom romischen Recht. pp. 45 sqq.; and, most recently, Heinrich Honsell, "Das Gesetzesverstandnis in der romischen Antike", in: Europäisches Rechtsdenken in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Festschrift für Helmut Coing, vol. I (19821. pp. 129 sqq.

'"> Cf. infra, pp. 953. 983 sqq.

^s Cf. Honsell. Festschrift Coing, p. 140.

^E De orators 1. LV—236: cf. further e.g. Pro L. Murena oratio, X—23 sqq. (the lawyer's arguments are "res parvae", "prope in singulis litteris atque imerpunctionibus verborum occupatae"); De ojficiis. 1, X—33 ("minis callida sed malitiosa iures interpretatio"); and see the literature quoted supra, p. 623, note 11.

^{^[3557]}Jhering, Geist, vol. II, 2, pp. 467 sqq.; Pfaff, op, cit., note 174, pp. 7 sqq.; Honsell, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 115 sqq.

^1H4 Annales. Lib. VI. 16, 2; cf. further Pfaff, op. cit., note 174, pp. 149 sqq. In the Middle Ages, too, it was particularly the prohibition of usury which was circumvented time and again, and by way of a great variety of more or less subtle subterfuges; cf, supra, pp. 171 sq.

^1H_> All three of them imposing limits on the amounts of legacies. On fraus legis and the lex Voconia, see Pfaff, op. cit., note 174, pp. 114 sqq.

“7 On fraus legis and the lex Cincia, see Behrends, Fraus legis, pp. 19 sqq.

^IK7 Bleicken, op. cit., note 144, pp. 169 sqq.

^{^[3562]} For details, sec Pfaff, op. cit., note 174, pp. 104 sqq., 136 sqq.; Rotondi, op. cit., note 174, pp. 38 sqq.

¹⁸⁴ Plutarch, Vitae, Cato maior, 21, 5 sq.

'*' Berger, ED, p. 549.

^{^[3565]} Cf. e.g. Gai. I, 46. This is, incidentally, still the attitude in England. A doctrine of evasion of the law has never been developed, not because English statutes are never evaded but because the common law is much less concerned with the law's authority than Continental legal systems. Statutes traditionally tend to be regarded as rather irritating encroachments on the common law, and they are strictly (literally) applied (and, therefore, have to be drafted with clumsy punctiliousness; cf. supra, p. 623). If there are any loopholes, it is up to the legislator and not to the courts to fill them. Cf. Ronald H. Graveson, "The Doctrine of Evasion of the Law of England and America", (1937) 19 Journal of Comparative Legislation 21 sqq. and the analysis by Klaus Schurig, "Die Gesetzesumgehung im Privatrecht", in: Festschrift fir Murad Ferid (1988), pp. 392 sqq.

¹⁴² Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 7. On fraus legis. and the edictum de pactis cf, most recently, Behrends, Fraus legis. pp. 29 sqq.

^{^[3567]} Cf supra, pp. 625 sqq. For a totally different view of the development, see Behrends, Fraus legis. pp. 33 sqq., 39 sqq., 61 sqq. He argues that a more liberal, intention-oriented method of interpretation (advocated by the veteres of the 2nd century B.C.) was superseded, towards the end of the Republic, by a strictly literal, word-oriented approach (introduced by G. Aquilius Gallus and his pupil, Servius Sulpicius). Because of this narrower attitude towards statute interpretation, it became necessary to develop the doctrine of fraus legi facta to cover situations where not the wording but the intention of the statute had been violated. Behrends' thesis is based mainly on the somewhat shaky evidence of Cicero, Pro A. Gaecina oratio, XVIII — 78 sqq. and Cicero, De oratore. Contra Behrends, see Heinrich Honsell, (1985) 102 ZSS 573 sqq.; on the pro Caecina cf. Frier, Roman Jurists, passim, who provides quite a different interpretation from the one advanced by Behrends (cf. e.g. p. 151: "In sum, the argument at Caec. 79-85 is not serious").

[3568] Qf pomp j) ^{A A} 3. "i_ura constitui oportet, ut dixit Theophrastus, in his, quae ini to JiJIeTaTop accidunt, non quae ^ak napakoyav"; Paul. D. 1, 3, 6.

^K lul. D. 1, 3, 12: "Non possunt omnes articuli singillatim aut legibus am senatus consulti comprehendi...."

“ lul. D. 1. 3. 12.

“ D. 1.3. 17.

¹⁵⁸ Trans. D.N. MacCormick. in: Mommsen/Kniger/Watson.

® Cf. supra, p. 148. note 214.

™ Ulp. D. 14. 6. 7. 3.

^2f" Ulp. D. 14. 6. 1 pr.. for further details cf. supra, pp. 177. 181.

^{^[3576]} Cf. Pomp. D. 16. 1. 32. 3: Ulp. D. 16. 1. 8. 4: Ulp. D. 16. 1. 8. 6: further Dieter

Medicus, Zur Geschichte des Senatus Consultum Velleianum (1957), pp. 123 sqq. Acting through a persona interposita was a popular device, used in order to circumvent a statute; cf. e.g. Honsell, Festschrift Kaser, p. 124 and Proculus' categorical statement (D. 50, 8, 2, 1): "Quod quis suo nomine exercere prohibetur, id nee per subiecatam personam agere debet."

~"³ Cf. supra, pp. 700 sq.

^{^[3578]} Cf. e.g. Regelsberger, Pandekten, pp. 146 sq., 153; Vangerow, Pandekten, vol. I, § 24 (sub. 3 c); "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. 1, p. 725 (providing the motivation for the fact that the BGB (§ 134) does not contain a special rule dealing with the problem of fraus legi facta);

*⁰⁴ Schulz. Principles, pp. 19 sqq.. who deals with this characteristic trait of Roman law under the heading "isolation"; cf. also, more recently, Joseph Plescia, "The Development o( the Doctrine of Boni Mores in Roman Law", (1987) 34 RIDA 275 sqq..

^{^[3580]} On his functions cf. e.g. Mommsen, Staatsrecht, vol. II, 1, pp. 331 sqq.; H. Hausmaninger, in: Kleiner Pauty, vol. I, col. 1107 sq.; Max Kaser, "Rechtswidrigkeit und Sittenwidrigkeit im klassischen romischen Recht", (1940) 60 ZSS 97 sqq.

²¹ They are analysed by Theo Mayer-Maly, "Contra bonos mores", in: Iuris Professio, Festgabejiir Max Kaser (1986), pp. 151 sqq.; cf. also by the same author. "The boni mores in historical perspective", (1987) 50 THRHR 60 sqq.; cf. also Plescia, (1987) 34 RIDA 275 sqq., 286 sqq.

Gai. Ill, 157; cf. further Vincenzio Arangio-Rui2, П mandate in diritto romano (1949), pp. 105 sqq.; Watson, Mandate, p. 88.

²⁰ Cf. infra, pp. 933, 1062.

^{^[3584]} The latter three (illicit intercourse with unmarried women of honourable social condition—stuprum—or with married women—adnlterium—and pandering—lenocin ium) were criminalized by the lex lulia de adulteriis (18 b.c); for details, see Mommsen, Strajrecht, pp. 688 sqq., 699 sqq.; cf. also Plescia, (1987) 34 RIDA 301 sqq.

^{^[3585]} For a detailed discussion, see Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 69 sqq.

^{^[3586]} Of. also Imt. Ill, 19, 24.

^{^[3587]} D. 45, 1, 61.

³⁸ Ulp. D. 34, 4, 4 in fine.

^{^[3589]} Cf. also C 8, 38, 4 (Diocl.).

™ Supra, pp. 75 sqq.

Gai. Ill, 98; cf. Jens Peter Meincke, "Die Scheidungsklausel im Testament", in:

Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976"). pp. 451 sqq.: Kaser. Verbotsgesetze, pp. 103 sqq.

Cf. infra, pp. 720 sq.

²³ Paul. D. 28, 7, 9.

^{^[3594]} On reverentia and boni mores d. also Ulp. D. 44, 4, 4, 16.

^{^[3595]} Paul. Sent. Ill, IV b, 2; on the latter example cf. Mayer-Maly, Festgabe Kaser, p. 165. On condiciones contra bonos mores contained in stipulations, see Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 88 sqq.

Attention has been drawn to this point by Mayer-Maly, Festgabe Kaser, pp. 154, 160 sqq,; cf. also Mayer-Maly, (1987) 50 THRHR 71 sqq.

Cf. Helmut Schmidt, Die Lehre von der Sittenwidrigkeit der Rechtsgeschäfte in hisCorischer Sicht

(1973), pp. 19, 21, 43, 60, 73, 104 sq. Cf. also still Wessels, Contract, §§ 459 sqq., who discusses illegal contracts under the heading "Contracts impossible by law"; Lee, Introduction, p. 232 ("Unlawful contracts are regarded by Roman law as civilly impossible"). ^22H The most likely reason for this is that agreements contra bonos mores could probably frequently not be classified as one of the recognized types of contract: cf. Honsell, Ruckabwicklung, pp. 77 sqq.

C 2, 3, 6 (Ant.·).

^{^[3600]} Consultatio veteris cuiusdam iurisconsuhi. IV. 8.

³¹ For a more extensive list, sec Mayer-Maly. (1987") 50 THRHR 68.

^{^[3602]} Mayer-Maly. (19871 50 THRHR 70 sq.

^{^[3603]} Pap. D. 22, 1, 5. On mandatum cf. supra, p. 421; as far as societas is concerned cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 17, 2, 53 and Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, La societa in diritto rotnano (I960), pp. 116 sqq.; Antonio Guarino, Societas consensu contracta (1972), pp. 65 sqq.

^{^[3604]} Znsi. Ill, 19, 24; Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 76 sqq.

^{^[3605]} For the difference between causally and abstractly drafted stipulations in general cf.

supra, pp. 91 sq.

³⁶ Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia, Lib. XVIII, Cap. II, § 2. On this case, see Ulrich von Lubtow, "Die Ursprungsgeschichte der exceptio doli und der accio de dolo malo", in: Eranion Maridakis, vol. I (1963), pp. 196 sqq.; Watson, Obligations, pp. 32 sqq.; Massimo Brutti, La probhmatica del doloprocessuale nell'esperienza romana (1973), pp. 219 sqq.; Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 80 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "'Dolus' in Republican Law", (1985) 88 BIDR 19 sqq. ²³⁷ "... cum qua commerdum libidinis habuerat...."

C. 8. 38. 4 (Diocl. et Max.); cf. also lul. D. 45. 1. 61.

^{^[3609]} Pactum de hereditate tertii: cf. Pap. D. 39. 5. 29. 2; C. 2. 3. 30 (lust.).

²⁴" Ulp. D. 16. 3. 1. 7; Tafaro. Regula, pp. 23 sqq.. 44 sqq.

^21,1 On redimere litem, see Pap. D. 17. 1. 7; C. 2. 12. 15 (Diocl.); Kaser. RZ, p. 162.

²⁵¹ For details, see Schmidt, op. cit.. note 227. passim.

^{^[3613]} Mevius. Decisiones, Pars III. Dec. CCLXX (5). For a detailed historical investigation cf. C.P. Joubert. "Pactum successorium". (1961) 24 THRHR 18 sqq.. 106 sqq.. 177 sqq.; (1962) 25 THRHR 46 sqq.. 93 sqq.

²³ Leyser. Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. XL1II. II.

²⁵¹ These the words of C. 2. 3. 30. 2. On the recognition of such pacta by Schilter. Boehmer and others, cf. Schmidt, op. cit.. note 227. pp. 54 sqq. But cf. also still Brunnemann. Cotnnientarius in Codicem, Lib. II. Tit. Ill. L. de quaest. ult.. 2 ("... incivile fest], viventis hominis bona in sortem et divisionem vocare, ct ita quasi ejus mortem voto ac spe praecipere") and Stryk. Usus tnodernus pandectarum. Lib. II. Tit. XIV. § 15. adding the somewhat sceptical comment: "Ego quantum praxin attinet, cam hodie a jure Romano diversam esse, asserere non ausim."

Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practiatm. Lib. XXVIII, Tit. VII, XI; cf. further Schmidt, op. cit., note 227, pp. 58 sqq.

²³⁵ Commmtarii de jure civili. Lib. XII, Cap. XXI, XVI.

^{^[3616]} III, I, 42. The views of the natural lawyers are set out in detail by Schmidt, op. cit., note 227, pp. 65 sqq.; cf. also Wesenberg/Wesener, pp. 146 sq. For the natural lawyers, (natural) law and morals were most intimately related to each other.

²³³ Cf am. 1108, 1133. According to the code civil, a contract is invalid if its "cause" is illicit. The cause is illicit when it is prohibited by the law, when it is "contraire aux bonnes moeurs" or contrary to the "ordre public". On these provisions, see Schmidt, op. cit., note 227, pp. 83 sqq.; Nicholas, FLC, pp. 122 sqq. "Public policy" features even more prominently in the English common law as a ground of invalidity; it is often taken to include the boni mores, cf. e.g. Treitel, Conir&cr, pp. 334 sqq. But see, e.g., Sir Frederick Pollock, Principles of Contract (7th ed., 1902), pp. 273 sqq., who distinguishes immoral contracts from those against public policy. Cf. further Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 76 sqq.; for Germany, see Konstantin Simitis, Cute Sitten und ordre public (I960); Schmidt, op. cit., note 227, pp. 145 sqq.; for South Africa, see Aquilius, (1941) 58 SAL} 344 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 132 sq.

*⁹ Cf. e.g. Regelsberger, Pandekten, § 147 II; Windscheid/Kipp, §§ 81, 314; for all details, see Schmidt, op. cit., note 227, pp. 93 sqq.

²⁰ § 138 I BGB.

²³ Cf in general Theo Mayer-Maly, "Die guten Sitten als Massstab des Rechts", Juristische Schuluny 596 sqq.

^2fi2 Cf. e.g. BGHZ 34. 64 (701; BGHZ 51. 290 (2931.

Cf. e.g. Joubert. Contract, pp. 137 sq.

²¹ For a comparative evaluation, see Zweigert/Kotz. pp. 78 sqq.

RGZ 115. 141 (142 sq.); RGZ 142. 70 (73 sqq.).

^{^[3623]} For an overview cf. Mayer-Maly. op. cit.. note 31. § 138. nn. 48 sqq.; Joubert.

Contract, pp. 134 sqq.

^{^[3625]} Cf. Reinhard Zimmermann. "Die heterologe künstliche Insemination und das

geltende Zivilrecht". 1981 Zeitschrift fur das gesamte Familienrecht 932 sqq.; Dieter Giesen.

"Recht und medizinischer Fortschritt". 1984 Juristische Rundschau 225. 227 (both on AID

arrangements); Dagmar Cocster-Waltjen. "Die künstliche Befruchtung beim Menschen—

Zulässigkeit und zivilrechtliche Folgen", in: Verhandlungen des 56. Deutschen Juristentages

(1986). vol. I. pp. B 79 sqq. (on surrogate motherhood agreements). For a thorough

discussion of the validity of contracts concerning abortions, cf. Rolf Sturmer. "Das nicht

abgetriebene Wunschkind". 1985 Zeitschrift fur das gesamte Familienrecht 753 sqq.

*" Evanturel v. Evanturel (1874-75) LR 6 PC 1 at 29; cf. also Hurwitz v. Taylor 1926 TPD

61_?at 91 sq,; Mayer-Maly, op. cit., note 31, § 138, n, 17.

²⁶⁹ In South Africa pacta successoria are still invalid. For a modern discussion of this rule,

see Dale Hutchison, "Isolating the pactum successorium", (1983) 100 SALJ 221 sqq.

²⁰ [1973] Qd R 93 at 104; quoted by Zweigert/Kotz, p. 73.

^{^[3638]} AG Emden, 1975 Neue Juristische Wochertschrift 1363 sq.

Mayer-Maly, op. cit., note 31, § 138, n. 55.

^{^[3640]} Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 154 sqq. On agreements in restraint of trade in Roman law, see Andreas Wacke, "Wettbewerbsfreiheit und Konkurrenzverbotsklauseln im antiken und modernen Recht", (1982) 99 ZSS 188 sqq. For Roman-Dutch and South African law, see j.T. Schoombee, "Agreements in restraint of trade: The appellate division confirms new principles", (1985) 48 THRHR 127 sqq.; the leading modern case is Ma^na Alloys and Research (SA) (Pty.) Ltd. v. Ellis 1984 (4) SA 874 (A). On the approach of English courts (which has for a long time influenced South African decisions), cf. e.g. Treitel, Contract, pp. 345 sqq.

^{^[3641]} Cf. supra, pp. 175 sqq., 268 sq.

²⁵ Cf. supra, p. 269.

²⁷⁶ Cf. e.g. Ludwig Raiser, Das Recht der Allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen (1935), pp. 302 sqq.

²⁷⁷ §§9, 10 and 11 AGBG

^{^[3642]} Thus, for instance, agreements under which the owner of a restaurant is obliged to

obtain his beer supply from a specific brewery for more than 20 years are usually regarded

as being contra bonos mores by German courts. For details, see Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 24 sqq. For an overview of further cases where § 138 BGB has been

invoked in order to protect the freedom of trade and in order to curb the abuse of a superior bargaining position cf. Mayer-Maly, op. cit., note 31, § 138, nn. 64 sqq., 78 sqq.

^{^[3646]} F.H. Lawson, A Common Lawyer Looks at the Civil Law (1953), p. 101 (under the title: Roman Law a Law of Movement).

^{^[3647]}J.C. Smith, "The Unique Nature of the Concepts of Western Law", in: J.C. Smith, David N. Weisstub, The Western Idea of Law (1983), p. 18; cf. also Lawson, op. cit., note 1, p. 100; Maine, Ancient Law, pp. 179 sqq.

^{^[3648]} Cf. supra, p. 576.

^{^[3649]}Cf. infra, p. 801.

716

Cf., for example, supra, p. 91.

Cf., in particular, the chapter on stipulatio poenae, pp. 95 sqq.

^{^[3652]} Cf. infra, pp. 743 sqq.

^{^[3653]} Cf., for example, Ulp. D. 18, 1, 3; Ulp. D. 18, 2, 2 pr.; Ulp. D. 18, 3, 1.

Cf. UE 2, 4: "Sub hac condicione liber esse iussus: 'si decern miliaheredi dederit', etsi ab herede abalicnatus sit, emptori dando pecuniam ad libertatem perveniet; idque lex duodeeim tabularum iubet." A slave could thus be manumitted in a testament upon the condition that he would pay a certain sum of money to the heir (as a compensation for the loss he suffered as a result of the manumission). The slave under these circumstances was known as "statuliber". The provision of the XII Tables dealt, more specifically, with the situation where the heir had sold the statuliber, and enabled him to satisfy the condition also by payment to his new master. Cf, for example, Ekkehard Kalchthaler, Die historische Entwicklung des Satzes: "Die vom Qegner vereitelte Bedingung gilt ah eingetreten" aus einer Interpretation zur Fiktio (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Freiburg/Br., 1959), pp. 20 sqq.; Kaser, RPrlp. 114.

^{^[3655]} Buckland/Stein, p. 425: "... in fact the only real conditions."

^{^[3656]} Cf. infra, p. 733.

^E Inst, m, 15, 4.

® Most of the examples discussed in the Digest (as well as on the following pages) concern either conditional dispositions contained in a will or conditional stipulations. Suspensive conditions could, however, be attached to all kinds of transactions (including, of course, consensual contracts), except those that were dubbed "actus legitimi" by Papinian. In D. 50, 17, 77 he says: "Actus legitimi, qui non recipiunt... condicionem, veluti emancipatio, acceptilatio, hereditatis aditio, servi optio, datio tutoris, in totum vitiantur per... condicionis adiectionem." In the place of "emancipatio" one possibly has to read "mancipatio". For further details, see Kaser, RPr I, p. 255.

“ Cf. Inst. Ill, 15, 6.

^B Pap. D. 12, 1, 37.

^{^[3661]} "... si condicio vera sit. stipulatio tenet": Pap. P. 12. 1. 37.

ⁿ Inst. Ill. 15. 6.

For the condicio in praesens vel praeteritum collata in modern law. c{. Flume. JI T, § 38. 1 b; as far as English law is concerned, see Samuel J. Stoljar, "The Contractual Concept of Condition", (1953) 69 LQR 500 sqq.

^B Inst. Ill. 15. 2.

² Pomp. D. 36. 2. 22. 1.

³ lul. P. 35. 1. 21: Paul. D. 21. 1. 43. 10: cf. also Flume. AT, § 38, 1 c On the closely related question of condiciones tacitae (inherent in the transaction itself), cf. Pap. D. 36, 2, 35, 1; Pap. D. 23, 3, 68; Pap D. 50, 17, 77; Max Kaser, "Condicio iuris und condicio tacita", in: Sytnbolae Raphaeli Taubenschlag dedicatee, vol. I (1956), pp. 427 sqq.; HJ. Legier, "Tacita condicio", (1966) 44 Rhi 5 sqq.; Wolf, Causa stipulationis, pp. 126 sq.

² Inst. Ill. 19. 11: cf. also Gai. Ill. 98.

³ Inst. Ill. 19. 11.

^{^[3666]} Conversely, if the stipulation had been to the effect "Si ditio caelum non attigero. dare

spondes?", it was valid and immediately enforceable ("... pure facta obligatio intellegitur

ideoque statim petere potest").

^{^[3669]} Gai. Ill, 98.

^2fl On which see supra, pp. 75 sqq.

^{^[3671]} Cf. Alf. D. 28, 5, 46.

^{^[3672]} Cf. supra, p. 628, note 45.

^{^[3673]} The question was, at first, the subject of a school dispute ("sed legatum sub impossibili condictione relictum nostri praeceptores proinde deberi putant ac si sine condicione relictum esset; diversae scholae auctores nihilo minus legatum inutile existimant quam stipulationem")- The opinion of the Sabinians prevailed: cf. Alf. D. 28, 5, 46; Ulp. D. 35, 1, 3; Pomp. D. 35, 1, 6, Ulnst. II, 14, 10. For details, see Voci, DER, vol. II, pp. 609 sqq.; Hans Josef Wieling, "Falsa demonstratio, condicio pro non scripta, condicio pro impleta im romischen Recht", (1970) 87 ZSS 212 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "Impossible Conditions in Wills", (1974) 21 RIDA 263 sqq.; Gian Gualberto Archi, "Condizione nel negozio giuridico (diritto romano)", in: Scritti di diritto romano, vol. I (1981), pp. 253 sqq.

³¹¹ Marci. D. 28, 7, 14; cf. further Pomp. D. 28, 7, 7; Pomp. D. 30, 54 pr.; Paul. D. 28, 7, 9; Voci, DER, vol. II, pp. 796 sqq.

^{^[3675]} C. 6, 25, 5 (Vai. at Gall.); on which see the analysis by Jens Peter Meincke, "Die Schcidungsklausel im Testament", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 437 sqq., 456 sqq. (containing a most instructive comparison with a decision by the German Federal Supreme Court of 1956).

¹² Modest. D. 28, 7, 27 pr. ("... laudandus est magis quam accusandus heres, qui reliquias testatons non in mare secundum ipsius voluntatem abiecit, sed memoria humanae condicionis sepulturae tradidit").

^{^[3677]}Ulp. D. 28, 5, 9, 14.

^{^[3678]} Cf. further, as far as the conditional institution of an heir is concerned. Lab. D. 28. 7. 20, 1; lut./Ulp. D. 28, 7, 4, 1; Lab. D. 28, 7, 20 pr. For a detailed analysis, see Ralph Backhaus, Casus perpiexus: die Lasting in sich widerspriichlkher Rechtsfalte durch die klassische romische Jurisprudenz (1981), pp. 32 sqq.

³³ The same problem is raised in Marc. D. 28, 5, 52.

^{^[3679]} Ulp. D. 28, 5, 9, 14.

³⁷ Franz Wieackcr, "Die juristische Sekunde. Zur Legitimation der Konstruktionsjurisprudenz", in: Existenz undOrdnung, Festschrift für Erik Wolf (1962), p. 431; Backhaus, op. cit.,

note 34, pp. 41 sqq. (43).

^3R Marc. D. 28, 7, 16; cf. further Backhaus, op. cit., note 34, pp. 50 sqq.

^{^[3683]} Hence the term "preposterous", composed of the prepositions "prae" and "post". On lust. Ill, 19, 14, see Antonio Masi, "Stipulatio praepostera", (I960) 63 BIDR 181 sqq.; Backhaus, op. cit., note 34, pp. 99 sqq.

⁴³ Cf. first the decision by the Emperor Leo, as reported in Inst. Ill, 19, 14 (dealing only with preposterous dowry stipulations), then, more generally, Justinian, in Inst. Ill, 19, 14 and C. 6, 23, 25.

⁴ "... exactione videlicet post condicionem vel diem competente": C 6, 23, 25-

⁴² Cf. the classification in C 6, 51, 1, 7.

C. 6, 51, 1, 7. This text further mentions condiciones mixtae ("quarum eventus ex fortuna [et] ex honoratae personae voluntate... pendcat"; for example: marriage).

^{^[3685]} Cf. Paul. D. 45, 1, 46, 3 ("Illam autem stipulationem "si volueris, dari?' inutilem esse

constat”); Ulp. D. 45, 1, 17; Ulp. D. 30, 43, 2; Ulp. D. 18, 1, 7 pr.

⁴⁵ Cf. Ulp. D. 35. 1. 7pr.

* Cf. lul./Maec. D. 36. 1. 67. 1; Pap. D. 35. 1. 73.

⁴⁷ Cf. Ulp. D. 35. 1. 7 pr.; Gai. D. 35. 1. 18 (dealing with the institution of heirs'). The question whether these are classical or post-classical generalizations is disputed; cf. Antonio Masi, "In tema di 'cautio Muciana'", (1962) 13 lura 175 sqq.; Voci, DER, vol. II, pp. 606 sq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 254; idem, RPr II, p. 97, n. 19.

condition could be satisfied if Stickus died before having been manumitted.

^{^[3688]} As, for example, in the case of "si Stichum non manumiscrit" (lav. D. 35, 1, 67). The

^{^[3689]} Cf, for example, Paul. D. 18, 6, 8 pr.

³³ Cf., for example, Tryph. D. 28, 2, 28 pr.

³ Cf.. for example, lav. D. 12. 1. 36; Paul. D. 18. 6. 8pr.;Iul. D. 28. 5. 38. 4 ("pendente condicione"'); for a detailed analysis, see Carlo Gioffrcdi. '"Pendcnza¹ e 'sospensione' dalle fonti romane alia dommatica odierna". (19561 22 SDHI 143 sqq.

¹ D. 50. 17. 169. 1.

^s Ulp. D. 50. 16. 54; Marei. D. 20. 1. 13. 5.

^{^[3694]} Pomp. D. 12. 6. 16 pr.

³⁵ Ulp. D. 12. 6. 18.

^s Cf. Daube. Roman Law, pp. 122 sq.; Alan Rodger. "Emptio perfecta Revisited: A Study

of Digest 18. 6. 8. 1". (19821 50 TR 344; cf. also already Cluck, vol. 13. p. 78.

³⁷ Paul. D. 44. 4. 8 pr.; Paul. D. 50. 17. 173. 3. Cf. also Liber Sextus. Lib. V. Tit. XII.

De regulis iuris, L1X.

^5H Cf. supra, p. 284.

® Paul. D. 41. 4. 2. 2; Paul. D. 18. 6. 8 pr.

® UE2. 2; Ulp. D. 24. 1. 11 pr.

^a Cf. Gai. D. 30. 69. 1; Marei. D. 20. 1. 13. 1.

Inst. Ill. 15. 4; cf. also Ulp. D. 50. 16. 54.

® Inst. Ill. 15. 4; Paul. vat. 55; lul. D. 36. 2. 19. 3; Paul. D. 18. 6. 8 pr.; but cf. also Ulp.

D. 35, 1, 59 ("Intercidit legatum si ea persona decesserit, cui legatum est sub condicione"); Werner Flume, "Zur Vererblichkeit der suspensiv bedingten Obligation nach klassischem romischem Recht", (1936) 14 TR 19 sqq.; Masi, Condizione, pp. 19 sqq., 195 sqq.; Gottfried Schiemann, Pendenz und Rückwirkung der Bedingung (1973), pp. 8 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 256; Thomas, TRL, p. 236; contra (in classical Roman law the transaction lapsed when one of the parties died): F. Vassalli, '"Dies vel condicio'. Lineamenti della dottrina romana della condizione", in: Studi giuridici, vol. I (1960), pp. 268 sqq.; Salvatore Riccobono, "Formazione del domma della transmissibilita ali' erede dei rapporti sotto condizione [fr. 23 D. XXIII, 4Afr. VII qu. eV. F. 55]", in: Studi in onore di Silvio Perozzi (1923), pp. 351 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, pp. 424 sq.; cf. also Voci, DER, vol. I, pp. 291 sqq. (the question was controversial among classical jurists).

⁶¹ Ulp. D. 46. 2. 14. 1; Pomp. 13. 46. 3. 16; Pomp. D. 46. 4. 12; Pap. D. 50. 17. 77. These acts, of course, became effective only once the condition had been satisfied.

^f,s Gai. D. 20, 4, 11, 1. The pledge, under these circumstances, was also sub condicione; cf. also Marci. D. 20, 1, 5 pr.; Afr. D. 20, 4, 9 pr.—2.

® lav. D. 33. 5. 14; Gai. D. 40. 9. 29. 1.

^{^[3707]} Pomp. D. 35. 1. 105; Paul. D. 11. 7. 34.

® lul. D. 39. 5. 2. 5 ("Si pecuniam mihi Titius dederit absque ulla stipulatione, ea tamen condicione, ut tune domum mea fieret, cum Seius consul factus esset: sive furente eo sive

mortuo Seius consulatum adeptus fuerit, mea fiet"). The question was, however, controversial; cf. Ulp. D. 23, 3, 9, 1; Masi, Condizione, pp. 142 sqq.; Schiemann, op. cit., note 63, pp. 10 sqq.; Kaser, RPr i, p. 255.

® Schiemann, op. cit., note 63, p. 12.

⁷³ Cf, for example, the argument advanced by Vassalli, op. cit., note 63, pp. 268 sqq.: the positions of conditional debtor/creditor in classical law were intransmissible on death because retroactivity was unknown; c(. also Buckland/Stein, p. 424. Gai. D. 20, 4, 11, 1 also shows how closely the two issues were related.

¹ Thomas, TRL, p. 235.

^{^[3712]} Pomp. D. 45, 1, 31; Masi, Condizione, pp. 98 sqq.

^{^[3713]} D. 45, 1, 78 pr. (the decision to which this phrase was attached as an argument reads as follows: "Si films familias sub condicione¹ stipulatus emancipatus fuerit, deinde exstiterit condicio, patri actio competit").

⁷¹ Paul. D. 50, 17, 144, 1.

⁷⁵ D. 18, 6, 8 pr. (the prime candidate, in the present context, of post-classical corruption of the classical law).

^7fl "Videamus, an idem dicendum sit, si sub condicione stipulatione facta hypotheca data sit, qua pendente alius credidit pure et accepit eandem hypothecam, tune deinde prioris stipulationis exsistat condicio, ut potior sit qui postea credidisset, sed vereor, num hie aliud sit dicendum: cum enim semel condicio exstitit, perinde habetur, ac si illo tempore, quo stipulatio interposita est, sine condicione facta esset, quod et melius est." Cf. supra, note 65.

^{^[3715]} The general retroactivity doctrine has been developed by Bartolus. as Schiemann, op.

cit.. note 63. pp. 29 sqq. has pointed out. For a detailed analysis of its adoption and

application during the various periods of the ius commune, see Schiemann, pp. 36 sqq.

Among 19th-century pandectists it became one of the most widely discussed and

controversial topics in the whole field of private law: cf.. for example Fr. Eisele. "Das

Dogma von der rückwirkenden Kraft der erfüllten Suspensiv-Bedingung". (18671 50 Archiv jur die civilistische Praxis 253 sqq.: Windscheid/Kipp. § 91. For a long time, the general retroactivity doctrine dominated the scene (cf.. for example. Vangerow. Patidekten, § 95:

Puchta. Pandekten, § 61"). It was ultimately shattered by Windscheid.

Cf.. in particular. Vassalli. op. cit.. note 63. pp. 273 sqq. (maintaining his view on the basis of rather sweeping interpolation allegations'): cf. also Gian Gualberto Archi. "II negozio

sotto condizione sospensiva nella compilazione di Giustiniano". in: Scritti di diritto roniano, vol. Ill (1981). pp. 2079 sqq.

Cf., in genera], Volker Kurz. Vo.v- und Rückwirkungen im klassischen romischen Recht (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Freiburg i. Br., 1971), pp. 5 sqq. and passim.

⁸ Masi, Condizione. pp. 158 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 96.

^k2 Thomas, TRL. p. 237.

^,si Cf. Masi, Condizione. pp. 109 sqq.; Alfredo Calonge, "En tomo al problema de la retroactividad de la condicion en el derecho clasico", in: Stndi in ortore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. Ill (1971), pp. 147 sqq., 158 sqq.; Kurz, op. eit., note 80, pp. 117 sqq.

^a4 Kaser, RPr 1. pp. 256 sq.

^{^[3725]} Cf. the example discussed in Cels. D. 45, 1, 99, 1.

™ Pap. D. 45, 1. 115, 1; for details, cf. supra, p. 723.

^{^[3727]} As they did with regard to both dispositions mortis causa and inter viros in general; cf. supra, pp. 625 sqq,

⁸ Cf. supra, pp. 639 sqq. and also, for example, p. 104.

^{^[3729]} Cf, for example, Wieling, (1970) 87 ZSS 230 sqq.

^{^[3730]} D. 35, 1, 24. By the time of Ulpian, the matter was no longer controversial: Ulp. D. 50, 17, 161 ("quibus exemplis stipulationes quoque committuntur..."). Cf. further David Daube, "Condition Prevented from Materializing", (1960) 28 TR 274 sqq.; Kalchthaler, op. dt., note 9, pp. 25 sqq.

^ж Ulp. D. 18, 1, 50. Cf. also Pomp. D. 18, 1, 8 pr. and Daube, (1960) 28 TR 281 sqq.; Kalchthaler, op. dt., note 9, pp. 59 sqq.

^{^[3732]} Cf., for example, Ulp. D. І8, 1, 50; cf. also Serv./Ulp D. 22, 2, 8 (as far as stipulations were concerned). Other texts use the phrase "si per heredem (promisorem) factum sit": UE 2. 5; cf. also lul. D. 35, 1, 24; Ulp. D. 50, 17, 161.

^9S Cf. supra, pp. 105 sq. and also Rolf Knutcl, "Zur sogenannten Erfullungs- und Nichterfiillungsfiktion bei der Bedingung", 1976 Juristische Blatter 616; idem, Stipulatio poenae, p. 197.

⁷⁾⁹ Cf. also Karl Hackl, "Sulla finzione nel diritto private", in: Studi in onore di Atnaldo Biscardi. vol. I (1982), p. 257. Whether or not, in an individual case, prevention could be equated with satisfaction, continued, however, to depend on the interpretation of the contract; hence, for example, the solution arrived at in lul. D. 18, 1, 41 pr., where to treat condicio pro impleta (and consequently the contract of sale) as operative would obviously not have made sense: Daube, (1960) 28 TR 271 sqq.

^{^[3735]} Cf. Rudolf Henle, "Die rechtliche Natur der in diem addktio beim Kaufverträge", in: Festschrift far Paul Koschaker, vol. II (1939Ì. pp. 188 sqq.: Arangio-Ruiz. Compravendita, pp. 405, 407; Kaser, RPr I, p. 257; HonseUVMayer-Maly/Selb, p. 92.

® Cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 86, n. 6; Franz Wieacker, Lex commissoria, 1932, pp. 31 sqq. Generally on the construction of resolutive conditions and on the views adopted in

19th-century legal science, cf. also Markus Knellwolf, Zur Konstruktion des Kaufs auf Probe (1987), ^pp· ^{105 sqq}·

On which see, in general, Paul. D. 18, 5, 3 ("Emptio et venditio sicut consensu contrahitur, ita contrario consensu resolvitur, antequam fuerit res secuta"); Iui. D. 18, 5, 5, 1 ("Emptio nuda conventione dissolvitur, si res secuta non fuerit"}; Knutel, Contrarius consensus, passim

^ю Ulp. D. 18, 2, 2 pr.

^ш A point that has been emphasized by Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, p. 94.

^ш Rabel, Grundzüge. pp. 175 sq.

^{^[3742]} Contra: Werner Flume, "Die Aufhebungsabreden beim Kauf"—lex commissoria, in diem addictio und sogenanntes pactum displicentiae—und die Bedingung nach der Lehre der romischen Klassiker", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 309 sqq.; idem, "Der bedingte Rechtsakt nach den Vorstellungen der romischen Klassiker", (1975) 92 ZSS 68 sqq., 72 sq. He argues that, since the legal act itself (and not only the legal relationship created by it) was regarded as being sub condicione by the Roman lawyers, its subjection to a resolutive condition was conceptually impossible.

^B The reason is, presumably, that recognition of resolutive conditions in stipulations would have been in conflict with the non-re cognition of suspensive conditions in formal releases (acceptilationes). Acceptilationes belonged to the actus legitimi of Pap. D. 50, 17, 77; cf. supra, note 13.

“ Paul. D. 44, 7, 44, 2.

^B Paul. D. 44, 7, 44, 2; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 92.

^{^[3745]} Cf. vat. 283 ("cum ad tcmpus [?; cf. infra, note 125] proprietas transferri nequiverit");

Paul. D. 40, 4, 33 ("Libertas ad tempus dari non potest"); Lab./Paul. D. 1, 7, 34 ("... nee enim moribus nostris convenit ftlium temporalem habere"). As far as institutio heredis was concerned, the rule was semel heres, semper heres; cf. Gai. II, 184; Gai. D. 28, 5, 89.

^{^[3747]} Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 92. A resolutive condition contained in a will—in violation of semel heres semper heres — was, however, regarded as pro non scripto (Kaser, RPrL p. 688).

^11HPap. D. 50, 17, 77.

^ra Cf. Ulp. D. 18, 2, 2 pr. On the technical term "purus" (unconditional, in the sense of not subject to a suspensive condition), see Inst. Ill, 15, 2 ("Omnis stipulatio aut pure aut in diem aut sub condicione fit....") and, today still art. 1584 code civil ("La vente pent etrejaite purement et simptement, on sous tine condition soil suspensive, soil resolutoire"). In England, the term "absolute" is often used in contradistinction to "conditional".

^{^[3750]} lul./Ulp. D. 18, 2, 2, 1; for all details, see Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 152 sqq.

^a The relevant sources are analysed by Peters. Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 262 sqq.

^c The object of the sale was usually regarded as "inemptus": cf.. for instance. Pomp. D. 18, 3, 2 and Owe Wesel, "Zur dinglichen Wirkung der Ruckttrittsvorbehalte des romischen Kaufs", (1968) 85 ZSS 163 sqq.

¹³ Vat. 14 ("Lege venditionis inempto praedio facto fructus interea perccptos iudicio venditi restitui placuit, quoniam eo iure contractum in exordio videtur.. Cf. further the somewhat strained explanation offered by Pomp. D. 18, 1, 6, 1.

“ Ulp. D. 18. 3. 4 pr.

^{^[3755]} Which is. nevertheless, rejected by a large body of opinion; cf. Wieacker. op. cit.. note 107, pp. 45 sqq.; Ernst Levy, "Zu den Rücktrittsvorbehalten des romischen Kaufs", in: Gesammelte Schriften, vol. II (1963), pp. 117 sqq.; De Zulueta, Sale. p. 56; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita. pp. 420 sqq.; Flume, Festschrift Kaser, pp. 310 sqq., 320 sqq. The strongest argument in favour of these authors is vat. 283, which appears to declare, quite unequivocally, that ownership may not be transferred merely for some time ("... cum ad tempus proprietas transferri nequiverit"). Attention has, however, been drawn to the fact that the manuscript of the Fragmenta Vaiicana has "ad te" rather than "ad tempus". The text may therefore have referred to the individual case in question which involved a donation "ut post mortem eins qui accepit ad te rediret". Transfer of ownership on account of a donation may thus have been treated differently in this respect than a transfer based on sale. For a detailed analysis, see Peters, RiicktrittsvorbehaUe. pp. 173 sqq.

In favour of an effect "in rem" of dissolution of a contract of sale are, apart from Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 164 sqq., Wesel, (1968) 85 ZSS 94 sqq. and Kaser, RPr I, p. 562; cf. also Savigny, System, vol. Ill, p. 154; Vangerow, Pandekten. § 96; Windscheid/Kipp, § 90, n. 1. As far as the discussion among the authors of the ius commune is concerned, cf. Gluck, vol. 16, pp. 263 sqq., 295 sqq.; Wesel, (1968) 85 ZSS 96 sqq.

^12fl Ulp. D. 6, 1, 41 pr.

^{^[3757]} Cf. Ulp. D. 18, 2, 4, 3; cf. also Marc./Ulp. D. 20, 6, 3.

^{^[3758]} On the advantages of the actio venditi (which allowed the vendor to claim compensation for damages, and profits), cf. Peters, Riickrrittsvorbehalte. pp. 202 sq., 263, 295. On which see, in general, supra, pp. 509 sqq.

¹³¹¹ Paul. D. 18, 2, 1. On the phrase proposed in this fragment, see Wcsel, (1968) 85 ZSS 138;J.A.C. Thomas, "Provisions for Calling Off a Sale", (1967) 35 TR 561 sqq.; Peters, RUcktrittsvarbehalte, pp. 8 sqq.

^H According to Carlo Congo, "Sulla 'in diem addictio' e sulla 'lex commissoria¹ nella vendita", (1921) 31 BIDR 40 sqq., and others, the only one. Contra, however, the writers referred to in the previous note.

' For what follows, see Peters. Riickirittsvorbehalte, p. 10.

^{^[3759]} Cf- Rudolf Henle. "Die rechtliche Natur der in diem addictio beim Kaufverträge", in: Festschrift far Paul Koschaker, vol. II (1939), pp. 169 sqq.; Thomas, (1967) 35 TR 565 sqq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 98 sq., 100 sqq.

¹³¹ lul./Ulp. D. 18. 2. 2. 1: lul./Paul. D. 41. 4. 2. 4.

^{^[3761]} D. 18. 2. 4 pr.

¹³⁵ D. 18. 2. 2 pr. This text has often been regarded as interpolated: cL, for example.

Longo, (1921)31 BIDR 44 sq.; Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, pp. 408 sqq. Contra the

authors referred to in note 133.

⁰⁷ For details, sec Bechmann, Kauf, vol. II, pp. 502 sqq.; Gliick, vol. 16, pp. 239 sqq.;

Thomas, (1967) 35 TR 565 sqq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 26 sqq.; on the origin of the

in diem addictio, see Thielmann, Privatauktion, pp. 17 sqq., 34 sqq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbe

halte, pp. 21 sqq.

⁰⁸ On interpretatio contra stipulatorem, see supra, pp. 639 sqq.

lul. D. 18, 2, 17 ("... quod si incertum sit, ad utrius pretium addidcrit, a priore emptione non videtur esse discessum").

Sab./Ulp. D. 18, 2, 11 pr., as interpreted by Peters, Rikktrittsv orb ehalt e, pp. 41 sqq.; contra: Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita, p. 402; Henle, Festschrift Koschaker, vol. II, p. 170. The parties were, however, able to provide differently ("... sed lulianus... scripsit interesse multum, quid inter conlrahentcs actum sit, nee impedire quicquam vel hoc agi, ut saepius fundus collocetur. dum vel prima vel secunda vel tertia adiectione res a venditore discedat").

Sab./Ulp. n. 18, 2, 9. Again, there could be a special agreement to the contrary. ¹⁴² Paul. D. 18, 2, 8.

■ Paul. D. 18, 2, 7. There was thus an obvious functional similarity to an auction sale; the technical details of how the two institutions related to each other are disputed. Cf. Mario Talamanca, "Contributo allo studio delle vendite all'asta ncl mondo classico", in: (1955) 6 Atti della accademia nazionale dei lincei 106 sq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "The Auction Sale in Roman Law", 1957 Juridical Review 42 sqq.; Thielmann, Privatauktion, pp. 17 sqq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 11 sqq.

“ Ulp. D. 18. 2. 4. 6.

Pomp./Ulp D. 18. 2. 4. 6.

^{^[3771]} D. 18. 2. 5.

^w From committere — to forfeit (cf. Heumann/Seckel. pp. 80 sq.'): ownership of the object of the sale, as far as it had already been transferred, fell back (was forfeited) to the vendor.

¹⁴³ Pomp. D. 18, 3, 2. But other formulations were possible; cf., for example, Pomp. D.

18, 1, 6, 1 and Thomas, (1967) 35 TR 563 sqq.

Not unnaturally a lex commissoria was often agreed upon if the purchase price had to be paid in instalments; cf., for example, Pomp. D. 18, 1, 6, 1; Paul. D. 4, 4. 38 pr. (on the interpretation of the latter fragment, see Peters, Riicktrittsvorbehaite. pp. 77 sqq.; Detlef Liebs, "Der Sieg der schonen Ruriliana. Lex commissoria displicebat", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), pp. 373 sqq.; Berthold Kupisch, "Ruriliana pupilla—schon oder energisch? (Paul. D. 4, 4, 38 pr.)", (1977) 94 ZSS 247 sqq.). Not infrequently an arrha was given at the conclusion of the sale. It was forfeited to the vendor if the contract was called off; otherwise it was credited against the purchase price (cf. Peters, Riicktrittsvorbehatte. p. 61). On the relationship between the Roman sale sub lege commissoria and the arrha transaction of Greek provenance, see Wicacker, op. cit., note 107, pp. 79 sqq.; Levy, Cesammelte Schriften. vol. II, pp. 281 sqq.; Wescl, (1968) 85 ZSS 133 sqq.; Peters, Riicktrittsvorbehaite, pp. 60"sqq.

^{^[3776]} Cf. supra, pp. 578 sq. and infra, p. 801.

Ulp. D. 18, 3, 1: "Si fundus commissoria lege venierit, magis est, ut sub condicione resolvi emptio quam sub condicione contrahi videatur." Cf. further Sab./Paul. D. 41, 4, 2, 3; Pomp. D. 18, 3. 2; on which, see Wieacker, op. cit., note 107, pp. 19 sqq., 31 sqq., but also Peters, Riicktrittsvorbehaite, pp. 112 sqq., 115 sqq.

^{^[3778]} Ulp. D. 18, 3, 3; cf. also Pomp. D. 18, 3, 2.

^I,;I Cf. also § 360 BGB, which still determines, for the same reason, that a forfeiture clause (i.e. a provision in the contract that the debtor shall forfeit his rights arising from the contract if he docs not perform his obligation) grants the creditor a right to rescind the contract (Mugdan, vol. II, p. 158). § 360, obviously, looks at the notion of a "lex commissoria" from a more genera! point of view; the rule is not confined to contracts of sale. At the same time it has lost much of its practical significance as a result of the fact that the BGB recognizes a statutory right of rescission in case of mora debitoris; cf. infra, pp. 800, 802.

^{^[3780]}Pap./Ulp. D. 18, 3, 4, 2.

^{^[3781]} Was fault on the part of the purchaser required? And did the vendor have to make a special demand (interpellatio) before calling off the sale? Cf. Ulp. D. 18, 3, 4, 4; Lab. D. 19,

1, 51, 1; Scaev. D. 18, 3, 6 pr. and the discussion by Heinrich Siber, "Interpellatio und Mora", (1908) 29 ZSS 101 sqq.; Wieacker, op. cit., note 107, pp. 35 sq.; Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 71 sqq.

“ Cf. Uip. D. 18. 1. 3; Ulp. D. 43. 24. 11. 13; Paul. D. 41. 4. 2. 5; C. 4. 58. 4 (Diocl. et Max.). The formulation was less standardized than in the case of an in diem addictio and a lex commissoria. Significantly, the compilers did not devote a special title of the Digest to this type of pactum.

^{^[3783]} No objective reasons for the decision (as, for instance, that the object was defective) had to be provided; cf. Peters, Rikktrittsv orb ehalt e, pp. 87, 93; Karlheinz Misera, Der Kauf auf Probe, ANRW, vol. II, 14 (1982), p. 561; Kncliwolf, op. cit., note 107, pp. 16 sqq., 38 sqq. and passim. The pactum displicentiae thus constituted a potestative condition. In diem addictio and lex commissoria, on the other hand, were condiciones mixtae (i.e. potestative and casualis at one and the same time). Alternatively, it was, of course, quite possible that the vendor handed the object over to the purchaser "ad inspiciendum" (cf. Ulp. D. 19, 5, 17, 2) or "pretii explorandi gratia" (Pap. D. 19, 5, 1, 2), i.e. before a contract of sale had been concluded. The main problem, in these cases, was under which circumstances the inspector was liable if he lost the object. The answer was made to depend on utility considerations (cf. supra, pp. 198 sq.): for details, see Misera, pp. 526 sqq.

Sab./Paul. D. 18, 5, 6; Paul. D. 41, 4, 2, 5; Meia/Ulp. D. 19, 5, 20, 1; Lab./Ulp. D.

19, 5, 20 pr. (triduum); Insl. Ill, 23, 4.

Cf. the speculations by Peters, RUcktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 90 sq. If a slave was sold "ut, nisi placuerit, redhibeatur", the period of two months provided in the aedilitian edict for the actio redhibitoria "adversus eum [qui] de his quae edicto aedilium continentur non caveat" (Gai.

D. 21, 1, 28; cf. further supra, pp. 2%, 316) appears to have been applied per analogiam:

"... si autem de tempore nihil convenerit, in factum actio intra sexaginta dies utiles accommodatur emptori ad redhibendum..." (Ulp. D. 21, 1, 31, 22). This pactum redhibendi relating to the sale of slaves served the same function, but was (probably) not identical to the pactum displicentiae relating to all other objects of sale. The former was closely related to the system of the aedilitian remedies and gave rise to an actio in factum ad redhibendum, not to the actiones empli or venditi; cf., apart from Ulp. D. 21, 1, 31, 22 sqq. also Pap. vat.

14 and the analysis by Misera, op. cit., note 157, pp. 531 sqq., 566 sqq. Contra (the two institutions were identical): Wieacker, op. cit., note 107, pp. 73 sq.; Levy, Gesammelte Schriften, vol. II, p. 277; Peters, RUcktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 84 sqq. ¹⁶⁰ D. 19, 5, 20 pr.

^H Wieacker. op. cit.. note 107. p. 74; Peters. Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 88 sqq.; Flume. Festschrift Kaser, p. 325; Kaser, RPr I, p. 581; contra: Misera, op. cit., note 157, pp. 549 sqq. (sale under a resolutive condition); Thomas, (1967) 35 TR 570 sq.; Kncllwolf, op. cit., note 107, pp. 92 sqq. (sale under a suspensive condition).

^E D. 18. 1. 3.

^lffi Cf. Mela/Ulp. D. 19. 5. 20. 1; Inst. Ill. 23. 4.

™ Inst. Ill. 23. 4.

^{^[3791]} Ulp. D. 18, 2, 2pr.

^b In the majority of cases, a pactum displicentiae was construed as a resolutive condition; fora detailed analysis of all our sources, see Misera, op. cit., note 157, pp. 539 sqq., 549 sqq., 556 sqq., 564 sq.; cf. also Knellwolf, op. cit., note 107, pp. 16 sqq. (suspensive condition), pp. 97 sqq. (resolutive condition). But see Peters, Ritcktriftsvorbehalte. pp. 101 sqq.. who argues that the classical Roman lawyers always regarded a paccum displicentiae as a resolutive condition.

^{^[3793]} Ulp. D. 19, 5, 20, 1: "Item apud Melam quaeritur, si mulas tibi dedero ut experiaris et, si placuissent, emeres, si displicuissent, ut in dies singulos aliquid praestares, deinde mulae a grassatoribus fuerint ablatae intra dies experimenti, quid esset praestandum, utrum pretium ct merces an merces tantum, et ait Mela interesse, utrum emptio iam erat contracts an futura, ut, si facta, pretium petatur, si futura, merces petatur; sed non expnmit de actionibus, puto autem, si quidem perfecta fuit emptio, competere ex vendito actionem, si vero nondum perfecta esset, actionem talem qualem adversus desuitorem dari." (The latter remark refers to Lab./Ulp. D. 19, 5, 20 pr. in fine: actio praescriptis verbis.) On this text, see Peters, Rücktrittsvorbehalte, pp. 107 sqq.; Flume, Festschrift Kaser, p. 325; and, in particular, Misera, op. cit., note 157, pp. 543 sqq.

^lflH Cf.. in general. Ludwig Mitteis. Romisches Privatrecht bis aufdie Zeit Diokletians, vol. I (1908"). pp. 190 sqq.; Kaser. RPr I. p. 258; Thomas. TRL, pp. 233 sq.

¹⁶ Gai. Ill. 100; for further discussion, see the references by Kaser. RPr I. p. 492. n. 34 and p. 543. n. 50.

^ro Gai. Ill, 100.

^{^[3795]} Gai. Ill, 100; cf. also Thomas, TRL, p. 234, who draws attention to a similar reasoning in English law over tortious claims for loss of expectation of life: cf. Morgan v, Scouldino [1938] 1 KB 786.

^E Paul. D. 44. 7. 44. 1.

^{^[3797]} Cf. Ulp. D. 19. 2. 13. 11 (locatio conductio).

“ lul. D. 45. 1. 56. 4; Paul. D. 44. 7. 44. 1.

¹⁵ Cf. supra, note 116.

⁷⁷⁶ Pap. D. 50. 17. 77.

^{^[3801]} Cf. supra, pp. 723 sqq.

“ Cf.. for example. Paul. D. 44. 7. 44. 1; Paul. D. 45. 1. 46 pr. (" 'Centesimis kalendis darf utiliter stipulamur, quia praesens obligatio est, in diem autem dilata solutio").

^ra Paul. D. 12, 6, 10; Cels./Ulp. D. 12, 6, 17; cf. also the somewhat mysterious fragment Pomp. D. 12, 6, 16, 1: "Quod autem sub incerta die debetur, die existente non repetitur." Birks, in: Mommsen, Kruger, Watson, vol. I (1985), translates (or rather: interprets): "Where a debt falls due on an unfixed day, recovery is impossible since the day must come." But certainly the more natural translation would be "... recovery is impossible once the day has come". One would then have to conclude that before the day has come recovery was in fact possible: contrary to Paul. D. 12, 6, 10 and Cels./Ulp. D. 12, 6, 17. In order to resolve this difficulty, Cuiacius proposed the following emendation: "... die non existente non reperitur" (cf. the discussion in Gliick, vol. 13, pp. 77 sq.). For a different explanation (the condictio was granted, originally, to a person prematurely paying a debt subject to dies incertus; Celsus was the first jurist to refuse it), cf. David Daube, "Zur Palingenesie einiger Klassikerfragmente", (1959) 76 ZSS\bI sqq.

of a contractual term, the breach of which gives the injured party the right to rescind the contract (as opposed to mere "warranties"), cf. Treitel, Contract, pp. 601 sqq. and infra, pp. 803 sq.; on "condition" in the sense of an implied term automatically discharging the parties in the case of frustration of contract cf. infra, p. 817. "The condition", in the words of Stoljar (p. 485), "is important because it vitally affects the law of performance and breach of contracts; and also because the whole development of this part of our contract law is inseparable from the history of conditions." For a general overview, from a comparative point of view, cf. also Schwarz, op. cit., note 100, pp. 392 sqq., 400 sqq. He points out that the notion of condition in England was first employed in the law of immovable property, from where it was taken over into the law of testamentary dispositions before it filtered through into the law of contract. But conditional bonds already played an important role in the medieval law of contract; cf. Simpson, History, pp. 90 sqq.

^1RS Cf, for example, § 163 BGB; §§ 704 sqq. ABGB; artt. 1185 sqq. code civil.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 168 sq.

^1M" § 158 BGB; § 696 ABGB; artt. 1168. 1181 ("L'obligathtt contractee sous line condition suspensive.,."). 1183 ("La condition resohitoire..."I code civil; R v. Katz 1959 ІЗ) SA 408 (C); Joubert, Contract, p. 172; cf. also M.A.K. Lambiris, "The Incidence of Risk in Conditional Sales", (1984) 101 SALJ 656 sqq.

Similarly, contingent conditions in English law may be either precedent (i.e. the contract is not to be binding until the specified event occurs) or subsequent (i.e. a previously binding contract is to terminate on the occurrence of the specified event): Treitel, Contract, p. 48; Schwarz, op. cit., note 100, p. 396; but cf. also Stoljar, (1953) 69 LQR 506 sqq. Cf. also Blackstone, Commentaries, Book П, Ch. 10, II (dealing with Estates upon Condition): "These conditions are therefore either precedent, or subsequent. Precedent are such as must happen or be performed before the estate can vest or be enlarged; subsequent are such, by the failure or nonperformance of which an estate already vested may be defeated."

^{^[3805]} Flume, AT, § 38, 2 c; Joubert, Contract, p. 172.

Artt. 1169-1171 code civil.

The definition of potestative condition has undergone a slight change in so far as it is

no longer confined to cases where the occurrence, or non-occurrence, of the event is in the

control of the stipulator (i.e. the conditional creditor); ”(l]a condition potestative est cede quifait dependre {'execution de la convention d'un euenement qu'il est au pouvoir de Типе on de I'autre des parties contractantes defaire arriver ou d'empecher” (art. 1170 code civil"). This change results from the abandonment of the unilateral Roman stipulation; under a bilateral contract both parties arc in the role of debtor as well as creditor. Conditions turning upon an event wholly in the control of the promisor were, as we have seen, invalid in Roman law. More particularly, the Roman lawyers were averse to a promise of the type "Si volueris,... dare spondes?" (cf. Paul. D. 45, 1, 46, 3). The same aversion is reflected, in modem law, in the distinction between a potestative condition (valid) and condicio si voluero ("WoUcnsbeding-wd")

(rendering the obligation ineffective); cf. Flume, AT. § 38, 2 d; H.P. Westermann, in: Mimchener Kommentar, vol. 1 (2nd ed.. 1984), § 158, n. 21. Substantially the same distinction is drawn in French law (conditions potestatives ordinaires as opposed to conditions purement

potestatives); cf. also art. 1174 code civil, which is, however, unhappily drafted and appears to contradict art. 1170 code civil. In general cf. Schwarz, op. cit., note 100, pp. 398, 411 sq.

^Iso § 495 I 2 BGB: cf. also § 1080 ABGB. art. 1588 code civil: Florida Road Shopping Centre (Pty.) Ltd. V. Caine 1968 (4) SA 587 (N) at 592 sq.; d. also Mackeurian's Sale of Goods in South Africa (5th ed., 1984), pp. 39 sqq. It is widely recognized that the sale on approval constitutes an exception to the rule (cf. supra, note 189) that a contract cannot be concluded under a condition of the type "si voluero". For a detailed analysis of 19th-century doctrinal disputes on the construction of the pactum displicentiae (usually without practical relevance), cf. Kncllwolf, op. cit., note 107, passim.

^H §§ 1083 sq. ABGB; cf. also Mackeurtan. op. cit., note 190, p. 44 ("It has no modern importance..."); "Protokolle", in: Mugdan. vol. II, p. 780.

But sec Mackeurtan, op. cit., note 190, pp. 230 sqq. on the lex commissoria in South African law, and § 360 BGB (supra, note 153) on its modern generalized German version. The history of the lex commissoria in Germany thus links up with the rules relating to the right of rescission or contract in two different ways: the lex commissoria is taken to grant a right to rescind the contract (with the result that restitution follows the rules of §§ 346 sqq. BGB); at the same time, the lex commissoria was the conceptual model for the recognition of a unilateral right of withdrawal from the contract in the second half of the 19th century (cf. infra, pp. 800 sqq.).

¹⁹⁵ On which see Gottfried Schiemann, "Uber die Funktion des pactum reservati dominii wahrend der Rezeptionen des romischen Rechts in Italien und Mitteleuropa", (1976) 93 ZSS 161 sqq., 184 sqq. (on its relationship with the lex commissoria), 191 sqq.: on another root of the modern "reservation of title" arrangements, see Anton Meinhart, "Dogmengeschichtliches und Dogmatisches гит Eigentums vorbehalt", 1988 (105) ZSS 729 sqq.

^{^[3812]} § 455 BGB; on which sec, for example, Flume, AT. § 42; Gerhard Walter, Kairfrecht

(1987), pp. 442 sqq.; for South Africa cf. the discussion byJ.M. Otto. "Eiendomsvoorbe- houd en opskortende voorwaardes by die koopkontrak", (1981) 44 THRHR 255 sqq., 396

sqq.; Μ.A. Diemont. P.J. Aronstam. The Law of Credit-Agreements and Hire-Purchase in South Africa (5th ed., 1982), pp. 12 sqq. It is obvious that the position of the vendor is secured in

a more satisfactory manner by way of a retention of title than by way of a lex commissoria.

A lex commissoria, after all, was to be construed rather ("magis") as a resolutive than a

suspensive condition (Ulp. D. 18. 3, 1), with the result that the vendor was bound to transfer ownership. This would not have mattered that much had it been established that ownership would automatically have relapsed to him on the purchaser's failure to pay in time. It was, however, exactly the uncertainty regarding this point that bedevilled the application of the lex commissoria over the centuries; it resulted, essentially, from the antinomy between Ulp. D. 6, 1, 41 pr. and C. 4, 54, 3. Rather fine-spun, but practically unsatisfactory distinctions were already developed by the glossators in this respect (cf. Schiemann, (1976) 93 ZSS 184 sqq.). The Prussian General Land Law came down in favour of the purchaser (and his creditors): according to § 262 Ill, ownership does not fall back automatically but has to be retransferred. The lex commissoria was thus largely

^{^[3818]} Op. at., note 100, pp. 419 sqq. As Schiemann, op. cit., note 63, passim, has shown, it corresponds to this observation that the approach adopted by the authors of the ius commune towards explaining the "preliminary" effects of the legal transaction pendente condicione continually oscillated between the two poles of postulating an expectancy and espousing the retroactivity doctrine.

^{^[3819]} For details, see Siro Solazzi. L'estinzione dell' obbligazione nel diritto romano (2nd ed.. 1935), pp. 81 sqq.

^{^[3820]} Cf., for example, mfra, pp. 783 sqq.

^{^[3821]} Cf. Pomp. D. 46, 3, 20.

“ Cf., for example, supra, pp. 89 sq.

¹ Afr. D. 46, 3, 38, 3: "Qui hominem promisit si statuliberum solvat, magis puto non esse expectandam condicionem: sed et creditorem agere posse et illi condictionem competere, quod si interim condicio defecerit, liberatur."

^E Cf. supra, p. 278.

^B On the liability for eviction, see supra, pp. 293 sqq.

^B Cf. supra, pp. 119, 131 sq.

^{^[3827]}Cf. e.g. Iui. D. 12, 1, 21;Ulp. D. 19, 1, 13, 8; Windscheid/Kipp, §342, 2; § 266 BGB; Joubert, Contract, pp. 278 sq.

^{^[3828]} Ulp. D. 46, 3, 1: "Quotiens quis debitor ex pluribus causis unum debicum solvit, est in arbitrio solventis dicere, quod potius debitum voluerit solutum, et quod dixerit, id erit solutum"; Paul. D. 46, 3, 101, 1; Windscheid/Kipp, § 343; § 366 I BGB; Joubert, Contract. p. 283.

^{^[3829]} Ulp. D. 46, 3, 1.

^B Ulp. D. 46, 3, 1.

® Ulp. D. 46, 3, 5 pr.; for further details, see Pap. D. 46, 3, 97.

^a Ulp. D. 46. 3. 5 pr.

^{^[3833]} Paul. D. 46. 3. 8. For a discussion cf. Fritz Schulz. Einfuhmtig in das Studium der Digesten (1916), pp. 109 sqq.; Heinrich Siber, "Beitragezur Interpolationenforschung", (1925)45 ZSS 174 sqq.

^{^[3834]} "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 48.

^{^[3835]} Helmut Heinrichs, in: Mtittchetier Kommentar, vol. II (2nd. ed., 1985), § 366, n. 12. Contrary to Roman law, however, according to § 366 II BGB, among several debts due the one which affords the creditor the least security is first discharged; among several equally secure debts the one most burdensome to the debtor, etc. The Roman rules of allocation were thus slightly more favourable to the debtor.

²¹ For Roman-Dutch law cf. Joubert, Contract, pp. 283 sqq.

⁵ Paul. D. 45. 1. 73 pr.. tacite tcmpus complecti videtur. quo perveniri

Carthaginem potest"); of. also Pomp. D. 45, 1, 14 (relating to domum aedificari).

^{^[3837]} Pomp. D. 50, 17, 14: "In omnibus obligationibus, in quibus dies non ponitur, praesenti

die debitur." Cf. also § 271 I BGB.

^{^[3839]} Cels. D. 46, 3, 70; Ulp. D. 45, 1, 38, 16; Ulp. D. 45, 1, 41, 1; Ulp D. 50, 17, 17. The decision depends on the determination of the question in whose interest the time clause has been inserted into the contract; cf. e.g. Windscheid/Kipp, § 273; Joubert, Contract, pp. 282 sq.

f § 271II BGB.

^{^[3841]} lav. D. 38, 1, 21, who adds, however, that the freedman came to the patronus' place at the expense of the latter ("sumptu scilicet et vectura patroni").

⁰ Lie. Ruf. D. 5, 1, 38 ("... quod pondere aut numero aut mensura continetur, ibi dari debet ubi petitur"); Ulp. D. 30, 47, 1.

³ Kaser, RZ, p. 183. The general rule is actor sequitur forum rei; cf. C 3, 19, 3; C. 3, 13, 2; vat. 325, 326. A similar situation obtained in the old Germanic law: cf. G.W. Wetzell, System des ordentYxchen Civitprozesses (1878), p. 485. "Actor sequitur forum rei" became the rule in the German Code of Civil Procedure (§§12 sq. Civil'pro zessordnung of 1877), but since the parties were free to determine the question of jurisdiction by way of agreement (§ 38 Civilprozessordnung), it lost much of its significance (c(. e.g. Richard Schmidt, Lehrbuch des deutschen Zivilprozessrechts (1906), pp. 252, 274). This trend has, however, in the meantime been decisively reversed by the legislator (cf. the new §§ 38 sqq. ZPO, introduced in 1974, drastically curtailing the possibility of jurisdiction agreements). The rule of "actor sequitur forum rei" is generally seen today to be based on considerations of justice rather than mere convenience (BGHZ 41, 151 (154) and, for instance, Max Vollkommer, 1973 Neuejuristische Wochenschrift 1592). Generally on "actor sequitur forum rei", see Andreas Wacke, 1980 Juristische Arbeitsblatter 654 sqq.

^{^[3844]} Lie. Ruf. D. 5, 1, 38 ("... ibi dari debet ubi est"); Ulp. D. 30, 47, 1.

^{^[3845]} On the terminology cf. e.g. Joachim Gernhuber, Die Erfullung nnd ihre Surrogate (1983), pp. 15 sqq. For all details on the place of performance in Roman law cf. Solazzi, op. cir., note 7, pp. 106 sqq.; Francesco Amarelli, Locus solutionis (1984); on the later history, Roman-Dutch and South African law, see D.j. Joubert, "Die Locus Solutionis", 1971 Ada

Juridica 105 sqq.; for a comprehensive comparative analysis of modern law cf. Haimo Schack, Der Erfiiliunysort im deutschen, ausia'ndischen und itttemationalen Privat- und Zivilpro- zessrecht (1985)!

³¹ Gai. D. 3. 5. 38; cf. also Gai. D. 46. 3. 53.

^{^[3847]} For English law cf. Trcitel. Contract, pp. 572 sqq.

³⁵ Ulp. D. 46. 3. 31. Cf. further Solazzi. op. cic. note 7. pp. 3Y sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp. § 342. 4; § 267 BGB; Joubert. Contract, p. 275.

^{^[3849]} Ulp. D. 46. 3. 12 pr.; Mara. D. 46. 3. 48. Cf. also Soiazzi. op. cit.. note 7. pp. 54 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp. § 342. 5; § 362 II. read together with § 185 BGB; Joubert. Contract, p. 276.

^{^[3850]} Cf. supra, pp. 53. 417.

³⁴ Ulp. D. 46. 3. 12. 4 ("rati enimhabitio mandaco comparatur"’).

⁴¹ D. 46. 3. 34. 3; cf. also Gai. Ill. 160.

^{^[3853]} «S 167. 170 BGB.

^{^[3854]} Cf. generally Solazzi. op. cit.. note 7. pp. 64 sqq.; D.J. Joubert. "Solutionis causa adjectus". (19791 42 THRHR 1 sqq; cf. supra, pp. 38 sq.

¹⁸ Cf. e.g. Paul. D. 46. 3. 10; Ulp. D. 46. 3. 12. 3.

⁴¹ Cf. supra, pp. 34 sqq.. 39.

Ulp. D. 46. 3. 12. 3; Gai. D. 46. 3. 106; but see Pothier. Traitt des obligations, n. 525; Cassim v. Latha 1930 TPD 659 sqq.; Mahomed v. Lockhat Bros. Co. Ltd- 1944 AD 230 at 237 sq -cf. Joubert, (1979) 42 THRHR 6 sqq.

" There was a school dispute as to whether the debtor was released ipso iure or could only bar the creditor's claim under the original action by means of an exceptio doli: the Sabinians took the former view, the Proculians the latter; cf. Gai. Ill, 168. The Sabinian view eventually gained the upper hand: Kaser, RPr II, p. 442. Cf. also today § 364 I BGB.

^{^[3859]} D. 46, 3, 46 pr.; the same opinion is expressed by Paulus in D. 46, 3, 98 pr.

^4R C 8, 44, 4 (Ant.). Cf. also Ulp. D. 13, 7, 24 pr.

* Cf., apart from Ulp. D. 13, 7, 24 pr., Paul. D. 41, 3, 4, 17; Ulp. D. 42, 4, 15; and Ulp. D. 44, 4, 4, 31.

® Cf., most recently, Manfred Harder, Die Leistung an Erju'Uungs statt (1976), pp. 93 sqq.; for a different opinion, see e.g. Generoso Melillo, In solutum dare (1970), pp. 91 sqq., ill sqq.; cf. also Kaser, RPr I, p. 638; RPr II, pp. 442 sq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 264 (controversy amongst the classical jurists; but cf. Harder, pp. 97 sq.). For a discussion of the attempts, from the time of the glossators down to the pandectists, to harmonize the divergent sources cf. Harder, pp. 69 sqq. On Roman-Dutch and South African law, see D.J. Joubert, "Datio in Solutum", (1977) io Dejure 29 sqq.

^{^[3862]} For his reasons cf. Ernst Rabel, "Nachgeformte Rechtsgeschäfte", (1907) 28 ZSS 312 sqq.; Harder, op. cit., note 50, pp. 103 sq.

Frequently the creditor was given a choice whether to use the original action or the actio

empti; cf. e.g. Gluck, vol. 21, p. 197; Windscheid/Kipp, p. 420. ⁵ § 365 II.

For further detailed criticism of § 365 II BGB cf. Harder, op. cit., note 50, pp. 106 sqq.; cf. also Gemhuber, op. cit., note 33, pp. 180 sqq.

⁵ Cf. supra, pp. 2 sq.

³⁵ Cf. supra, pp. 3 sq. (note 13").

^{^[3868]} Cf. supra, pp. 4 sq.

⁵¹¹ Characteristically, solutio per aes et libram even in classical law still retained the formula "me a te solvo liberoque": Gai. Ill. 174. Cf. further Kaser. Altromisches ins, pp. 240 sqq.: Detlef Liebs. "Contrarius actus", in: Sympotica Franz Wieacker (1970"). pp. 128 sqq.: Rolf Knutel. "Zum Prinzip der formalen Korrespondenz im romischen Recht". (1971} 88 ZSS 73 sqq.

® See Liebs. Sympotica Wieacker, pp. 116 sqq. for details.

® On the principle of formal correspondence in Roman law. see generally Schmidlin. Rechtsregeln, pp. 74 sqq.: Liebs. Sympotica Wieacker, pp. Ill sqq.: Knutel. (19711 88 ZSS 67 sqq.

^a Kaser. RPr I. p. 634.

^e Cf. Kaser. RPr I. p. 634.

^{^[3874]} For another example, see infra. p. 841. note 51.

^M Cf. supra, p. 752.

^fis Kaser. RPr I. p. 172.

® Gai. Ill. 173 sqq.

® Gai. Ill. 170. On acceptilatio cf. supra, pp. 685. 755.

Gai. Ill. 170 ("sed id quod ex alia causa debeatur potest in stipulationem deduci et per acceptilationem dissolvi"').

^{^[3875]} Cf. Inst. Ill. 29. 2; Flor. D. 46. 4. 18. 1. For all details, see Sturm. Stipulatio Aquiliana, pp.

51 sqq.; cf. also Max Kaser. "Stipulatio Aquiliana". (19731 90 ZSS 346 sqq. ⁷¹¹ D. 2. 15. 4.

^{^[3877]} Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 7.

¹¹ Supra, pp. 508 sq.

^B Gai. IV, 119 ("si inter A^ra A^ra et N™ N™ non convenit, ne ea pecunia peteretur"); cf. also Gai. IV, 122 ("si inter A"¹ A^ra et N^ra N^ra non convenit, ne ea pecunia intra quinquennium peteretur": the granting of indulgence, as opposed to a total release).

⁷¹ Of- supra, pp. 509 sq.

^{^[3881]} lul. D. 18, 5, 5, 1; Pap. D. 18, 1, 72 pr.; Ulp. D. 2, 14, 7, 6; Inst. Ill, 29, 4; Kniitel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 23 sqq. {dealing with the requirement of res integra), 102 sqq., 120 sqq., 137 sqq.

⁷¹ D. 18, 5, 3. On the application of this principle to other consensual transactions, see Kniitel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 120 sqq.

^{^[3883]} Ulp. D. 50, 17, 35.

^7H Pomp. D. 46, 3, 80; on this text, see Kniitel, Contrarius consensus, pp. 10 sqq.

^{^[3885]}Coing, p. 431.

⁸¹¹ "Novatio est prioris debiti in aliam obligationem... transfusio atque translatio": Ulp. D. 46, 2, 1 pr.; cf. also Gai. Ill, 176 and supra, pp. 60, 634 sq.

"[E]t hoc est quod apud veteres scriptum est: ante litem contestatam dare debitorem oportere, post litem contestatam condemnari oportere, post iudicatum facere oportere": Gai. Ill, 180 (following immediately on the discussion of novatio}. On condemnari oportere, see Gunther Jahr, Litis contestatio (1960), pp. 70 sqq., 146 sqq.; Kaser, RZ, pp. 227 sq.

^{^[3888]} Pomp. D. 46, 3, 107; Mod. D. 46, 3, 75; Frezza, Garanzie, vol. I, pp. 144 sqq.; Solazzi, op. cit., note 7, pp. 277 sqq.

^{^[3889]} On confusio in the ius commune: Windscheid/Kipp, § 352; in South African law: Joubert. Contract, pp. 285 sq.; in modern German law: Gernhuber, op. cit., note 33, pp. 384

⁴ Fritz Schulz, "Die Lehre vom Concursus Causarum im klassischen undjustinianischen Recht", (1917) 38 ZSS 114 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 643 sq.

^{^[3891]} Pomp. D. 18, 1, 16; cf. supra, p. 241. An exception was made, however, where one of the concurring titles of acquisition was a causa lucrativa; cf. e.g. Iui. D. 30, 84, 5 and Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 38 sqq. On concursus causarum lucrativarum, see Inst. II, 20, 6; lul. D. 30, 82 pr. and 1 and Michel, Gratuiti, pp. 404 sqq.

⁸⁵ Cf., for example, supra, pp. 687 sqq.

^{^[3893]} Cf. e.g. Dieter Medicus, "Zur Funktion der Leistungsunmoglichkeit im rdmischen Recht", (1969) 86 ZSS 67 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 264.

^{^[3894]} Cf. also art. 124 OR ®

"[S]ed ego puto ea[m] ipso iure tune demum fieri cum a partibus est opposita..

Summa Codicis. Lib. IV, De compensationibus rubrica (p. 140, left column); for details, see

Heinrich Demburg, Geschichte und Theoiie der Kompensation (2nd ed., 1868), pp. 284 sq.

® Art. 1290 code civil.

⁹ § 1438 ABGB.

^s On the term "ipso iure" in this context cf. Pothier. Tratte des obligations, § 635: "Cette interpretation est conform e a /'explication que tons les lexicographes donnent a ces termes, ipso iure. Ipso iure fieri dicitur, dit Brisson, quod ipsa legis potestate et aiutoritate, absque magistrates auxilio et sine exception!: ope Jit... Verba ipso iure, dit Spigelius, intelkgitur sine facto hominis. Ipso jure consistere dicitiir, dit Pratejus, quod ex sola legum potestate et auctoritate, sine magistrates opera consistit."

® Cf. Dernburg. op. cit.. note 89. pp. 283 sq.. who refers in particular to the glossator Martinus.

Cf. e.g. Dernburg. op. cit.. note 89. pp. 281 sqq.: Fridolin Eisele. Die Compensation nach romischem undgemeinem Recht (1876’). pp. 211 sqq.

^{^[3901]}Joubcrt, Contract, pp. 288 sqq.

⁴⁶ Cf. e.g. Toucher v. Stinnes (SA) Ltd. 1934 CPD 184; Clark v. Van Rensburg 1964 (4) SA 153 (O); Great North Farms (Edms.) Bpk. v. Ras 1972 (4) SA 7 (T). Cf. also B.v.D. van Niekerk, "Some Thoughts on the Problem of Set-off", (1968) 85 SALj 31 sqq.

^{^[3903]} Hardy & Mosten v. Harsant 1913 TPD 433: Harris v. Tancred 1960 (1) SA 839 (Cl at 843F-G; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 253 sq. The declaration has retroactive effect; cf. also § 389 BGB:

"The set-off has the effect that the claims, insofar as they cover each other, are deemed to have expired at the moment at which, being suitable for set-off, they have first confronted each other."

⁴⁸ Cf. e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Patidectas. Lib. XVI. Tit. H II and Grorius, Inleiding. BL XL, 7 on the one hand, Van Leeuwen, Rooms-Hoilands-Regt, IV. Bouk, XL. Deel, 2 on ihe other. Cf. further J.H. Loots, P. van Warmclo, "Compensatio", (1956) 19 THRHRV9 sqq. On the great and mysterious "riddle" set by the Roman sources for modern private law, cf. Lippmann. "Zur Lehre von der Kompensation nach dem Entwürfe des bürgerlichen Gezetsbuches", (1893) 32 Jhjb 157 sqq.; cf. also Wladyslaw Rozwadowski, "Studi sulla compensazione nel diritto romano", (1978) 81 BIDR 76 sq. ("... uno del piu grande misten nella storia delio st'iluppo delle obbligazioni romane”).

Both Gaius and Justinian deal with compensatio as part of their discussion of the law of actions: Gai. IV, 61 sqq.; lust. IV, 6, 30.

^11,7 Inst. IV. 6. 30.

^1(B Kaser. RPr I. p. 646. Contra: Thiclmann. Privatauktion, pp. 151 sq.

^1(B Cf. e.g. Waclaw Osuchowski. "Quelques remarques sur la 'deductio bonorum emptoris' et l'interpretation de D. 16.2.2". in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, voi. II i 19711. p. 476: Rozwadowski. (1978Ì 81 BIDR 11 sqq.. 98'sqq.. 115 sqq.: Honsell/Mayer-Maly/ Selb. p. 275.

^{^[3910]} Gai. IV. 119.

^B Gai. IV, 66.

^{^[3912]} De Zulueta's translation of nummus unus in Gai. IV, 68.

^{^[3913]} Gai. IV, 68.

^IK On pluris petitio cf. Gai. IV, 53 sqq.; Guiscppe Proverà, La pluris petitio nel processo romctno. vol. I (1958); Kaser, RZ. pp. 246 sqq.; Guiscppina Sacconi, La "pluris petitio" nel processo formutare ATTI)', for the later history c(. Wolfgang Wiegand, Pius petitio (1974).

¹⁸ Gai. IV, 65; cf. further e.g. Solazzi, op. cit., note 111, pp. 65 sqq.; Thielmann, Privatauktion. pp. 168 sqq.; Osuchowski, Studi Votterra. vol. II, pp. 461 sqq.; for details of the procedure, see Kaser, RZ, pp. 310 sqq.

‘-j¹¹ Gai. IV, 66.

^{^[3917]} Discretion of the judge! (Cf. supra, p. 762.)

^c Using "compensatio" as a terminus technicus; for all details, see Solazzi. op. cit.. note 111, pp. 191 sqq.

¹³ Cf. e.g. Levy, Obiigationenrecht, pp. 145 sqq.; Solazzi, op. cit., note 111, pp. Ill sqq.,

[3919] sqq.

® Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPr II, pp. 333 sqq.

¹² The plaintiff, as a consequence of the pluris petitio, merely incurred the penalty of a threefold reimbursement of his opponent's expenses ("in triplum restituat damnum, quod ipsius culpa adversario contigit"): C. 3, 10, 2 (lust.); cf. also Inst. IV, 6, 24 and Francesco Sitzia, "Su una costituzione di Giustiniano in terna sportulae", (1972) 75 BIDR 221 sqq.

“ Inst. IV. 6. 30.

^{^[3920]} Kaser. RPrl, pp. 646 sq.

“ Cf. e.g. Loots/Van Warmelo. (19561 19 THRHR 181.

¹⁷¹ For details, see Kaser. RZ, pp. 498 sq.

¹³¹¹ Modern German law requires that the performances arc of the same kind and nature and that the claim of the person declaring the set-off is due; claim and counterclaim need not have arisen ex eadem causa. Cf. § 387 BGB; also Windscheid/Kipp, § 350, 3 and 4, and (for South Africa) Joubert, Contract, pp. 290 sq. On the requirement of liquidity of the counterclaim cf. Windscheid/Kipp, § 350, 5; "Motive", in: Mugdan. vol. H, p. 58. According to § 393 BGB, set-off is not permissible against a claim arising from a wilful delict. This is a generalization of a rule contained in C. 4. 31, 14, 2; c(. "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 62.

IV, 6, 30.

³ C. 4. 31. 14: cf. also C 4, 31, 4 (Alex.); Paul. D. 16. 2. 4; Paul. D. 16. 2. 21 (all interpolated).

C. 4, 31, 14, 1; cf. further Solazzi, op. cit., note lit, pp. 166 sqq.; Loots/Van Warmelo, (1956) 19 THRHR 178.

^{^[3927]} Cf. Rozwadowski. (1978) 81 BIDR 11 sqq.. 98 sqq.

^{^[3928]} Exceptions: 30 years for debts secured by mortgage bond, judgment debts and some others, 15 years for certain debts owing to the State and six years for debts arising from a bill of exchange or other negotiable instrument. For details, see § 11 of the Prescription Act.

^{^[3929]} In Scotland, too, prescription has the effect of extinguishing the obligation. The (regular) prescription period is, however, 5 years (§ 6 of the Prescription and Limitation (Scotland) Act 1973). For details, see David Μ. Walker, The Law of Prescription and Limitation of Actions in Scotland (3rd ed., 1981).

⁰⁷ The effect of an interruption of prescription is essentially chat the prescription begins to run afresh on the termination of the interruption; the time that has elapsed before the interruption is not taken into consideration. Cf. also § 217 BGB. Example: acknowledge ment of liability by the debtor.

^nH In other words, prescription is suspended for some time. The period of prescription is lengthened by the period during which the prescription is suspended. Cf. also § 205 BGB. Example: the creditor is a minor, or the debt is subject to a dispute submitted to arbitration.

^15y § 105: "Die Zeit ist eine Maehl, der sich kein menschliches Cemiit entziehen kann;.,. [siej heiligt nicht bloss, sie verdunkelt anch." According to Savigny, System, vol. V, p. 272, prescription is one of the most important and beneficial ("woltlthdtigsten") legal institutions.

¹⁴⁽¹ On the purposes and functions of prescription, sec Karl Spiro, Die Begrenzung privater Rechte durch Verjdhmngs-, Verwirkungs- und Fatalfristen, vol. I (1975), §§ 3 sqq.

^{^[3934]} We are, of course, dealing here only with what is often also referred to as "extinctive" (or negative) prescription (as opposed to "acquisitive" (or positive) prescription, e.g. usucaption). Following the tradition of the (older) ius commune (for the 19th century, cf. Savigny. System, vol. IV, pp. 309 sejq.), the South African Prescription Act 68/1969 still deals with both kinds of prescription. So does the Scottish Prescription and Limitation Act 1973. Ct. generally Karl August Dominik Unterholzner, Theodor Schirmer, Ausführliche Etitwickelung der gesammten Verjahmrujslehre aus den gemeinen in Deutschland gehetiden Rechten (2nd ed., 1858); Windscheid/Kipp, § 105; J.C. de Wet (the "father" of the South African Act) "Verjaring", in: Opuscula Miscellanea (1980), pp. 77 sqq.; Walker, op. at., note 136. Modern legal systems generally do not require good faith on the part of the debtor; extinctive prescription, in other words, is based merely on the lapse of time, not on whether or not the debtor knew that he was obliged to pay. The opposite view had been adopted by the canon lawyers; cf. also still § 569 I 9 PrALR and Windscheid/Kipp, § 111. TBI canon lawyers, in so far, had merely extended to extinctive prescription what had always been recognized with regard to acquisitive prescription (usucapio).

⁴² R.B. Policies at Lloyd's v. Butler [1950] 1 KB 76 at 82, quoting Best CJ in A 'Court v. Cross (a) (1825) 3 Bing 329 at 332. German courts often tend to relax the rules of prescription in

order to alleviate the hardship undoubtedly connected with the fact that the creditor may lose a well-founded claim (and is therefore, in a sense, expropriated). Much less attention lends to be focused on the many cases in which strict application of the prescription rules prevents unjustified claims from being (successfully) pursued. For a comparative overview of modem legislation dealing with extinctive prescription cf. Peters/Zimmermann, Verjalmmgsfristen. pp. 267 sqq.; cf. also the stimulating analysis by M.M. Loubser, "Towards a Theory of Extinctive Prescription", (1988) 105 SALJ 34 sqq.

' A model for what is usually referred to as the "weak" torm of prescription. Cf. also art. 142 OR.

^{^[3937]} § 17 I Prescription Act; cf. also art. 2938 codicc civile, read together with art- 2934 I.

¹⁴" § 10 HI Prescription Act; in the same sense § 222 II BGB and art. 2940 codice civile.

¹⁴" Exceptions: certain claims (exactly specified in 17 numbers) arising—broadly speaking—from transactions of daily life (2 years; § 196 BGB), claims to arrears of interest, of rents, annuities, salaries, etc. (4 years; § 197 BGB); the actiones quanti minoris and redhibitoria in their modem version (6 months and 1 year; § 477 BGB); warranty claims in the case of the sale of livestock (6 weeks; § 490 BGB); certain claims for compensation arising from a contract of lease (6 months; § 558 BGB); warranty claims arising from a contract for work (6 months, 1 year, 5 years; § 638 BGB); claims arising from delict (3 years; § 852 BGB); and many more both in other parts of the BGB and (particularly) outside the BGB: for all the details, see Peters/Zimmermann. Vcrjdhnmgsfristen. pp. 106 sqq., 148 sqq. So numerous are the exceptions that one may well doubt whether the 30 years of § 195 BGB can still be said to be the "regular" period of prescription. But despite a certain tendency of the courts to restrict the field of application of § 195 even further, this rule still covers a variety of practically very important claims; cf. Peters/Zimmermann, Verjahnmgsfristeti. pp. 189 sqq. More progressive than the German is the Swiss codification, according to which the regular prescription period is 10 years: art. 127 OR and cf. Spiro, op. cit., note 140, §§ 331 sq.: the same applies in Italy (art. 2946 codice civile).

^{^[3940]} C. 7, 39, 3, 1. Classical Roman law did not know a general law of prescription; most actions could be brought at any time. Exceptions existed with regard to praetorian penal actions (cf. Gai. IV, 110; Paul. D. 44, 7, 35 pr.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 613) and the actiones redhibitoria and quanti minoris (cf. supra, pp. 317 sq.). The lack of prescription accentuated the importance of institutions such as the stipulatio Aquiliana. On the development of longi temporis praescriptio in Roman (provincial) law (first of all as a form of acquisitive prescription'), see Dieter Norr. Die fentstehung der longi temporis praescriptio (19691; on its post- classical (Theodosius II) extension to all actiones perpetuae (in the form of extinctive prescription), see Mario Amelotti, La prescrizione delle azioni in diritto romano (1958), pp. 211 sqq. For an overview cf. also Kaser, RPr I, pp. 424 sq.; RPr II, pp. 71 sq.; Peters/ Zimmermann, Verjährungsfristen, pp. 112 sq.

^14M Of the other extreme (prescription period so short that creditor is unreasonably prejudiced in the pursuit of his claim) § 638 BGB provides a good example: the claim of the customer for removal of a defect in the work and his claims for cancellation, reduction, or compensation on account of the defect are barred by prescription in six months, unless the contractor has fraudulently concealed the defect. Since prescription begins to run from the acceptance of the work, the claims may be prescribed before the defect has become apparent. For details, see Petcrs/Zimmermann, Verjährungsfristen, pp. 187 sqq., 206 sqq., 226 sqq. The same problem arises with regard to § 477 (covering the law of sale).

^{^[3942]} Cf. e.g. Petcrs/Zimmermann, Verjährungsfristen, pp. 196 sqq.

^{ljHistory, pp. 623 sq.; for a discussion, see A.K.R. Kiralfy, "The Humber Ferryman and the Action on the Case", (1951-53) 11 CambridgeLJ421 sqq.; Simpson, History, pp. 210 sqq.}

;⁰⁶ Cf. Kiralfy, op. cit., note 204. p. 142.

(¹⁷ On the exact meaning of the term "assumpsit", cf. Simpson, History, pp. 215 sqq.

~^0H On which, see Simpson, History, pp. 222 sqq.

“^wWith Orwell v. Mortaft (15051; cf. A.K.R. Kiralfy. JI Source Book of English Law (1957"). pp. 150 sqq.; for a comprehensive discussion, see Simpson, History, pp. 248 sqq.

^{^[3997]} On covenant, see Simpson, History, pp. 9 sqq. He draws attention to the fact that originally specific relief could be granted under covenant.

W.T. Barbour, "The History of Contract in Early English Equity", in: Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History, vol. IV (1914), pp. 66 sqq.; Simpson, History, pp. 275 sqq.

^{^[3999]} Slade's case (1602) 4 Co Rep 91 a; for a discussion, see Kiralfy, op. cit., note 204, pp. 164 sqq.; A.W.B. Simpson, "The Place of Slade's Case in the History of Contract", (1958) 74 LQR 381 sqq. (but cf. idem. History, p. 305); H.K. Lucke, "Slade's Case and the Origin of the Common Counts", (1965)81 LQR 422 sqq., 539 sqq.; (1966) 82 LQR 81 sqq.; J.H. Baker, "New Light on Slade's Case", (1971) 29 Cambridge LJ 51 sqq., 213 sqq.

²³ On the action of debt sur contract, see Simpson, History, pp. 53 sqq.; on trial by wager of law, idem, pp. 136 sqq. The defendant had to find 11 compurgators who were prepared to swear an oath with their hands upon the Bible that he owed nothing, and then to kiss the Bible. If this procedure had been performed successfully, the defendant was said to have made his law "twelvehanded" (for he himself had to go through the same ceremony) and won the action.

^{^[4001]} The main difficulty in these and similar cases lies in the fact that specific relief requires the cooperation of the (defaulting) promisor: cf. e.g. E.A. Farnsworth, "Legal Remedies for Breach of Contract", (1970) 70 Columbia LR 1150. How, under these circumstances, can a judgment for specific performance be enforced? For the answer in German law cf. §§ 883 sqq. ZPO and Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 183 sqq.; for French Law (with its characteristic institution of "astreinte"). see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 187 sqq.

^{^[4002]} As, for instance, with regard to an obligation to pay a sum of money.

^{^[4003]} Farnsworth, (1970) 70 Columbia LR 1154, quoting a book by C.A. Huston on the enforcement of decrees in equity: "The law, concerning itself more and more with merchandise bought or sold for money, with things having a definite and calculable exchange value, came to conceive that the money compensation... was an entirely adequate remedy in the common case."

On the traditional distinction between unique and non-unique goods, see Anthony F. Kronman, "Specific Performance", (1978) 45 University of Chicago LR 351 sqq.

*^1M H. Dilcher. (19611 78 ZSS 302 sqq.

^{^[4006]} Cf. supra, p. 542. note 224.

Cf. also Simpson. History, pp. 595 sq.

²³ Farnsworth. (19701 70 Columbia LR 1152 sq.

~ Farnsworth. (19701 70 Columbia LR 1154 sqq.

^{^[4010]} For details cf. Treitcl, Contract, pp. 785 sqq.; cf. also Zweigert/Kotz. pp. 192 sqq.²⁴

For the underlying reasons, see Zweigert/Kotz, p. 196.

" ¹ Ryan v. Mutuai Tontine Westminster Chambers Association [1893] 1 Ch 116.

~^2S Reason: the execution of a judgment for specific performance would involve great inconvenience. Hence also the exclusion of specific performance with regard Co contracts that are "vague".

^{^[4014]} On the other hand, specific performance is normally granted with regard to contracts

involving the sale of land (also in favour of the vendor, even though his claim is only for

money); where a satisfactory substitute cannot be obtained (sale of "unique" goods); where

it would be difficult to assess or recover damages; where the damages would be purely nominal.

--^H Stickney v. Keeble [1915] AC 386 at 419.

Treitel, Contract, pp. 788 sqq.

²⁰ Treitel, Contract, p. 785; cf. also Dawson. (1959) 57 Michigan LR 532; Alan Schwartz,

"The Case for Specific Performance", (1979) 89 Yale LJ 271 sqq.; but see William Bishop,

"The Choice of Remedy for Breach of Contract", (1985) 14 Journal of Legal Studies 299 sqq. For a comparative evaluation, see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 197 sqq.

j³² Cohen v. Shires, Me Hattie and Kuf (1882) 1 SAR 41 at 45.

²³¹ Sir John Wessels, "The Future of Roman Dutch Law in South Africa", (1920) 37 SAL] 272.

²¹⁴ Wessels, Contract. %% 3113 sqq.; Gross, (1934) 51 SAL] 364 sqq.

^z" 1951 (2) SA371 (A).

;‘⁽¹ At 378H-379A.

^{^[4024]} Cf. e.g. hep Structural Engineering and Plating (Ply.) Lid. v. Inland Exploration Co. (Pty.) Ltd. 1981 (4) SA 1 (A); cf. also De Wet en Yeats, pp. 190 sq.

^23M 1986 (1) SA 776 (A).

^2v>At782J.

^24,1 At 782J-783F.

^{^[4028]} For a more detailed discussion of the approach of the South African courts, ct. Jouberl, Contract, pp. 224 sqq.; Andrew Beck, "The coming of age of specific performance". 1987 Cilsa 195 sqq., 204 sqq. As a consequence, for instance, the mere fact that a contract involves personal services does not automatically bar a decree of specific performance; cf. e.g. National Union of Textile Workers v. Stag Packings (Pty.) Ltd. 1982 (4) SA 151 (T) at 158A-C.

" Cf. supra, pp. 687 sqq.

^{^[4030]} D. 46, 3, 107.

^{^[4031]} Cf. supra, pp. 36, 90.

^{^[4032]} Cf. supra, p- 687.

^D Kaser, RZ. p. 242.

¹ Cf. Dieter Medicus, "Zur Funktion der Leistimgsunmoglichkeit im romischen Recht", (1969) 86 ZSS 75 sqq.; Max Kaser. "Pcrpetuan obligationem", (1980) 46 SDHI 127 sq.

^E C(. e.g. Pomp. D. 45, 1, 23 {"... si... occidisti eum").

^B A fiction often helped them Co achieve a satistactory solution to a problem by making it possible to apply an already existing (set of) rulc(s) that would otherwise not have covered this situation; for another example cf. supra, p. 135. As far as the development of the English common law is concerned, cf. e.g. Simpson, History, pp. 301 sq.

^{^[4034]} Paul. Sent. V, VII, 4; cf. also Ulp. D. 45, 1, 82, 1 ("... perinde ac si homo viveret").

^B Cf. particularly Paul. D. 45, 1, 91, 3-6. On this treatise (" Sdiuttraktat") Theo Mayer-Maly, "Perpetuatio obligationis: D. 45, 1, 91", (1956) 7 lura 6 sqq. On perpetuatio obligationis, cf. further Horst Heinrich Jakobs, Unmoglichkeit und Nichterfüllung (1969), pp. 173 sqq. and Maria Bianchi Fossati Vanzetti, Perpetuatio obligationis (1979), passim, who argue however that it was an institution applicable to all types of contractual obligations ( Punica e generate sohtzione romana del problema [dell' inadempimento]"); contra: Kaser, (1980) 46 SDH! 130 sqq.

^B This refers to Paul. D. 45, 1, 91, 3, where the device of perpetuatio obligationis is ascribed to a constitutio veterum. On the history of perpetuatio obligationis, sec Kaser, (1980) 46 SDHI 129 sq.

¹⁷ Paul. V. 45, 1, 91, 6.

^{^[4038]} Cf. supra, pp. 293, 687 sq.

^B Kaser, RPrl, p. 514.

³³ Cf. e.g. Pomp. D. 45, 1, 23.

^{^[4041]} MacCormack. ( 1973Ì 41 TR 64; Kaser. (1980) 46 SDHl 95.

^s Cf. infra, pp. 791 sqq.

¹⁴ Ini. D. 46. 3. 33. 1; cf". further e.g. lui. D. 30. 84. 4 and Erich Genzmcr. "Der subjektive Tatbestand des Schuldnerverzugs im klassischen romischen Recht", (1924) 44 ZSS 103 sqq.; Manlio Sargenti, "Problemi della responsabilità contrattuale" (1954) 20 SDHl 194 sqq.; Kaser, (1980) 46 SDHl 103 sq. For the time before Julian, cf. Lab./Ulp. D. 4, 3, 7, 3. Labeo operates with the actio de dolo.

¹⁰ Ulp. D. 46. 3. 27; cf. also Scaev. D. 45. 1. 131. 1.

^{^[4045]} Kaser. (1980) 46 SDH! 138.

·*’ Gai. IV, 136.

^{^[4047]} Gai. IV. 47.

^3H Cf. supra. pp. 208 sqq.

^{^[4049]} Cf. supra. p. 287. ^4,1

Ulp. D. 17. 1. 42.

⁴ Cf. Ulp. D. 17. 2. 52. 11.

^{^[4052]} Ulp. D. 19. 2. 13. 4; cf. also Ulp. D. 9. 2. 5. 3.

“B Cf. e.g. Friedhelm Harting. Die "positiven Vertragsverletzungen" in der neueren deutschen

Privatrechtsgeschichte (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Hamburg, 1967), pp. 22 sqq.

⁴¹ Cf. supra, pp. 365 sqq.

¹⁶ Cf. further, for example. Ulp. D. 19. 1. 13 pr.; Ulp. D. 19. 1. 13. 1 and 2.; Lab. D. 19. 2, 60, 7; Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 34; Paul. D. 19, 1, 21, 3; for details see Medicus, Id quod interest, passim.

^{^[4056]} For details, see Kaser, (1980) 46 SDHI 139 sqq; Schulz, EinJUhrung, pp. 106 sqq.

^{^[4057]} Ulp. D. 30, 47, 6: "Item si fundus chasmate perierit, Labeo ait utique aestimationem non deberi: quod ita verum est, si non post moram factam id evenerit: potuit enim cum acceptum legatarius vendere."

⁴⁸ But the rationalization of this result (the creditor could/might have sold the estate before its destruction; cf. the sentence commencing with "potuit") is probably spurious; cf. Schulz, Emjtihrung, p. 108, but see also Kaser, (1980) 46 SDHI 143 sq.; Andreas Wacke,

"Gefahrerhohung als Besitzerverschulden", in: Festschrift fur Heinz Htibner (1984), pp. 681 sqq. Gai. D. 16, 3, 14 is often quoted in support of the proposition that with regard to incertum claims the position was different: debtor released if object would have been destroyed in any event, i.e. also in cases of timeous performance; cf., for example, Kaser, RPr I, p. 516; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 246 sq. This text does, however, not deal with mora debitoris; cf. Bianchi Fossati Vanzetti, op. cit., note 15, pp. 49 sq.; Max Kaser, "Grenzfragen der Aktivlegitimation zur actio furti", in: De iustitia et hire, Festgabe fur Ulrich von Liibtow (1980), pp. 301 sq.

* Pap. vac. 15; Paul. D. 22. 1. 38. 8; Ulp. D. 17. 1. 10. 2 and 3 and 8 and 9; Ulp. D. 3. 5. 7. 1; Paul. D. 17. 2. 38. 1; Paul. Sent. II. XII. 7; III. VIII. 4.

^s Mard. D. 22. 1. 32. 2; Afr. D. 46. 6. 10; Paul. D. 19. 2. 54 pr.

³ Honsell/Maycr-Maly/Selb. p. 247; Honsell. Quod interest, pp. 16 sqq.. 167 sqq. ⁵²Scaev. D. 45. 1. 127.

³ Paul. D. 45. 1. 49. 3: "Si promissor horninis ante diem, in qucm promiserat. interpellate sit et servus decesserit, non videtur per eum stetisse."

^{^[4061]} This appears from the way in which § 285 BGB has been drafted: "The debtor is not

in default so long as the performance does not take place because of a circumstance for which

he is not responsible."

³⁵ § 284 II BGB.

³⁵ Heinrich Siber. Interpellatio und Mora. (19081 29 ZSS 47 sqq.; cf also Kaser. RPr I.

p. 515.

³⁷ Agostino Elefante. " 'Interpellatio' e 'mora' ", (19601 6 Labeo 30 sqq.; Horst Heinrich

Jakobs. "Culpa und interpellatio bei der mora debitoris nach klassischem Recht". (19741 42

TR 23 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 245.

^M Cf., in particular, Genzmer, (1924) 44 ZSS H6 sqq.

^s Paul. D. 45. 1. 91. 3.

® D. 22. 1. 32 pr.

^a Cf.. for example. Kaser. (19801 46 SDHI 111 sq.

^s Cf.. for example. Ulp. D. 22. 1. 23 pr. ("si rei publicae causa abesse subito coactus sit", "si... in vinculis hostiumve potestate esse coepent"!; Ulp. D. 22. 3. 19. 1; Ulp. D. 38. 1. 15 pr.; for further details, see Kaser. (19801 46 SDHI 116 sqq.

■' Cf. e.g. Iui. D. 50. 17. 63.

^{^[4073]} Cf. e.g. Marci D. 22, 1, 32 pr.; Kaser, (1980) 46 SDHI 106.

^f0 Hence the fact that culpa is often not mentioned in our sources as a special requirement for mora.

⁷* Cf. e.g. West Rand Estates Ltd. v. New Zealand Insurance Co. Ltd. 1926 AD 173; Ernst Hcymann, Das Verschulden beim Erfiillungsverzug (1913), pp. 88 sqq., 108 sqq. and passim; I. van Zijl Steyn, Mora Debitoris volgens die Hedendaagse Romeins-Hollandse Reg (1929), pp. 43 sqck; Wouter de Vos, "Mora Debi'tons and Rescission", (1970) 87 SALJ 307.

^b Voet, Contmentarius ad Pattdectas, Lib. XXII, Tit. I, XXIX.

^{^[4077]} For details cf. e.g. Dilcher, Leistungsstorungen, pp. 40 sqq.; Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note 72 pp. 43 sqq.

Wollschlager, Urtmoglichkeitsichre, pp. 46 sqq.; Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note 72, pp. 45 sqq.; c{. still Wessels, Contract, § 2862 ("Impossibility of performance is, of course, also an

" Ulp. D. 50, 17, 23 in fine; cf. further Dilcher, Leistungsstijmngen, pp. 90 sqq.; Gliick, vol. IV, pp. 368 sqq.; Wollschlager, Untnoqlichkeitslehre, pp. 45 sq.

^{^[4080]} Cf. e.g. supra, pp. 759. 784.

But cf. e.g. Zasius ("magna difficultas impossibilitati aequiparatur"), as quoted by Wollschlager, Vnmogtichkeitstehre, p. 48.

to,

^{^[4082]} Cf. e.g. Endemann, Studien, vol. II, pp. 258 sq.; Heymann, op. cit., note 71, pp. 102 ff.; E.M. Meijers, "Essai historique sur la force majeure", in: Etudes d'Histoire du Droit, vol. IV (1966), p. 48 sqq. According to canonist doctrine, it was the creditor who had to prove that the delay of performance on the part of the debtor was inexcusabilis.

^m For details, see Dilcher, Leistungsstorungen, pp. 43 sq.; cf. also Robert Feenstra, "Impossibilitas and Clausula rebus sic stantibus", in: Daube Noster (1974), p. SO; Going, p. 436.

⁴¹ Heymann, op. cit., note 72, pp. 105 sqq.; Feenstra, Daube Noster, p. 80; Coing, p. 436.

^M2 Cf. still Windscheid/Kipp, § 277, 4 in fine.

^{^[4086]} Joubert, Contract, p. 206; Alfred Walchshofer, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. II (2nd ed., 1985), § 285, n. 4; Volker Emmerich in: Münchener Kommentar, op. cit., § 275, n. 53.

^m § 285 BGB; for South Africa cf. Joubert, Contract, p. 205.

^8,> § 284 I BGB; for South Africa cf. Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note72, pp. 52 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 202 sqq.

Heymann, op. cit., note 72, pp. 88 sqq.; Dilcher, Leistungsstorungen, pp. 44 sqq., 51.

^{^[4090]} Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXII, Tit. I, XXV.

^s Cf., for example, Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXII, Tit. I, XXV; Van Zijl

Steyn, op. cit., note 72, p. 54.

^b> Exercitationes, Disp. XLII, Lib. XXII, 15.

^M/> Praelectiones in Codicem, Lib. IV, Tit. XXXII, 27.

³ Cf. Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note 72, p. 57.

® Praelectiones in Codicem. Lib. IV. Tit. XXXII. 27.

^{^[4096]} Cf. the qualifying remark by Voet. Commentarius ad Pattdectas. Lib. XXII. Tit. I. XXV: "... si modo ei interpellans inhaeserit." Perezius, loc. cit., writes: "Itaque instantia post interpellationem perseverare debet; sed non est repetenda interpellatio, seu admonitio coram testibus nuncupata."

^y* Pothier. Traite des obligations, n. 144.

^{^[4098]} Art. 1139 code civil, but the code adds: "on [un] autre acte equivalent"; on this clause, see, for example, Nicholas, FLC, p. 232. In contrast to modem German law, incidentally, mise en demeure is an essential prerequisite for every claim for damages in case of breach of contract, no matter whether for delay or non-performance: art. 1146 code civil; cf. further Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 213 sqq., 217.

^% Perezius, Praelectiones in Codkem, Lib. IV, Tit. XXXII, 28; based on lul. D. 12, 1, 22 ("... per indicem petitum est").

^{^[4100]} Perezius, loc. cit.

^M Perezius, loc. cit.

^{^[4102]} Cf. supra, pp. 547 sqq.

!0" Qf further Van Zijl Steyn. op. cit.. note 72. p. 55.

ⁿ Victoria Fails & Transvaal Power Co. Ltd. v. Consolidated Langlaaqte Mines Lid. 1915 AD 1 at31.

^{^[4104]} 1926 AD 173 at 183.

"¹³Joubert. Contract, p. 203: De Wet en Yeats, p. 145.

104'

Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXII. Tit. I. XXVI.

“ C. 8. 37. 12 (Just.).

^{^[4106]} Arrival of the due day takes the place of the creditor in demanding performance:

Nicholas. FLC, p. 234.

^{^[4108]} C. 8. 37. 12. The motive that prompted Justinian to act was to remove "magnam legum veterum obscuritatem, quae protrahendarum litium maximam occasionem usque adhuc praebebat".

^IC6 Cf. Rogerius ("dies habetur pro interpellatione"); Accursius ("... quia in mora est die interpellante pro homine"): Dilcher, LeistungsStorungen, p. 48.

”^V^W. Ogris, HRG, vol. I, col. 740 sq.; Van Ziji Steyn, op. eit., note 72, pp. 64 sqq.

^ID For details, sec Windscheid/Kipp, § 278, 1.

^ffl Cf. e.g. "Motive", in: Muydan, vol. II, pp. 31 sq.

^{^[4113]} Cf. Joubert, Contract, p. 202; De Wet en Yeats, p. 143.

^IB Cf. supra, p. 796.

^{^[4115]} Cf. e.g. Nicholas, FLC, pp. 233 sq. (who comments: "This rule is widely deplored, but well-settled"); but see also Zwcigert/Kotz, p. 217.

^{^[4116]} Art. 1146 code civil. ^Ilfi

Supra, pp. 170 sqq.

^{^[4118]} Cf. the references in Dilchcr, Leistimgsstorungen, pp. 151, 156, 155. Cinus alludes to the famous precept of "mutuum date nihil inde sperantes" of St. Luke, 6, 35. Cf. also Heymann, op. at., note 72, pp. 75 sqq.

¹¹³ Dilcher, Leistunpstonw^en, pp. 152, 155.

^{^[4120]} Cf. still Windscheid/Kipp, § 280. 1.

Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XXII, Tit. I, XVIII; cf. also e.g. Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XXII, Tit. I, XL

^a § 288 BGB.

¹²² § 286 BGB. The BGB draws a distinction between damages arising from the default (§ 286 I) and damages for non-performance (§ 286 II). This is a consequence of the fact that—unlike in Roman law —condemnation is in the first place in forma specifica. Thus, the creditor normally has the right to demand specific performance and—in case of mora—damages arising from the default. Damages for non-performance (including damages arising from the default) can according to § 286 II BGB, be claimed if, owing to the debtor's default, specific performance is no longer of any interest to the creditor. Cf. also § 326 BGB for synallagmatic obligations.

¹³ § 292 BOB'.

^{^[4122]} § 287.2 BGB; Wacke. Festschrift Hubner, pp. 681 sqq.

"³ Cf. Dilchcr, Leistnngsstomngen, pp. 108 sqq.; Fachmacus, Controversiae inns. Lib. Vm,

Can. C and CI; Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note 72, pp. 90 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 280, 2.

'-¹¹ § 287 BGB in fine. The solution of the BGB is, however, less favourable to the debtor than, for instance, the one adopted in § 965 ABGB. The difference revolves around the question raised in Ulp. D. 30, 47, 6 in fine: if the creditor had received the object of the performance in time, would he have sold it and thus avoided its destruction? According to the ABGB, the creditor has to prove that he would indeed have sold it, according to the BGB, it is the debtor on whom it is incumbent to prove that the creditor would have kept it.

^{^[4125]} Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note 72, pp. 90 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, p. 148; Joubert, Contract, p. 206.

'*^M Cf e.g. Struve. Syntagma, Exerc. XXVII. Lib. XXII. Tit. I. LXX; Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XXII. Tit. I. XXVIII.

^{^[4127]} Kaser. RPr II. pp. 333 sq.. 357.

¹³¹¹ Cf. also Cf. Nel v. Cloete 1972 (2) SA 150 (A) at 162D-164D; Ponisammy v. Versailles Estates

(Pty.) Ltd. 1973 (1) SA 372 (A) at 387H-389D; W. de Vos, (1978) 41 THRHR 258 sq.

¹ For details of the nature of rescission (resolution, Rikktritt) as a remedy for breach of contract in modern law (how does it work? what are its effects?), c(. Treitel, "Remedies for Breach of Contract", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. VII, 16, nn. 143 sqq.; Hans G. Leser, Der Rücktritt vom Vertrag (1975); idem, "Losung vom Vertrag", in: Recht und Rechtserkenntnis, Festschrift für Ernst Wolf (1985), pp. 373 sqq.; Harker, 1980 Ada Juridica 61 sqq.

^1|" In the result, therefore, the vendor became tree. Could he still demand payment of the purchase price or was the purchaser released from his obligation too? Or. in other words: who had to carry the risk of accidental destruction of the mc-rx? The answer is provided by the rule "periculum est emptoris": ct. supra, pp. 28) sqq.

ⁿ Cf. supra, p. 548. note 10.

^{^[4152]} Cf. e.g. Kaser, RPr II, p. 357.

¹ Cf. the sources discussed supra, pp. 784 sq., 792.

^{^[4154]} Take, for example, the situation in South African law. According to W.A. Ramsden, Supervening Impossibility of Performance in the South African Law of Contract (!985), pp. 55 sqq., perpetuatio obligationis obtains in case of impossibility (due to the fault of the debtor) and mora debitoris. De Wet en Yeats refer to perpetuatio obiigationis only with regard to mora (p. 148); cf. also Van Zijl Steyn, op. cit., note 72, pp. 90 sqq. Others do not refer to perpetuatio obligationis at all.

Dilcher, Leistwtgsstonmgen. pp. 120 sqq.; cf. further Hermann Lange, Schadensersatz undPrivatstraje. pp. 13 sqq., 100 sqq.

^{17sqq., 699 sqq.}

^{^[4192]} Rabel, Festschrift Bekker. pp. 185, 201 sq.; Harting, op. cit., note 43, pp. 128 sqq.,

139 sqq.; cf. also Wollschlager, Unmoglichkeitslehre. pp. 146 sq.

~~ Particularly in the discussion leading up to the Uniform Law for International Sales of Goods as adopted in 1964 by the Hague Conference for the Unification of the Law of Sales, and to the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods adopted in 1980 at a conference in Vienna; on these two important milestones towards legal unification cf. e.g. Hans Dolle (ed.), Kommentar гит Einheitlichen Kaufrecht (1976); John О. Honnold. Uniform Law of International Sales tinder the 1980 United Nations Convention (19821; on the trauaux preparatoires to the Uniform Law for International Sales of Goods, efi for example, the articles by Ernst Rabel as collected in: Gesammelte Aufsatze, vol. Ill (1967), pp. 381 sqq.; for a comparative evaluation of the United Nations Convention, see j. Barrigan Marcantonio. "Unifying the Law of Impossibility", (1984} 8 Hastings International and Comparative LR 41 sqq.

^{^[4194]} For an overview cf. Zweigert/Kotz. pp. 221 sqq.; cf. also their evaluation, pp. 232 sqq.

²²¹ But cf. Basedow, op. cit.. note 206. pp. 38 sqq.. who points out that in actual practice the differences between English law and continental law have to a large extent been levelled out. Essential for the debtor's liability even on the Continent is (judicial") determination of his range of duties under the contract (i.e. an objective criterion"). Breach of such contractual duty, as a rule, implies fault. Thus it is up to the debtor to establish (and prove") that he was not at fault; cf. e.g. § 282 BGB.

^{^[4196]} Cf. supra, pp. 776. 803.

²³⁵ Paradine v. jane (1647") Alcyn 26 (dealing with a landlord's action to recover rent; the tenant was not excused from payment, even though he had been evicted from the land by a royalist army under the command of Prince Rupert"). On this leading case and its reception, cf. e.g. Grant Gilmore. The Death of Contract (19741. pp. 44 sqq.

²³ (1863) 3 B & S 826; on the development cf.. apart from the standard English literature. L.W. Murcott. "Oormag in die Engelsc en in die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg". (1942) 6 THRHR 169sqq.

[4199] -pj_ie lessor wou]d be released from his obligation according to § 275 I BGB. the lessee according to § 323 1 BGB. This is one of many examples which demonstrate that despite the widely divergent theoretical starting points, the actual problems are often solved m very much the same way; cf. e.g. Zweigert/Kritz. pp. 22Y sqq.. and also Marcantonio. (1984) 8 Hastings International and Comparative Lit 41 sqq. Better than by anything else, Zweigert/Kotz's contention is confirmed, incidentally, by the development of modern South African law. The systematic exposition of breach of contract in modern textbooks is so diverse that one can hardly believe that these books arc dealing with one and the same legal system. Christie, The Law of Contract in South Africa (1981), deals with mora and breach, Kerr, The Principles of the Law of Contract (3rd cd., 1982), subdivides his chapter on breach of contract into repudiation, anticipatory breach, ordinary breach and major and minor breach. Van Rensburg/Lotz/Van Rhijn, in: Joubert (ed.), The Law of South Africa, vol. 5 (1978), nn. 199 have negative malpcrformanee (mora crcditoris and debitoris), positive malperformance and anticipatory breach (repudiation and prevention of performance). l)e Wet en Yeats, as in many other cases, adopt more modern German (pandeetist) thinking patterns and distinguish between mora debitoris, impossibility (onmoontlikmaking van die prestasie) and positiewc wanprestasie. However, they add repudiation (repudiering) as a fourth category. The discussion by joubert. Contract, is along the same lines. The South African courts have not been unduly worried about the theoretical differences. Typical of their approach is the leading case on impossibility, Peters, Flamman and Co. v. Koksiad Municipality 1919 AD 427. In this case Soiomon ACJ recognizes that for the old authorities it is clear that if a person is prevented from performing his contract by vis maior or casus fortuitus, he is discharged from liability. Joseph Averanius (Lnterpretationes Luris) is quoted for this proposition. The judge then remarks that "unfortunately" the rules of the civil law appear to have been ignored in several South African cases and that the courts have been guided entirely by the decisions of the English courts. More particularly, the rule of Paradinc v. Jane has been invoked (cf. e.g. Hay v. The Divisional Council of King William's Town 1 EDC 97 at 102). It is not consistent with the principles of the civil law. Even in English law, it has been considerably modified by later decisions. Solomon ACJ then proceeds to quote from Horlock v. Beal [19161 1 AC 486 (HL) at 525, and F.A. Tamplin Steamship Co. Ltd. v. Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Products Co. Ltd. [IV16] 2 AC 397 (HL) at 422 and comes to the conclusion: "It will be seen, therefore, that although the English law looks at the subject from a different point of view from ours, in the result the difference is not very great. And indeed, if this case had been tried in an English Court of Justice, I am disposed to think that the defendants would have been held to have been discharged from their obligations under the contract" (p. 437). Cf. further Hcrsman v. Shapiro & Co, 1926 TPD 367 at 371 sqq.;

²¹¹ Cf. e.g. Glück, vol. 4, pp. 401 sqq.; Carl Otto von Madai, Die Lehre von der Mora, Dargestellt nach Gnmdsatzeii des Rh'miscUen Rechts (1837), pp. 227 sqq.; A.B. de Villiers, Mora creditoris as vortn van kotitrakbreuk (unpublished LLD thesis, Stellenbosch, 1953), pp. 78 sqq., 186 sqq.

^{^[4201]} Salicetus, Traaatus de mora and Hotomannus, Tractates de mora, both quoted by von Madai, op. cit., note 241, p. 5.

²⁴¹ This is still the position in South African law; c(. De Wet en Yeats, pp. 163 sqq., 174 sq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 214 sqq., 220 sq.

²¹⁴ For a comparative investigation, see Uwe Huffcr, Leistungsstomngen dutch Gtdubiger- handeht (1976), pp. 134 sqq.

^{^[4204]} Cf. supra, pp. 803 sq.

²⁶ 23rd cd., 1969, p. 491.

§ 293 BGB.

94M

vj 298 sqq.

^{^[4207]} Die Lehre von der Mora tiebst Beitragen zue Lehre van der culpa (1855), pp. 133 sqq.

²³⁰ " Annahme und Annahme Verzug”, (1879) 17 Jhjb 261 sqq.

²¹ "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 37 sqq.; cf. also Hiiffer, op. cit., note 244, pp. 14

^Sq%

Cf. Kaser, RPrl, pp. 517 sq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb. pp. 247 sq.; Hausmamnger/

Selb, p. 37(1; but sec also Buckland/Stcin, p. 551; Thomas, TRL, pp. 254 sq.

²⁵³ § 433 II BGB.

^a Pomp. D. 19, 1, 3, 4.

²⁶ Paul. D. 18, 6, 5.

²⁵⁵ Afr. D. 17, 1, 37; Cels. D. 19, 1, 38, 1; Ulp. D. 46, 3, 9, 1.

^{^[4217]} Cf. supra, pp. 105 sq., 385, 730, 785 sqq.

^25HD. 46, 3, 72 pr.

® Cf. supra, note 252.

²⁰ Pomp. D. 18, 6, 18; Paul. D. 18, 6, 5; Pomp. D. 24, 3, 9.

²¹ Sab. /lav. D. 45, 1, 105; Marc. D. 46, 3, 72 pr.

²² lul. D. 30, 84, 3; cf. also Marc. D. 46, 3, 72 pr.

²⁶³ Pap. D. 22, 1, 7; C 4. 32, 19 pr. (Diocl.); Kaser, RPr I, pp. 639 sq.; R. Vigneron, Offerre aut deponere. De I'origine de la procedure des offres reelles suivies de consignation (1979), pp. 19 sqq.,

[4223] sqq.

^2W Pap. D. 22, 1, 7.

^2f'⁵ C. 8, 42, 9: "Obsignatione totius debitae pecuniae sollemniter facta liberationem contingere manifestum est...."

²²¹⁶ De Villiers, op. cit., note 241, pp. 353 sqq., 360 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 347; today §§ 372 sqq. BGB; De Wet en Yeats, pp. 171 sq.; Odendaal v. Di. Plessis 1918 AD 470. Obsignatio and depositio were (and still are) no longer confined to money but may also be effected with regard to certain other movables.

²⁽¹⁷ Cf. nn. 144, 283, 574.

26H J257 sqq. code civil; for a comparative discussion cf. Huffer, op. cit., note

²⁴£ pp·⁶¹ sqq·

De Wet en Yeats, pp. 163 sqq.; Joubert, Contract, pp. 214 sqq.

²⁷¹¹ Cf. Vigneron, op. cit., note 263. pp. 13 sqq., 199 sqq.

*⁷¹ Cato. De re rustica. Cap. CXLV1II ("Locus vinis ad K. Occobres primas dabitur. Si ante non deportaverit, dominus vino quid volet faciet").

⁷ D. 18, 6, 1,3; for a different interpretation, see Otto Gradenwitz, "Das Ausgiessen des Weins und L. 1 § 3 de periculo et commodo", (1929) 37 BIDR 53 sqq.; contra: Wolf, Error, pp. 130 sq.Roman-Dutch customs did not tolerate such waste; see Groenewegen, De Legibus Abroqatis, ad Digest. Lib. XVIII, Tit. VI, 1.1 § 3 licet; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XVIII, Tit. VI, IV.

^{^[4226]} Cf in particular Peter Apathy, "Mora accipiendi und Schadensersatz". (1984) 101 ZSS

190 sqq. According to the prevailing opinion, the debtor had only a ius retentionis which he was able to assert by way of an exceptio doli; cf. Kaser, RPr I, p. 518; Alfons Bürge, Retentio im rottiischen Saclien- und Obligationenrecht (1979), pp. 190 sq. For modern South African law, cf. supra, note 243.

³¹ Cels. D. 19. 1. 38. 1.

“ Cf. e.g. Okko Behrends. Frans levs, p. 92: Apathy. (19841 101 ZSS 195.

³⁵ Apathy. (19841 101 ZSS 193 sqq.'

*⁷⁷ In the latter sense e.g. Friedrich Mommsen. Mora, op. cit.. note 249. pp. 134 sq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 551.

²⁷* Paul. D. 45, 1, 91, 3; cf. further e.g. Paul. D. 45, 1, 73, 2; Magdelain, "Note sur la 'Purgatio Morae' ", in: Droits de lAtitiquite et Sociology Juridique, Melanges Henri Levy-Bruhl (1959), pp. 199 sqq.; Sturm, Stipitlatio Aquiliarw, pp. 78 sqq.; Kniitel, Slipuiatio poenae, pp. 185 sqq.

^{^[4232]} Pomp. D. 18. 6, 18.

Mommsen, Zitr Lehn¹ von dan Interesse (1855), pp. 12 sqq., Windscheid/Kipp, § 257 and other pandectists; cP. further "Motive", in: Xlngdan. vol. II, p. 11, but also Heinrich von Degcnkolb, "Der spezifische Inhalt des Schadensersatzes", (1890) 76 Archiv für die aviUstische Praxis 1 sqq. For all this, see the thorough historical study by Udo Wolter, Das Prinzip der Naturalrestitution in § 249 BGB (1985). In Roman law, some formulae (most notably the rei vindicatio) contained a clausula arbitraria ("neque ea res restituetur"). Whilst the defendant was thus free to absolve himself by restoring the object of the dispute, condemnation ultimately had to be for a sum of money (for details Kaser. RZ. pp. 256 sqq.).

Relief in money is, however, also available under the conditions laid down in §§ 249,2, 250 and 251 Π BGB. In actual practice, relief in money is the rule, restoration in kind the exception.

^2,I> Cf. e.g. supra, pp. 35 sq,, 771 sq.

^2Kf) Cf. supra, pp. 770 sqq.

^{^[4234]} Cf- supra, pp. 578 sq-, 801 sq.

²** Cf. supra, pp. 95 sq., 771, 784.

Cf. e.g. Ulp. D. 2, 7, 5, 1 ("quod in veritate est'¹); Ulp. D. 27, 3. 1, 20 ("rci tantum aestimationem").

~⁴° Already in classical law cautious attempts were made to take into account the concrete loss of the disadvantaged party, particularly as far as actions for certain rem redderc (cf. supra, p. 788), for resrituere (cf., for example, supra, p. 665, note 39. p. 664, note 101, p. 825, note 283 in fine) and those that required estimation of quanti ea res erit (supra, p. 771) were concerned: Kaser, RPr I, pp. 499 sq.; Mcdicus, Id quod interest, pp. 245 sqq.. 260 sqq., 266 sqq.; cf. further on this development Sebastiano Tafaro, La intervretatio ui verba 'quanti ea res est' nella gitnispnuletiza roniana (1980Ì.

"⁹ Cf. hist. IV, 6, 30: "In bonae fidei autem indiciis libera potestas permitti videtur mdici ex bono et aequo aestimandi, quantum actori restitui debeat."

-¹· Honscll, Quod interest, pp. 30 sqq., 63 sq.; Kaser, RPr 1. p. 500; Hcmsell/Mayer-Maly/ Sclb p. 224.

^{^[4235]} Honsell. Quod interest, p. 172; but see Mcdicus, /(/ quod interest, pp. 326 sq.

Medicus, Id quod interest, p. 337; on the scarcity ot sources dealing with individual items of "damages", cf. further Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 227.

^{^[4236]} D. 46, 8, 13 pr.

²⁶ D. 19, 1, 31, 1; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 18 sq.

²³⁷ For further details on the recoverability of lucrum cessans in Roman law, see C 7, 47, 2 ("Et hoc non solum in damno, sed cciam in lucro nostra amplectitur constitutio, quia et ex eo veteres quod interest statuerunt"); Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 16 sqq. In later centuries, recovery of lucrum cessans was often refused (except as far as merchants were concerned) on

the basis of Paul. D. 19, 1, 21, 3 (according to Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 7 sqq. a special case,

not capable of generalization). The canonists in particular emphasized the distinction between damnum emergens and lucrum cessans, since recovery of the latter tended to come

into conflict with the usury doctrine of the Church. For all details on lucrum cessans during

the history of the ius commune, c(. Endemann, Studien, vol. II, pp. 276 sqq.; Lange, Schadensersatz und Privatstrafe, pp. 32 sqq.; Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe, pp. 109 sqq. In the modern law of damages, the compensation also has to include lost profits; the distinction between damnum emergens and lucrum cessans is without practical significance: cf. e.g. art. 1149 Code Civil, § 252 BGB.

³⁸ Cf. Ulp. D. 19. 2. 19. 1; Pomp. D. 19. 1. 6. 4; lul./Ulp. D. 19. 1. 13 pr. and 1. and the discussion supra, pp. 309 sq., 365 sqq.

^{^[4244]} Ulp. D. 13, 4, 2, 8; Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 169 sqq.

³⁰⁰Kaser, RPrl, p. 501.

³⁰¹ Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 15 sq.; also Berthold Kupisch, "Id quod interest bei

Nichterfüllung und Verzug des Verkäufers", (1975) 43 TR 18 sq.; for an example, taken

from the law of delict, cf. Paul. D. 9, 2, 22, 1. Special rules may have applied for the sale of

fungible goods with a constantly varying market price (such as oil, wine or grain): Honsell,

³¹¹⁷ Groenewegen. Tractatus de legibus abrogates, Cod. Lib. VII. Tit. XLVII; Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLV, Tit. I, X. The rule has been abrogated by disuse in South Africa: Erasmus, (1968) 31 THRHR 237 sqq.; De Wet en Yeats, p. 207.

Cf. e.g. Struve, Syntagma, Exerc. XLIV, Lib. XLII, Tit. I, V.

Windscheid/Kipp, § 258, 1; cf. further Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe, pp. 106 sqq.

^{^[4253]} Generally on foreseeability as a device in order to limit damages, cf. Treitel, op. cit., note 169, nn. 77 sqq.

^{^[4254]} Tractatus de eo quod interest (Venetiis, 1574). n. 60. "No treatise on damages has perhaps had a more profound influence on the development of the law of damages than the Tractatus dc eo quod interest of Molinaeus": H.J. Erasmus, "Aspects of the History of the South African Law of Damages", (1975) 38 THRHR 116 sq. For a recent translation of Molinaeus' treatise into Afrikaans ("Vcrhandeling oor skadevergoeding") cf. H.J. Erasmus (cd.) (Lex Patria, Johannesburg, 1973).

¹² Thus he argues that obviously "hanc legem aequissimam esse, et optimis rationibus

fundatam, non otiosam, nee incongruam" (n. 58). " ³ Traite des obligations, n. 164.³¹⁴ Traite des obligations, n. 160.

Verhintenissen (Leyden, 1804) ).

^31fl (18541 9 Exch 341 at 354; on the socio-historical importance of this decision, see Richard Danzig, (1975) 4 Journal of Legal Studies 249 sqq. (also in (1977) 6 lus Commune 234 sqq.): cf. also Janet T. Lauda, "Hadley v, Baxendale and the Expansion of the Middleman Economy", (1987) 16 Journal of Legal Studies 455 sqq.

^{^[4259]} Cf. e.g. Koufos v. Czamikow Ltd. fl969] 1 AC 350 (HL) at 421 sq.; McGregor on Damages (13th cd.," 1972), nn. 180 sqq.

^3!K For details, see Erasmus, (1975) 38 THRHR 362 sqq.; Reinhard Zimmerman», "Der Einfluss Pothiers auf das romisch-hoilandische Recht in Südafrika" (1985) 102 ZSS (GA) 178 sqq.

^{^[4261]} Emslie v. African Merchants Ltd. 1908 EDC 82 at 91.

^32D Victoria Falls & Transvaal Power Co. Ltd. v. Consolidated Langlaagte Mines Ltd. 1915 AD 1 at 22. But see subsequently Lavery &-Co. Ltd. v. Jungheinrich 1931 AD 156 at 162 sqq., 176, ■where the contemplation test has (possibly) been superseded by a "convention principle": the expectations of the parties may only be taken into account, if they have become "virtually... a term of the contract". Cf further Shatz Investments (Pty.) Ltd. v. Kalovyrnas 1976 (2) SA 545 (A) at 551B-554F (obiter); Kerr, Contract, pp. 454 sqq. For a very critical evaluation of Pothier's theory, see De Wet en Yeats, p. 205 ("gekunsteld, teoreties onsuiwer en prakties onbruikbaar"); but cf. e.g. Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe, p. 53.

³~' vol. 1, pp. 491 sqq.

^{^[4264]} "Das Problem des Kausalzusammenhangs im Pnvatrecht", in: Gesammelte Schriften, vol. I (1968), pp. 395 sqq.

^{^[4265]} Lehre von der Zurechnung nach dem Schutzzweck des Vertrages or, more generally, der haftungsbegründenden Norm: cf. e.g. Lange, Schadensersatz, pp- 76 sqq.

" D. 19, 1, 21, 3.

²⁵ Arangio-Ruiz, Compravendita. pp. 232 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 35 sqq.,

[4267] sq.; Kupisch, (1975) 43 TR 16 sqq.; cf. also Honsell, Quod interest, pp. 7 sqq. (special

case, not capable of generalization).

'* Franz Heymann, "Haftung fur unmittelbaren und mittelbaren Schaden beim Kauf",

in: Studi in onore di Pietro Bonfante, vol. II (1930), pp. 450 sqq.

²⁷ Lange, Schadensersatz und Privatstrafe, pp. 19 sqq.; also Erasmus, (1975) 38 THRHR

115 sq.

²⁸ Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe, pp. 26 sqq., 41 sqq.

²⁹ Gl. Non scrvomm ad D. 19, 1, 21, 3.

³²⁰ Cf. e.g. Ulrich Huber. Pradectiones, Pars II. Lib. XIII. Tit. Ill. n. 11; cf. further §§ 285 sqq. I 5 PrALR, § 1324 ABGB; Rudolf von Jhering, "Das Schuldmomcnt im romischen Privatrecht", in: Vermwc/ite Schriften juristischen Inhalts (1879), pp. 215 sqq., all differentiating the extent to which damages may be recovered according to the degree of the wrongdoer's fault. According to Gluck, vol. 4, p. 447, lucrum cessans may be claimed only in case of dolus (or culpa lata). In modern German law, full damages are recoverable in case of (any kind of) fault. There have, however, been tendencies to move away from this harsh all-or-nothing view; for a comparative overview, see Hans Stoll, "Die Reduktionsklausel im Schadensrecht aus rechtsvergleichender Sicht", (1970) 34 RabelsZ 481 sqq.

³³ Traiie des obligations, n. 161. Example: If the vendor does not deliver the horse that he has sold, the purchaser may claim the sum he needed to spend in order to buy another horse; "fb]ut if this purchaser was a canon, who for want of having the horse that I had engaged to deliver to him, and not having been enabled to get another, was prevented from arriving at the place of his benefice in time to be entitled to his revenue; I should not be liable for the loss which he sustained thereby, although it was occasioned by the non-performance of my obligation." (trans. W.D. Evans).

Traite des obligations, n. 166.

^{^[4278]} Artt. 1150 sq. Even in case of "dol", however, recovery of damages is limited to those that are direct ("кие suite immediate et directe de Vinexecution de h convention”): art. 1151; Pothier, Traite des obligations, n. 167. This is not based, as Rabcl thought (WarenkauJ, p. 477), on the

circa rem/extra rem distinction, but serves to exclude those damages that have no "necessary relation" to the vendor's dol (Nicholas, FLC, p. 224); cf. the example discussed by Pothier, n. 167; further Wieling, Interesse and Privatstrafe, pp. 52 sqq. ^,334 Struve, Syntagma, Exerc. XLIV, Lib. XLII, Tit. I, V.

"⁵ Gluck, vol. 4. p. 447; Andreas Gail, cf. Erasmus, (1975) 38 THRHR 116; Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe. p. 117; cf. also Endemann, Studien, vol. II, p. 292.

^{^[4281]} A new line of argument was developed by Contius (Professor at Bourges during the 16th century) and Donellus, who stressed the need for a causal link between the damaging act and the loss suffered. Only the loss for which the act was a conditio sine qua non is recoverable (and thus constitutes the interesse circa rem): cf. Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe, pp. 45 sqq.; Erasmus, (1975) 38 THRHR 116; also Gluck, vol. 4, pp. 443 sqq. On causation (in Germany: "adequate" causation) as a device to limit liability, cf. Rabel, Warenkauf pp. 486 sqq.; Treitcl, op. cit., note 169, nn. 91 sqq.; Wieling, Interesse und Privatstrafe, pp. Э28 sqq.

‘ Cf. the argument advanced in Gai. Ill, 91 and Gai. D. 44, 7, 5, 3.

^{^[4283]} Art. 1583 code civil.

^{^[4284]} §У2УВСВ.

^{^[4285]} Cf. § 829 of the First Draft (E I) of the BGB; Andreas Wacke, in: Münchener Komntentar, vol. IV (2nd ed., 1986), § 873. n. 20; Gerhard Kegel, "Vcrpflichrung nnd Verfügung", in: Festschrift fur F.A. Mann (1977), pp. 57sqq.; Reinhard Zimmermann, "SittenWidrigkeit und Abstraktion", 1984 Juristische Rundschau 48 sqq.

^{^[4286]} Kaser, RPrl. pp. 413 sqq.

834

^{^[4288]} Cf., for example, "Protokolle", in: Mugdan. vol. II, pp. 1182 sqq. {where restitution is said to rest solely on grounds of equity); BGHZ 36, 232 (235) ("Die Bereicherungsanspruche gehoren dem Billigkeitsrecht an und stehen daher in besonderen Masse unter den Grundsätzen von Treu und Glauben"—The unjustified enrichment claims are based upon equity and hence they are governed, specifically, by the principle of good faith). Otto von Gierke is reputed to have said that in viewing the law of unjustified enrichment one stood "at the threshold of the most holy" (cf. John P. Dawson, "Erasable Enrichment in German Law", (1981) 61 Boston University LR 276). Contra: Walter Wilburg, Die Lehre von der ungerechtfertigten Bereicherung nach osterreichischem und deutschem Recht (1934), pp. 18 sqq.; Zweigert/Kotz, p. 294 and many others. Cf. also Birks, Restitution, pp. 9 sqq., 22 sqq.

^{^[4289]} For details, see Kaser, RZ. pp. 80 sqq.

^{^[4290]} Gai. IV, 18; cf. also Okko Behrends, Der Zwolftafelprozess (1974), pp. 97 sqq.

^{^[4291]} Gai. IV, 17 b.

^D Introduced by the lex Silia as far as certa pecunia, and by the lex Calpurnia, as far as omnis certa res was concerned: Gai. IV, 19. On the lex Silia, cf., most recently, Carlo Augusto Cannata, "Das faktische Vertragsverhaltnis oder die ewige Wiederkunft des Gleichen", (1987) 53 SDH 1299 sqq.

^{^[4293]} Cf. Gai. IV, 17 b.

- Sec generally Schulz, Principles, pp. 83 sqq. ‘

Cf. Lend, EP. p. 240.

In all formulary claims, the plaintiff now had to notify the defendant, informally and extrajudicially, of the nature of the action to be brought against the latter ("editio actionis"): cf. Kaser, RZ, pp. 162 sqq.; Berger, ED. p. 450.

" For speculation as to the historical development, cf. Schwarz, Condiclio. pp. 281 sqq.; von Liibtow, Condictio. pp. 59 sqq., 85 sqq., 115 sqq.; Kaser, RPi\ p. 593; Fritz Sturm. "La condictio ob transactionem", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. Ill (1983), pp. 631

sqq.; Detlef Liebs, "The History of the Roman Condictio up to Justinian", in: The Legal Mind. Essays for Tom Houoze (1986), pp. 165 sqq. ¹¹¹ Cf. supra, pp. 89 sq.

^{^[4299]} Cf. Tryphon. D. 13, 1, 20.

^B Cf. infra, pp. 941 sq.

® When Cicero appeared for the wealthy actor Roscius against whom a condictio had

been brought. Cicero, Pro Roscio comoedo, 5, 14 refers to three different bases for a condictio:

pecuniae datio, expensilatio and stipulatio. For a discussion, e.g. Schwarz, Condictio,

pp. 281 sqq.

^{^[4305]} Cf. supra, p. 153. According to Kaser, RPr I, p. 593, the condictio based on mutuum

may have been an offshoot of the condictio ex causa furtiva. Before being considered to be a contract, mutuum was possibly merely regarded as a factual act of handing over something; the refusal to pay back was taken to constitute an act of fraudulent appropriation. After mutuum came to be considered as a (real) contract, where ownership was to be transferred to the borrower, the condictio basically became a contractual action. The condictio ex causa furtiva survived as the only application of a condictio which could be brought by the owner. Contra: Liebs, Essays Honore, pp. 165 sqq.; cf. also already idem, Kla^enkonknrrenz, pp. 98 sqq.

² The entry ("expensum ferre"; hence expensilatio) by the creditor into his codex accepti et expensi, which gave rise to the obligatio litteris, was based on a fictitious loan; cf. supra, pp. 32 sq. (note 178).

“Gai. Ill. 91.

*³ Cf. supra, pp. 156 sqq.

²'Gai. Ill. 91.

*⁵ On which see supra, pp. 10 sqq.

²¹¹ Gai. D. 44. 7. 5. 3. read in conjunction with Gai. D. 44. 7. 1 pr.

^{^[4309]} Inst. III. 27. 6.

^{^[4310]} By Lord Mansfield (in Moses v. Macferlan [17601 2 Burr 10051 the systematizing conclusion that certain rcstitutionary remedies should be described as arising quasi ex contraetu was introduced into English law (cf. Peter Birks, "English and Roman Learning in Moses v. Macferlan", (1984) 37 Current Legal Problems 5 sqq.). It was the source of the "implied contract heresy" (Birks, Restitution, pp. 29 sqq. (83)), which became firmly engrained in the English common law via Blackstone's Commentaries (Book HI, Chapter 9). For an analysis of the civilian tradition from which Lord Mansfield and Blackstone borrowed, cf. Peter Birks, Grant McLeod, "The Implied Contract Theory of QuasiContract: Civilian Opinion Current in the Century Before Blackstone", (1986) 6 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 46 sqq. French authors tended to regard payment of an indebitum as "promutuum"; cf. Pothier, Traite du central du pret de consumption, nn. 132 sqq. ("DM quasi-contrat appele promutuum"); Going, p. 495.

Artt. 1376 sqq. code civil (sub titulo: "Des quasi-contrats").

^f For details of the development, cf. Walter Lang, Der allgemeine Bereicherungsanspruch im franzosischen Recht vor und nach dem code civil (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis. Frankfurt. '1975}, pp. 40 sqq., 48 sqq., 61 sq.

" There was a further title (D. 13. 2), devoted to a condictio ex lege. It consisted of a single fragment, which said that if a new obligation were to be introduced and no provision made as to what kind of action one were to use. then "ex lege agendum est". The Codex contains a brief title (C. 4, 9) devoted to "de condictione ex lege et sine causa vel iniusta causa". On the condictio ex lege cf. Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 237 sqq.; Theo Mayer-Maly. "Das Gesetz als Entstehungsgrund von Obligationen", (1965) 12 RID A 444 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 424; Liebs. Essays Honore, p. 182.

^{^[4314]} The Code presents the condictiones in the following order: De condictione indebiti (C. 4, 5), de condictione ob causam datorum (C, 4, 6), de condictione ob turpem causam (C. 4, 7), de condictione furtiva (C. 4, 8) and de condictione ex lege et sine causa vel iniusta causa (C. 4, 9). For a comparison, in historical perspective, of the two systems presented in the Digest and the Code, see Liebs, Essays Honore, pp. 167 sqq.

^s Ernst Levy. "West-ostliches Vulgarrecht und Justinian". (19591 76 ZSS 11 sq.

^{^[4316]} "... not only cautiously but also not without subtlety", as Liebs. Essays Honore,

p. 183. remarks. But cf. also Berthold Kupisch. Ungerechtfertigte Bereicherung; geschichtliche

Entwicklungen (1987), pp. 21 sqq. For a completely different evaluation, cf. Schulz, CRL,

p. 611 ("... the compilers have completely ruined the classical law.... [The Byzantine]

law is one of the worst parts of Justinian's law; it has confused and irritated generations of

lawyers and exercised an evil influence on continental codifications down to our times").

^AThomas, TRL, p. 326. ³⁶

Cf. infra, pp. 941 sq.

' Cf. infra, pp. 923 sq.

^s D. 13, 3, 2.

⁵ But cf. also p. 929 (note 56).

^{^[4326]} This type of situation came to be known as condictio possessionis; cf. also Lab./Cass./Ulp. D. 47, 2, 25, 1 and Gai. II, 79 in fine ("... condici tarnen furibus et quibusdam aliis possessoribus possunt"); Liebs, Essays Honore, p. 170; Wolfram Pika, Ex causa jurtiva condkere im klassischen romischen Recht (1988), pp. 73 sqq.

⁴ As Liebs, Essays Honore, p. 170 suggests.

³² Ulp. D. 12, 5, 6. For a detailed analysis of this fragment, cf. Raimondo Santoro, "Studi sulla condictio", (1971) 32 Annali Palermo 189 sqq., 219 sqq. Cf. also Schwarz, Condictio. pp. 276 sq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 353; contra, however, most recently, Pika, op. cit., note 40, p. 25 and many others before him.

^{^[4328]} Cf. infra, p. 890.

* Emphasized particularly by Savigny, System vol. V, pp. 523 sqq.

^{^[4330]} Cf. Gai. II, 82.

⁴⁵ For details, see Andreas Wacke, "Die Zahlung mit fremdem Geld", (1976) 79 BIDR 49 sqq., 89 sqq., 124 sqq.; Sven Erik Wunner, "Rechtsfolgen der Konsumtion fremder Sachen", in: Geddchtnisschrift jiir Wolfang Kunkel (1984), pp. 584 sqq.

^{^[4332]} D. 12, 1, 19, 1. Cf. Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 240 sqq.; Max Kaser, "Das Geld im romischen Sachenrecht", (1961) 29 TR 208 sqq.; Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, p. 10; but cf. also Wunner, Geddchtnisschrift Kunkel, pp. 589 sqq., 602 sq. Cf. further lav. D. 12, 1, 18, 1.

^4M D. 12, 1, 4, 2. This case is interpreted differently by Kaser, RPr I, p. 595 (n. 23) and Liebs, Essays Honore, p. 171; also Santoro. (1971) 32 Aiinali Palermo 197 sqq.

⁴⁴ This point has also recently been emphasized by Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, pp. 4 sqq.,

[4334] sqq.

f^r Kaser, RPr I, pp. 416 sqq.

³¹ The reason for this lies in the historical origin of solutio as a specific transaction designed to release the debtor from his personal liability (supra, pp. 754 sqq.). Cf. generally Rabel, Gmndzii^e. p. 68; Max Kaser. "Zur 'iusta causa traditionis'", (1961) 64 BIDR 69 sqq.; cf. also Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, pp. 17 sqq.; Liebs, Essays Honore, p. 177. But sec now Robin Evans-Jones. Geoffrey MacCormack. "Iusta causa traditionis", in New Perspectives in the Roman Law of Property, Hssays for Barry Nicholas (19891. pp. 102 sqq.

Kaser, (1961.) 64 BIDR 77 sqq., 83. This exception was probably another relict of the old notion of sale as a transaction that was immediately executed (cf. supra, pp. 237 sq.).

⁵³ Kaser. (1961) 29 TR 218 sqq.

^{^[4335]} We do not know what the position was if an (invalidi sale was immediately executed by way of mancipatio or in iurc cessio. Since these two forms of transfer of ownership were abstract, ownership must have passed, and a condictio (sine causa?: cf. Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, pp. 10 sq.) may have been available to the vendor. As Justinian eradicated mancipatio and in iure cessio, no sources have come down to us.

³⁵ Kaser, (1961) 64 BIDR 83 sqq.; Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, p. 20.

³⁵ Kaser, (1961) 64 BIDR 84.

^{^[4338]} For details, see Wacke, (1976) 79 BIDR 49 sqq.

^5W Cf. supra, p. 840.

^{^[4340]} The datio ob rem is contrasted by Paulus and Pomponius to datio ob causam: cf. Paul. D. 12, 5, 1 pr. ("Omne quod datur aut ob rem datur am ob causam"); Pomp. D. 12, 6, 52 ("Damus aut ob causam aut ob rem.,. ob rem vero datur, ut aliquid sequatur"); cf. also Paul. D. 12, 6, 65 pr. For an analysis, see Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 117 sqq.; Honsell, TWicfcaZwicfcZwng, pp. 73 sqq.; Francois Chaudet, Condictio causa data causa non secuta (unpublished doctoral en droit thesis, Lausanne, 1973), pp.89 sqq.On datio ob transactionem (mentioned, for instance, in Paul. D. 12, 6, 65 pr.. 1) and condictio ob transactionem, cf. Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 159 sqq., 257 sqq.; Sturm, Studi Sanfitippo, vol. Ill, pp. 629 sqq.

^{^[4341]} Reason: some late classical authors used the term "causa" in place of "res"; cf., e.g. Ulp. D. 12, 4, 1 pr.; Ulp. D. 12, 6, 23, 3; and the analysis by Liebs, Essays Honore, p. 173.

" On which cf. Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 132 sqq.

Literally: the action of debt arising where things have been given on a basis, which basis has failed to sustain itself; more freely: debt for non-materialization (tr. Birks, (1983) 36 Current Legal Problems 156).

^s These are the examples mentioned by Ulpian, D. 12, 4, 1 pr. For a detailed list of cases of application of the condictio causa data causa non secuta, cf. Chaudet, op. cit., note 59, pp. 47 sqq.; cf. also Detlef Liebs, "Bereicherungsanspruch wegen Misserfolgs und Wegfall der Geschaftsgrundlage", 1978 Juristenzeihmg 698 sq.

^{^[4342]} For details cf. supra, pp, 250 sqq.

" D. 12, 6, 52. For a detailed analysis of the requirements (datio, ob causam, causa non

secuta), cf. Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 10 sqq.; Chaudet, op. cit., note 59, pp. 49 sqq.; cf. also De Vos,

Verrykingsaanspreekliklieid, pp. 10 sqq.

⁶⁶ Ulp. D. 12, 4, 1 pr. Does this mean that, before the moment of causa secuta, the (first) performance could be reclaimed at any time and for any reason (in particular, because of a

mere change of mind)? No, according to the traditional opinion: cf. Schwarz, Condictio pp. 266 sqq. Contra: Honsell, Riickabwickhmg, p. 74; Liebs, Essays Hotiore, pp. 172 sq.; cf. also the discussion by Chaudet, op. cit., note 59, pp. 66 sqq.

^{^[4348]} For details, cf. supra, pp. 532 sqq.

^6K If the condictio was brought on account of the fact that the person who had first performed had changed his mind, one often spoke of condictio ex paenitentia rather than condictio causa data non secuta (cf, e.g. Bartolus, Commentaria, ad D. 12, 4, 5 (Si pecuniam): "in contractibus innominatis, si ex una parte impletur, ex alia non: propter casum cessat condictio ob causam, quasi causa non sequuta: sed habet locum ex pocnitentia"); on the condictio ex paenitentia (which was just a subspecies of the condictio causa data causa non secuta), cf. Ulp. D. 12, 4, 3, 2 and 3; 12, 4, 5 pr. sqq. (particularly 12, 4, 5 pr., involving the case of "si pecuniam ideo acceperis, ut Capuam eas"); Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 20 sqq.; Schemer, Rücktrittsrecht, pp. 23 sqq.; Chaudet, op. cit., note 59, pp. 66 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II, p. 423; De Vos, Verrykingsaampreeklikheid, p. 10. Dogmatically, the ius poenitendi can be explained on account of the fact that the person who had first performed had not yet himself received the counterperformance. He could, therefore, not be sued by means of an aclio praescriptis verbis (and was thus not bound to the innominate real contract), for that action was available only against the recipient of the first performance.

® Originally the condictio causa data causa non secuta was confined to cases where the first performance consisted in a datio ob rem (cases, that is, that were to become innominate real contracts of the type of either do ut des or do ut facias); cf. Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 137 sqq. By the time ofjustinian (if not already in classical law) an extension had taken place and the requirement of dare ob rem (as opposed to facere ob rem) had lost its technical significance. Thus, the condictio causa data causa non secuta could be instituted to reclaim any (first) performance under any form of innominate real contract. Cf. Chaudet, op. cit., note 59, pp. 51 sqq. On the recoverability of operac in general, see Ulp. D. 12, 6, 26, 12; von Liibtow, Condictio, pp. 51 sqq.; Werner Flume, "Der Wegfall der Bereicherung in der Entwicklung vom romischen zum geltenden Recht", in: Festschrift Jiir Hans Niedermeyer (1953), pp. 111 sqq.; DJ. Joubert, " 'n factum as Grondslag van 'n Verrykingsaksie", (1975) 8 Dejure 166 sqq.; Wolfgang Waldstein, "Zur Frage der condictio bei irrtümlicher Leistung nichtgeschuldeter operae", in: Iuris Professio, Festgabe Jur Max Kaser (1986), pp. 319 sqq.

^{^[4351]} Cf. supra, pp. 578 sq.

¹ On lul. D. 12, 5, 5, see David Daube, "Turpitude in Digest 12. 5. 5", in: Studies in Roman law in Memory of A. Arthur Schiller (1986), pp. 33 sqq.

^{^[4353]} Ulp. D. 12. 5. 2. pr.

^{^[4354]} Ulp. D. 12. 5. 2. 1.

⁷¹ Ownership of the money obviously passed despite the causa being turpis: cf. Kaser. (1961) 29 TR 220: idem. (1961) 64 BIDR 85: Kupisch. op. cit.. note 34. pp. 13 sqq.: Liebs. Essays Hotwre. pp. 174 sqq.

^/l> Paul. I). 12, 5, 1,2: "Quod si turpis causa accipientis merit, etiamsi res secuta sit, repeti potest"; lul. D. 12, 5, 5; Paul. D. 12, 5, 9 pr. For all details, see Schwarz, Condictio. pp. 169 sqq.; Honsell, RuckabwickUmg. pp. 80 sqq.; De Vos, Verryldngsaanspreeldikheid. pp, 20 sqq.; Liebs, Essays Honore, pp. 174 sqq.

^{^[4357]} Cf. the heading of the Digest title 12, 5. He thus included the general statement by Ulpian about enrichment ex iniusta causa (D. 12, 5, 6; on which see supra) in this title.

Ulp. D. 12, 5, 6 is the only text relating to the condictio ob iniustam causam. No case law has come down to us. It is probable that this condictio was tagged on to the condictio ob turpem causam as a result of Theodosius' Lex non dubium, which had turned every

statutory prohibition into a lex perfecta (cf. supra, pp. 700 sq.); infringement entailed invalidity. "Ex iniusta causa apud aliquem esse" was thus taken to mean that the recipient of a datio ob rem had acted in breach of a statutory prohibition. The classical Roman lawyers, on the other hand, characterized notable breaches of statutory provisions (irrespective of whether they were perfect, less than perfect or imperfect) as turpis and would thus have granted the condictio ob turpem causam. Cf. Kaser, Verbotsgesetze, pp. 69 sqq.; Liebs, Essays Honore, pp. 174 sqq. The question of whether we arc dealing in D. 12, 5 with one or two kinds of (enrichment) actions is discussed by Gltick, vol. 13, pp. 50 sqq.; De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid, pp. 20 sqq.

⁷¹¹ Cf. also Honsell, Riickabwicklutig. pp. 88 sq. and the following passage from Faber's Rationalia in Pandectas, quoted by Honseil (n. 2): "Et tamen alterutrum evenire necesse est, ut vel is, qui turpiter accepit, retineat, aut qui turpiter dedit, condicat... minus tamen iniquum est, retentionem dari ei, qui accepit turpiter, quia iniquius et difficilius est dari actionem, quam retentionem: actio enim non datur, nisi iurc, retentio autem plerumque occasione magis, quam iure."

^{^[4360]} Paul. D. 12, 5, 8; cf. also Ulp. D. 3, 6, 5, 1; Pap. D. 12, 7, 5; C 4, 7, 2 (Ant.).

^H" Hans Hermann Seller, "§ 817 S. 2 BGB und das romische Recht", in: Festschrift für Wilhelm Felgentraeger (1969), pp. 381 sqq., cf. also Honsell, Riickabwicklung, p. 86.

^{^[4362]} Ulp. D. 12, 5, 4 pr. On the crime of stuprum generally, see Mommsen, Strafrecht, PP· 69i sqq., 694 sqq.

■ Ulp. D. 12, 5, 4, 3: "Sed quod meretrici datur, repeti non potest, ut Labco et Marcellus scribunt...."

^MUlp. D. 12, 5, 4, 1.

Paul. D. 12, 5, 3.

[4366]⁵Ulp. D. 12, 5, 2, 2.

[4367] Ulp. D. 12, 5, 2, 2.

"' Seiler. Festschrift Felgentraeger. p. 386; De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid. p. 23.

^8K Pap. D. 12, 7, 5 pr.; and the interpretation given by Seller, Festschrift Felgentraeger. pp. 386 sqq.

" Cf. the enumeration of the various possibilities in Paul. D. 12, 5, 1 pr. On turpitudo solius dantis in general, see Honseli, Riickabwickluny. pp. 90 sqq.

^w> Ulp. D. 12, 5, 4, 3: cf. supra, p. 846, note 82^A

"... illam enim turpiter facere, quod sit meretrix, non turpiter accipere, cum sit meretrix": a rather sophistic reasoning. Seiler {Festschrift Felgentraeger. pp. 383 sq.) draws attention to the fact that prostitutes registered with the aediles did not fall under the

provisions of the lex Itilia de adulterhs and were liable (since the time of Caligula) to pay tax. Thus it may have appeared to be inappropriate to label as "turpis" the acceptance of remuneration for an activity which was not only officially tolerated, but from which the State derived an income; cf. also Gluck, vol. 13, p. 53 and Honsell, Riickabwicklung. p. 92. On the position of a meretrix in general, see also Max Kaser, "Rechtswidrigkeit und Sittenwidrigkeit im klassischen romischen Recht", (1940) 60 ZSS 135; Joseph Plescia, "The Development of the Doctrine of Boni Mores in Roman Law", (1987) 34 RIDA 304 sqq. The authors of the ius commune appear to have entertained a lively discussion on when exactly a person may be classified as meretrix. Thus, for example, an 18th-century compendium gave the following definition: "Meretrix est, quae passim et palam omnibus patet, et cujus turpitudo est publice venalis, sicut in lupanari vel in alio loco, sive cum quaestu sive sine quaestu, pudori suo non parcens, palam se prostituat"; the author then asks how many men a woman must have had in order to qualify as meretrix and reports the view adopted by the glossators: "Glossa requirit, ut plures quam 23.000 admiserit"; on which, in turn, Count von Kreittmayr, the father of the Codex Juris Bavarici Criminalis (1751), remarked that, under those circumstances, no person in the world could be regarded as a harlot any longer. For all this, see (1983) 2 RI302.

® Liebs, Essays Honore, pp. 168, 177.

® Pomp. D. 12, 6, 19, 3.

⁹¹ lul. D. 12, 6, 32, 3.

^{^[4370]} Ulp. D. 12, 6, 26, 3: "Indebitum autem solutum accipimus non solum si omnino non debeatur, sed et si per aliquam exceptionem perpetuam peti non poterat: quare hoc quoque repeti poterit, nisi sciens se tutum exceptione solvit."

™Pomp. D. 12, 6, 16 pr.

^{^[4372]} Afr. D. 12, 6, 38, 1; Ner. D. 12, 6, 41; Tryphon. D. 12, 6, 64.

⁸⁸ For further casuistry on "indebitum solutum", see Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 76 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, pp. 541 sq.; Schwarz, Condictio. pp. 21 sqq.

^1,15 Gai. Ill. 91.

^UK! D. 12. 6. 1. 1; cf. also Ulp. D. 12. 6. 26. 3.

^и Cf.. in particular. Schwarz. Condictio, pp. 96 sqq. An exception appears to have existed in the case of fideicommissa; cf. infra, note 111.

“ Schulz. CRL, p. 616.

^1(B Paul. D. 22. 3. 25 pr. (interpolated; cf. Schwarz. Condictio, pp. 107 sqq.’).

¹¹¹¹ Cf. supra, pp. 604 sqq.. 606.

^{^[4380]} Cf.. for example. C 4, 5, 7 (Diocl. et Max.); C 6, 50, 9 (Gord.); Paul. D. 22. 6. 9. 5.

All these texts deal with a fideicommissum indebitum per errorem solutum; the heir had not realized that he could subtract the quarta Pegasiana. Fideicommissa were linked particularly

intimately to good faith, trust and honour. The moral duty of the heir to comply with the

wishes of the testator ("fidem praestare") was thus taken to prevail over his interest to assert his error iuris. For details, sec Fritz Schwarz, "Die Funktion des Irrtums bei Erfüllung gänzlich oder teilweise nicht geschuldeter Fideikommisse", (1951) 68 ZSS 266 sqq.; cf. also Winkel, op. cit., note 104, pp. 192 sqq.; Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 41 sqq.

“ Paul. D. 22, 6, 9 pr.; cf. supra, pp. 604 sq.

^1B Interestingly, the English common law, since the beginning of the 19th century, adopted a very similar approach; a plaintiff may not reclaim money that he has paid under a mistake of law: cf. Bilbie v. Lumley (1802) 2 East 469. The reason given by Lord Ellenborough was that "[ejvery man must be taken to be cognizant of the law; otherwise there is no saying to what extent the excuse of ignorance might not be carried" (p. 472).

Cf. further the analysis by Schwarz, Condictio. pp. 105 sqq.; Visser, op. cit., note 100, PP 45 sqq.

Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 52 sqq. But see also Gaspart-Jones, Hommage Dekkers. pp. 93 sqq., who disputes that any rule existed, at least in Justinian's time; whether or not the condictio indebiti was to be granted was determined according to what appeared to be equitable in the circumstances of the individual case.

^{^[4385]} Cf. Paul. D. 50, 17, 53 ("Cuius per errorem dati repetitio est, eius consulto dati donatio est"); Paul. D. 46, 2, 12 {"Si quis delegaverit debitorem, qui doli mali exceptione tueri se posse sciebat, similis videbitur ei qui donat, quoniam remittere exceptionem videtur"): Schwarz, Condictio. pp. Ill sqq.; Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 56 sqq.

^{^[4386]} Cf. supra, pp. 480 sq.

^{^[4387]} Cf. already supra, p. 846 (in pan turpitudine).

^{^[4388]} Paul. D. 12. 6, 65, 4: "Quod ob rem datur, ex bono ct aequo habet repetitionem: vcluti si dem cibi, ut ahquid facias, ncc fecens."

¹³ Ulp. D. 12, 4, 3, 7 C... sed ipse Celsus naturali aequitate motus putat repeti posse").

^12fl Paul. D. 12, 6, 15 pr. ("Indebiti soluti condictio naturalis est -.."); Tryphon. D. 12, 6, 64 ("... ita debiti vel non debiti ratio in condictione naturaliter intellegenda est").

^{^[4391]} Cels. D. 12, 6, 47 ("... quoniam indebitam iure gentium pecuniam solvit"); Marci. D. 25, 2, 25 ("... nam iure gentium condici puto posse res ab his, qui non ex iusta causa possident").

^I2H Cf., for example, Fritz Pringsheim, "Bonum et aequum", (1932) 52 ZSS 138 sqq.; Cesare Sanfilippo, Condictio indebiti (1943), pp. 56 sqq.; Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 304 sqq. Contra, especially, Santoro, (1971) 32 Aniiali Palermo 216 sqq.; Wollschlage-r, Symposion Wieacker, pp. 82 sqq.; cf also Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, pp. 25 sq.

¹²⁴ "Si et me et Titium mutuam pecuniam rogaveris et ego ineum debitorem tibi promitrere iussenm, tu stipulatus sis, cum putares cum Titn debitorem esse, an mihi obligaris? subsisto, si quidem nullum negotium mccum contraxisti: sed propius est, ut obligan te existimem, non quia pecuniam tibi credidi (hoc enim nisi inter consentientes fieri non potest): sed quia pecunia mea quae ad te pervenit, eam mihi a tc reddi bonum et aequum est." On this text, see Schwarz. Condictio, pp. 245 sqq.; Santoro, (1971) 32 Annali Palermo 273 sqq.

¹¹⁽¹ A deiegatio nominis, or debiti; on which cf. Kaser, RPr I, pp. 651 sq.

^{^[4394]} There is a vast literature dealing with the concept of causa (retinendi") in terms of the enrichment condictiones (as opposed to the causa required for the transfer by traditio), particularly as far as the condictio indebiti is concerned. Cf., for example, Sanfilippo, op. cit., note 128, pp. 52 sqq.; Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 191 sqq., 212 sqq.; August Simonius, "Zur Frage einer einheitlichen 'causa condictionis' ", in: Festschrift fur Hans Lew aid (1953), pp. 161 sqq.; Wunner, (1970) 9 Ronwiitas 459 sqq.; Kaser, RPrl, pp. 595 sq.; Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 1 sqq.; idem (1988) 51 THRHR 492 sqq.; Kupiscb, op. cit., note 34, pp. 16 sq. Cf. also J.E. Scholtens, "Condictio indebiti and condictio sine causa", (1957) 74 SALJ 261 sqq.

On which see David Hughes, "D. 12. 7. 2", 1976 Juridical Review 156 sqq.

⁰⁸ On the historical development, cf. Liebs, Essays Hottore, pp. 178 sq.

^№ lul./Ulp. D. 19, 1. 11.6.

^{^[4398]} D. 19. 1. 11. 6.

^14ACf. supra, pp. 91 sq.. 550.

^{^[4399]} Cf.. for example, lul. P. 12. 7. 3 ("Qui sine causa obligantur. incerti condictione

conseqm possum ut Hberentur.. lut. D. 39. 5. 2. 3 and 4: Ulp. D. 44. 4. 7 pr. and 1; Pomp./Paul. D. 19. 1.5.1; Wolf. Causa stipttlationis, pp. 152 sqq.; Kaser. RPr I. pp. 598 sq.: Kupisch. op. cit.. note 34. pp. 3 sq.. 11 sq. Apart from suing for liberatio. the promisor could also defend himself against the stipulator's claim by means of the exceptio doli.

“ Ulp. D. 12. 7. 1 pr.

“ lul. D. 12. 7. 3.

Ulp. D. 12. 7. 2; cf. also Ulp. D. 12. 7. 1. 2.

¹⁴" On which sec Gluck, vol. 13. pp. 189 sq.

A third group of cases usually classified and discussed sub titulo condictio sine causa specialis were those that fell somewhere in between the condictiones by transfer and the condictio ex causa furtiva. Cf.. for example, lul. D. 12, 1, 19, 1, as discussed supra, p. 840. This group of cases is included in Ulpian's comprehensive phrase "fc]onstat id demum posse condici alicui, quod... non ex iusta causa ad eum pervenit" (cf. also Liebs. Essays Honore,

p, 180). Generally on the condictio sine causa specialis, sec Glück, vol. 13, pp. 183 sqq., 187 sqq.; De Vos, Vcnykiii%saansprecklikheid, pp. 29 sqq.

Ulp. D. 12. 7. 1 pr.

^{^[4407]} Ulp. U. 12. 7, 1. 1.

^IS" Cf.. for example. Afr. D. 12. 7. 4.

^{^[4409]} On which see. in particular. Wolf. Causa stipulationis, pp. 33 sqq.. 40 sqq.

^E Cf. supra, pp. 532 sqq.

^B Cf. supra, p. 844.

^L5i Cf. Schemer, Rucktrittsrecht, pp. 23 sqq.; Wbllschlagcr. Unmoglichkeitslehre. pp. 61 sqq. ^B The quotation is taken from Struve, Syntagma. Exerc. XVIII, Lib. XII, Tit. lv, XV.

® He could, however, demand indemnification for these expenses: c?. Struve, Syntagma. Exerc. XVIII, Lib. XII, Tit. IV, XV; Schemer, Rucktrittsrecht, pp. 23 sq.

^{^[4411]} Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-practicum Lib. XII, Tit. 1V, Tab. ad IX

On the interpretation of "causa" in terms of the condictio causa data causa non secuta by the medieval lawyers (causa finalis), sec Alfred Sollner, "Die causa im Kondiktionen- und Vertragsrecht des Mittelalters bei den Glossatoren, Kommentatoren und Kanonisten", (1960) 77 ZSS 195 sq., 203 sqq.

[4412]

On which sec supra, pp. 687 sq.. 809 sqq. ^16>

Commentarii de jure civili, Lib. XIV. Cap. XXI. V. sqq. Wollschlager. Unmoylichkeitslehre, pp. 64 sqq. Cf. supra, p.

811.

^A8 Cf, as far as the parallel problem of the real contracts is concerned, supra, pp. 164 sq.

^{^[4417]} Cf. supra, pp. 537 sqq.

^1,1 Stryk. Usus modernus pandectamm. Lib. II. Tit. XIV. § 5; but cf. also idem. Lib. XII. Tit. IV. § 3; Gliick. vol. 13. p. 48.

ⁿ Grocnewegen. De legibus abrogates. Digest. Lib. XII. Tit. IV. 1. 5 si pecuniam: Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XII, Tit. IV, VI.

^{^[4420]} Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XII, Tit. IV, § 3.

^ra Cf. Schwarz, Condictio, pp. 117 sqq.

^m The question as to which cases exactly (if any!) are still covered by the condictio causa data causa non secuta is highly controversial: one of the many major battlefields of legal dispute in the law of unjustified enrichment. Cf., as far as modern German law is concerned, Alfred Sollner, "Der Bercichcrungsanspruch wegen Nichteintntt des mit der Leistung bezweckten Erfolges (§ 812 Abs. 1 S. 2, 2. Halbsatz BGB)", (1963) 163 Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 20 sqq.; Honseil, Riickab Wicklung, pp. 75 sqq.; Liebs, 1978 Juristenzeitung 697 sqq.; Dieter Reuter, Michael Martinck, Ungerechtfertigte Bereichemng (1983), pp. 146 sqq.; Manfred Lieb, in: Miincliener Kotntnentar, vol. Ill, 2 (2nd. ed., 1986), § 812, nn. 158 sqq.; Martin Weber, "Bereicherungsanspruche wegen enttauschrer Erwartung?", \989 Juristen Zeitung 25 sqq. For Roman-Dutch and South African law, cf. Wessels. Contract, nn. 3721 sqq.; De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreektikheid, pp. 62 sqq., 154 sqq.; the position in Swiss law (art. 62, 2 OR) is analysed by Chaudet, op. dt., note 59, pp. 15 sqq. and passim (who comes to the conclusion that the condictio causa data causa non secuta is a relic of the past that has no place in modern law; for a similar verdict, cf. already Ernst von Caemmerer, "Bereicherung und unerlaubte Handlung", in: Cesammelte Schriften, vol. I (1968), pp. 222 sq.).

^{^[4423]} The right to demand restitution is barred, however, if the attainment of the intended result was impossible from the beginning, and the person performing knew this: § 815 BGB.

Cf. already C. 5, 3, 2 (Alex.); as to the recoverability of a dowry given for a marriage which subsequently does not take place, cf. D. 12, 4, 6 sqq. and many other texts (cf. Chaudet, op. at., note 59, p. 47, n. 10).

^{^[4425]} Cf. already C. 4, 6, 7 (Diocl. et Max.)-

Cf. already Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 6.

® On donadones sub modo (which could, according to Roman law, be reclaimed by means of the condictio causa data causa non secuta if the beneficiary did not fulfil the donor's wish), cf. Kaser, RPr I, p. 259; Liebs, 1978 Juristenzeitung 699; Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XII, Tit. IV, § 8; Wessels, Contract, n. 3734; Windscheid/Kipp, § 368; as far as modern German law is concerned, see the statutory provisions of §§ 525 sqq. BGB (§ 527: "If the execution of the burden remains unperformed the donor may, under the conditions specified for the right of rescission in the case of mutual contracts, demand return of the gift under the provisions relating to the return of unjust enrichment to the extent that the gift ought to have been applied to the execution of the burden"}.

On the meaning of "turpis" and "iniusta" in this context, and on the question whether we are dealing with a single condictio or with two different ones, see Glück, vol. 13, pp. 50 sqq.; De Vos, Verrykitigsaanspreeklikheid, pp. 66 sq. (Roman-Dutch law); pp. 160 sqq. (modern South African hw); Jajbhay v. Cassini 1939 AD 537 at 547 sq. Today, in any event, we are faced with one condictio, covering both illegality and immorality: cf. § 817, 1 (on its legislative history, see Honsell, Ruckabwicldung. pp. 98 sqq.); Leon E. Trakman, "The Effect of Illegality in South African Law", (1977) 94 SAU 332.

^IKI1 The courts have, however, refused to apply the in pari turpitudine rule to the rei vindicatio: RG. 1923 Leipziger Zeitschrift fur Deutsches Recht 565 (566 sq.); OGHZ 4, 57 (65); BGHZ 39, 87 (91). Contra: Lieb, op. "cit., note 174, § 817, nn. 20, 25; Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 559 sqq. and many others.

Cf. especially Honsell, Rihkabwickhmg, pp. 1 sqq.

^{^[4431]} Cf. also Stratford CJ in Jajbhay v. Cassini 1939 AD 537 at 543 sq.: "It may be said that contracts of that nature are more discouraged by leaving the bereft plaintiff unhelpcd and the doubly delinquent defendant in possession of his ill-gotten gains. I cannot agree with this view, which I think would not so much discourage such transactions but would tend to promote a more reprehensible form of trickery by scoundrels without such honour as even thieves are sometimes supposed to possess, and public policy should properly take into account the doing of simple justice between man and man."

¹⁸⁴ Cf. supra, p. 846. For a modern discussion of the ratio legis, cf. Honsell, RUckabwickhmq. pp. 58 sqq.; Rcutcr/Martinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 203 sqq.; cf. also Trakman, (1977) 94 SALJ 330 sq.; Zwcigert/Kotz, pp. 309 sq.

^Iso C(.. in particular. Seller. Festschrift Felgenmieger, pp. 389 sqq.: Andreas Wacke. "Vorzüge und Nachteile des deutschen Bereicherungsrechts", in; Beiträge zum deutschen tmd israelischen Privatrecht (1977), p. 146; Zwcigcrt/Kotz, p. 309. The same point is emphasized, for South African law, by De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid, p. 162; as far as French law is concerned, see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 314 sqq.

^H For an overview of the problems arising from the application of § 817, 2 BGB and of the various suggestions that have been made to deal with them, see Honsell, Riickabwicklung, pp. 1 sqq.. 32 sqq. (who himself (pp. 136 sqq.) proposes drastically to restrict the range of application of the rule); contra: Zimmermann, Moderationsrecht, pp. 164 sqq.; Barbara

^{^[4435]} For a detailed discussion, see Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 73 sqq., 76 sqq.; as far as modern law

is concerned, see §§ 813 and 814 in fine BGB and Reuter/Martinek, op. cit., note 174,

pp. 129 sqq. On the notions of "causa" and performance "sine causa" in the context of the

condictio indebiti, see Visser, (1988) 51 THRHR 498 sqq., 502 sqq.

²³³ C 1, 18, 10.

²³¹ D. 22, 6, 7: "Iuris ignorantia non prodest adquirerc volentibus, suum vero petentibus

non nocet." On this text, see Winkel, op. cit., note 104, pp. 109 sqq.; on its relevance for

the right to bring the condictio indebiti, see pp. 200 sqq.

^J>5 For a detailed analysis, cf. Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 66 sqq.; for brief overviews, cf.

Koch, op, cit., note 104, pp. 116 sqq.; Coing, p. 494. ²⁰⁶ Fachinaeus, Controversiae iuris.

Lib. VIII, Cap. CVI.

It was essentially developed by the glossators and dominated during the Middle Ages: cf. Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 66 sqq., 92 sqq., 113 sqq.

^20R Fachinaeus, Controversiae iuris. Lib. VIII, Cap. CVI.

In particular, the ultramontani and the humanists. For details, see Visser, op. cit., note 100. pp. 110 sqq., 122 sqq.

" ⁰ Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XII, Tit. Vf VII.

In favour of the strict distinction between error iuris and error facti were, for example, Benedict Carpzov, Jurisprudentia forensis Romano-Saxonka. Franco/mil ad Moenum (1650), Pars

[4447] Const. XV, Definit. XLII; Lauterbach, Collegium theorctico-practicum. Lib. XU Tit. Vf

XVIII; cf. further the discussion by Fachinaeus, Controversiae. Lib. VIII, Cap. CVI; Glück,

vol. 13, pp., 135 sqq. As far as Dutch legal science was concerned, cf., in favour of the error

iuris/error facti dichotomy, Perezius, Praelectiones. Lib. IV. Tit. V, 14; Voet, Commentarius

ad Pandectas. Lib. XII, Tit. VI. VI sq.; contra: Vinnius. Institutiones. Lib. Ill, Tit. XXVIII, 6,

n. 3; Huber, Praelectiones. Pars I. Lib. Ill, Tit. XXVIII, 7; cf. also Grotius, Inlei ding. III.

XXX, 9. For further analysis, see Visser, op. cit., note 100, pp. 152 sqq.

South African courts have adopted the view that error iuris, generally speaking, excludes

the condictio indebiti; cf. Rooth v. S (1888) 2 SAR 259 (per Kotze Cj; the decision contains

an extensive investigation of the ius commune) and the analyses by De Vos, Verrykings-

aanspreeklikheid. pp. 182 sqq.; Visser, op. cit., note 100. pp. 235 sqq.

²¹⁷ § 814 BGB. For an analysis of the problems arising in modem law and a comparative evaluation of § 814 BGB, cf. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 299 sqq.; Konig, Bereicherung, pp. 39 sqq., 73 sqq.

For an overview, cf. Rolf Schmitt. Die Subsidiarittit der Berekherungsanspriiche (19691. pp. 67 sqq. On the medieval condictio sine causa generalis, cf. the detailed analysis by Sollner, (1960) 77 ZSS 190 sqq., 202 sqq.

²¹⁹ Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XII, Tit. VII, I.

^{^[4461]} On Roman-Dutch law, cf. the analysis by De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid. PPj71 sqq.

Samtel Cocccji, Jus civile controversutn. Francojurti et Upsiae (1740), Lib. XII, Tit. VII.

~ The condictio ob causam finitam; cf., for instance, § 1435 ABGB.

^{^[4463]} Cocccji, loc. cit. (based on Ulp. D. 19, 1, 11, 6 and C 4, 9, 2).

® Ulp. D. 12, 1, 4, 2.

²⁵ Cf., for example, Vangerow, Pandekten. § 628, II and III; Dernburg, vol. II, § 143; Windscheid/Kipp, § 422; "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 475 sqq.

System, vol. V, p. 525.

For an analysis, cf. Wilhelm, op. cit., note 231, pp. 38sqq.; Hammen, Savigny, pp. 198

Dawson, op. cit., note 119. p. 61.

^{^[4467]} Cf. the metaphor by Dawson, op. cit., note 119, p. 63. ²³⁽¹

Pomp. D. 50, 17, 206.

^{^[4469]} Cf. Helmut Going, "Zur Lehre von der ungerechtfertigten Bereicherung bei

Accursius", (1963) 80 ZSS 396 sqq. ^23K Coing, (1963) 80 ZSS 396 sqq.

"³⁹ The productive role played by the glossators in the advancement of the unjust enrichment principle has recently been emphasized by EJ.H. Schrage, "Qui in fundo alieno aedificavit. Die actio negotiorum gestorum utilis als Vorstufe einer allgemeinen Bereicb- erungsklage", lecture presented at the congress of the SIHDA in Salzburg (September 1988),

~⁴' Cels. D. 12, 1, 32, on which, see supra, pp. 853 sq.

"^4I On third-party enrichment in Roman law in general, see A.Μ. Honorc, "Third Party Enrichment", 1960 Actn Juridica 236 sqq.

²² Supra, pp. 853 sq.

^{^[4475]} lul. D. 12, 6, 33, on which see supra, p. 854 (note 133).

²⁴ Dawson, op. cit., note 119, p. 67 refers to the "problem that haunted the doctors".

^24tJ Yason de Mayno, ad D. 12, 1, 32 (Robert Feenstra, "Pe betekenis van De Groot en

Huber voor de ontwikkeling van een algemene actie uit ongerechtvaardigde verrijking", in:

Vit het recht, Rechtsgeh'erde opstellen aangeboden aan mr. P.]. Verdam (1971), p. 141); cf. also Dawson, op. cit, note 119, pp. 75 sq.

^24fl "His solis pecunia condkitur, quibus quoquo modo soluta est, non quibus proficit.”

~⁴⁷ Robert Feenstra, ”Die ungerechtfertigte Bereicherung in dogmcngeschichtlicher Sicht", in: (1972) 29 Ankara Universitesi Hukuk Fukiiltesi Dergisi 226 sq.

²⁸ For what follows, see the detailed analysis by D.H. van Zyl, Die saakwaarnemingsaksie as verrykmgsaksie in die Suid-Ajrikaanse reg (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Leiden, 1970), pp. 38 sqq. For a summary in English cf. also, by the same author, Negotiorum gestio in South African Lw(1985), pp. 84 sqq.

³⁸ Cf. Inst. Ill, 27, 1.

²⁵¹ For details, see supra, pp. 433 sqq., 443 sqq.

^{^[4483]} On this text, see Ernst Rabel, "Negotium alienum and animus", in: Studi in onore di Pietro Bonfante. vol. IV (1930), pp. 279 sqq,; Seiler, Negotiorum gestio, pp. 29 sq.; Van Zyl, Saakwaarnemingsaksie. op. cit., note 248, pp. 22 sqq.; Laser RPr I, p. 588, n. 20.

²³² Kaser, op. cit.

2M..j^A _rem> quani servus venditus subripuisset a me venditore, emptor vendiderit eaque in rerum natura esse desierit, de pretio negotiorum gestorum actio mihi danda sit...."

^{^[4486]} Cf. supra, pp. 441 sq.

^2b6 "... sicut ex contrario in me tibi daretur (actio), si. cum hereditatem quae ad me

pertinet tuam putares, res tuas propnas iegatas solvisses, quandoque dc ea solutione

liberarer."

²⁵⁷ Cf., in particular, Theo Mayer-Maly, "Probleme der negotiorum gestio", (1969) 86

ZSS All.

²³³ "Si cum servum, qui tibi legatus sit. quasi mihi legatum possedenm et vendiderim,

mortuo eo posse tc mihi pretium condicere lulianus ait, quasi ex re tua locupletior factus

sim."

²³⁵ For all details, see Van Zyl, op. cit., note 248, pp. 45 sqq., 58

sqq., 68 sqq., 79 sqq., 86 sqq., 94 sqq.; cf. also, as far as medieval jurisprudence is

concerned, Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 70 sqq.

³⁰ Molinaeus, op. cit., note 261, n. 105.

³¹ Traiti du central de mandat (appendke), n. 189.

²² Cf. supra, pp. 52 sq.

²² Those were the terms of the formula: Lend, EP. p. 282. On the Roman actio de in rem verso cf. Niederla'nder, op. cit., note 253, pp. 37 sqq.; Axel Brandi, Bereicherung ausfremdem Vertrag. Der Verzkht des BGB auf die Versionsklage (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Münster, 1966), pp. 3 sqq.; and, most recently, Geoffrey MacCormack, "The Early History of the 'actio de in rem verso' (Alfenus to Labeo)", in: Studi in onore di AmaWo Biscardi. vol. II (1982), pp. 319 sqq.; idem, "The Later History of the 'actio de in rem verso' (Proculus-Ulpian)",

³⁶ Dawson, op. cit., note 119, p. 85 speaks of "one of the most extraordinary accidents of history".

^{^[4500]} C 4, 26, 7, 3 (Diocl. et Max.).

³⁸ Kaser, RPr I, p. 607, n. 17; idem, RPr II, p. 107, n. 53; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p.379.

³⁹ Cf., in particular, the discussion by Honore, 1960 Acta Juridka 237 sqq. De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid. pp. 44 sqq. regards the decision as fundamentally unsound and contrary to elementary legal principles.

³⁸³ For what follows, see the comprehensive study by Berthold Kupisch, Die Versionskiage (1965), passim; cf. also Brandi, op. cit., note 273, pp. 24 sqq.; and, for briefer overviews, cf. Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 85 sqq.; Feenstra, (1972) 29 Ankara Universitesi Hukuk Fakiiltesi Dergisi. pp. 298 sqq.; Coing, pp. 498 sqq.; Kupisch, op. cit., note 34, pp. 37 sqq. More specifically on the glossators, cf. Schrage, loc. cit., note 239; on Roman-Dutch law, see Honore, 1960 Acta Juridka 243 sqq. and De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreekiikheid. pp. 86 sqq.

^{^[4504]} Cf, for example, Struve, Syntagma. Exerc. XXI; Lib. XV, Tit. Ill, LXXII: "Fundamentumhujus actionis est ille contractus, qui cumfiliofam aut servo est initus, ex quo utilitas domino patrive obvenit, adeoque hie isto perinde obligatur et convenitur, ac si cum ipso potius contractum esset."

■ ” In quartum et quintum Codicis libr. praelectiones (Lugduni. 1561). ad C. 4. 26. 7 n. 5 in fine: cf. also Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 86 sq., 171.

~⁹¹ Praelectiones. Pars II, Lib. XV, Tit. Ill, 2. On Huber's enrichment theory in general, see Feenstra, Festschrift Verdam, pp. 145 sqq. and De Vos, VerrykingsaanspreekHkheid, pp. 88 sqq.

²⁴² Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. CXXX, VIII, as translated by Dawson, op. cit.. note 119. p. 172.

^{^[4506]} Kupisch. Versiomklage, pp. 38 sqq.; Going, pp. 500 sq.

^{^[4507]} Meditationes ad Pandectas. Spec. CLXVII, I. Contra: Gluck, vol. 14, pp. 421 sq. zhc) Qn die background, the meaning and the subsequent interpretation of tins section, cf.

Kupisch, Versioitsklage, pp. 57 sqq.; cf. also Brandi, op. cit., note 273, pp. 35 sqq. For all

details, see Kupisch, Versiomklaqe, pp. 92 sqq.

^{^[4510]} Cf. Rummel, in: Peter Rummel led.),' Kommcntar zum ABGB, vol. I (1983), § 1041

(pp 1320 sqq.).

Kupisch, Versionskiage. pp. 70 sqq.

³¹¹⁴ For Italy cf. Giuseppe Bruno, L'actio de in rem verso (1900), who demonstrates that the actio de in rem verso continued to be used, until the end of the 19th century, as a general enrichment claim, even though it had not been adopted by the codicc civile of 1865.

³⁽¹⁵ Generally on the history of the law relating to unjust enrichment in France, cf. Lang, op. cit., note 30, pp. 34 sqq., 40sqq.; cf. also Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 92 sqq.; Coing, p.493.

³"° Cf, for example, Cuiacius, Lib. Ill, Tit. XXVI Codicis, Ad L. VII, in: Opera, vol. IX

(Mutinae, 1781), col. 288; further, see Kupisch, Versionskiage. p. 122.

³³⁷ Appendice to the Trade du central de mattdat, nn. 167 sqq.

¹⁸ Trade du contrat du prit de consomption. nn. 140 sqq. (these sections have recently been translated by W.J. Hosten, C. van Soelen, P. Ellis, Treatise on the quasi-contract called promutuum and on the condictio indebiti (Pretoria, 1987)).

³⁵ Cf artt. 1371 sqq. ("Des quasi-contrats") dealing merely with "gestion d'affaires" and "paiement de I'indu". For details cf. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 273 sqq.; Lang, op. cit., note 30, pp. 55 sqq.; cf. also Barry Nicholas, "Unjustified Enrichment in the Civil Law and Louisiana Law", (1961-62) 36 Tulane LR 619 sqq.; on "quasi-contractual" liability in French law, cf. also Carlo Augusto Cannata, "Das faktische Vertragsverhaltnis oder die ewige Wiederkunft des Gleichen", (1987) 53 SDHI 310 sqq.

^{^[4518]} Karl Salomo Zacharia von Lingenthal, Handbuch des Franzosischen Civitrechts (1808), vol II, §§ 399 sqq.

Cf., for example, artt. 1241, 1312, 1926 code civil. The operative phrase is "tourner au profit". Cf. further Lang, op. cit., note 30, pp. 62 sqq.

C. Aubry, C. Ran, Cours de droit civil jrancais d'apris la methode de Zackariae (4th ed.)> vol. VI (1873), pp. 246 sq.

^{^[4521]} 15. 6. 1892, Recueil Dalhz 1892 (Premiere partie), p. 596.

^{^[4522]} For details, see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 276 sqq.; Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 100 sqq., Nicholas, (1961-62) 36 Tulane LR 622 sqq.; Detlef Konig, Der Bereicherungsanspruch gegen den Drittempjanger einer Vertragsleistung nach jranzb'sischem Recht (1967). The actio de in rem verso can be resorted to only if no other remedy is available to the plaintiff ("subsidiarite de faction de in rem verso").

^{^[4523]} Cf. Kupisch, Ungerechtfertigte Bereicherung, op. cit., note 34, p. 43; cf. also, for Austrian law, p. 41.

^{^[4524]} Inleiding. III. XXX. 4 sqq.

^{^[4525]} Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II. Cap. X. II. ut qui pecuniam patri credidit ad alendum filium, si pater solvendo non sit, in ipsum filium bona materna habentem actionem habeat").

^{^[4526]} Marginal note in Grotius' own copy of the Inleiding; cf. Feenstra, Festschrift Verdant, p. 138.

³¹⁴ Cf., for example, Inleiding, III, XXX, 18 and a letter to his brother, Willem, written in March 1616 (as quoted and discussed by Feenstra, Festschrift Verdam, pp. 143 sq.).

³²⁽¹ Robert Feenstra, "L'influence de la scolastique cspagnole sur Grotius en droit prive: quelqucs experiences dans des questions de fond et de forme, concernant notamment les doctrines de 1'erreur et de I'enrichissement sans cause", in: Fata inris Romani (1974), pp. 338 sqq.

Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. X, II. On the systematic division between obligations arising "e rebus extantibus" and "e rebus non extantibus" (both subdivisions of obligations "ex dominio") ct. Feenstra, Festschrift Verdam, p. 140; idem, Fata juris Romani, pp. 354 sqq. For an analysis of what constituted, in Grotius' view, the basis of the obligation to render restitution cf. Birks/McLeod, (1986) 6 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 59 sqq.

^{^[4530]} Reason: "quia quatenus ex meo lucratus cs, plus habes, cum ego minus habeam: introducta autem sunt dominia ad servandam aequalitatem in eo scilicet, ut quisque suum haberet."

^{^[4531]} III, I, 9.

³⁴III, I, 14.

³⁵ III, I, 15.

³²¹ III, XXX, 1 ("Obligation from enrichment arises when someone without legal title derives or may derive advantage from another person's property"; transl. by Lee).

^{^[4535]} III, XXX, 18 ("... repetition of anything which in any other way, without gift, payment, or promise, has come to a man from another man's property apart from any lawful cause"; transl. by Lee).

Feenstra, Festschrift Verdant pp. 137 sqq. Contra: De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid. PP.-7I sqq.

Praelectiones. Pars II, Lib. XV, Tit. Ill, 2; for details, see Feenstra, Festschrift Verdant. pp. 145 sqq.; cf. also Birks/McLeod, (1986) 6 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 72 sqq.

^и For details, see J.E. Scholtens, "The General Enrichment Action That Was", (1966) 83 SALJ395 sqq.; De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid. pp. 110 sqq.

^Muller v. Grobbelaar 1946 OPD 272 at 278; cf. also Pucjlowsld v. Johnston's Executor 1946 WLD 1 at 3 sq.: "Save, as a rather nebulous generalization, there was not in Roman law and there is now in Roman-Dutch law no rule which lays down categorically that no person shall be enriched at the expense of another, without legal cause. The alleged rule is a generalization, not borne out by legal phenomena." But see also Pretorius v. Van Zxl 1927 OPD 226 at 229.

^{^[4540]} The cause сШЬге, in which the restrictive attitude has been confirmed (though, possibly, not for all time; cf. the indication by Botha JA on pp. 139 sq. that the time may come when South African law will be ripe to accept and integrate a general enrichment action), is Nortje v. Pool 1966 (3) SA 96 (A). For criticism of this decision, see Scholtens, (1966) 83 SAU 391 sqq.; J.C. van der Walt, (1966) 29 THRHR 374 sqq.; De Vos, Verrykingsaanspreeklikheid. pp. 311 sqq.

³⁰ In the second commission; cf. "Protokolle". in: Mugdan, vol. II. pp. 1169 sqq. as opposed to §§ 737 sqq. of the first draft (on which, see "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 463 sqq.). On the influence of Bernhard Windscheid (who had retained the Roman condictiones as specific expressions of his Voraussetzungs- (presupposition) doctrine; cf. Windscheid/Kipp, §§ 421 sqq.) on the first draft, as far as the law of unjustified enrichment is concerned, cf. Werner Schubert, "Windscheid und das Bcreichcrimgsrecht des 1. Entwurfs des BGB", (1975) 92 ZSS 186 sqq.

^{^[4542]} Especially not concerning the question of the extent of the enrichment claim (§ 818 BGB); cf. Axel Flessncr, Wegfall der Bereichenmg (1970), pp. 26 sqq. referring to Andreas von Tuhr, Walter Wilburg and Werner Flume as the most influential critics.

^{^[4543]} The distinction between condictio indebiti and condictio sine causa is not reflected in the wording of § 812 I 1 BGB. On the distinction, and the respective spheres of application, of the condictiones indebiti and sine causa, cf. Reuter/Marrinck, op. cit., note 174, pp. 126 sqq. The issue is without any practical relevance.

-⁴³ Cf. supra, pp. 863 sqq.

^{^[4545]} For a crisp and lucid exposition of the modern German law of unjustified enrichment in English, see Brice Dickson, "The Faw of Restitution in the Federal Republic of Germany: A comparison with English Law”, (1987) 36 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 771 sqq.; cf. also Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 119 sqq.; Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 210 sqq., 232 sqq.

¹⁴⁵ Erich Jung, Die Bereichemiigsanspriiche und dcr Mangel des rechtlichen Gmndes (1902); Robert

Krawiclicki, Gmndlagen des Berekhenmgsampmchs (1936); Fritz Schulz, "System der Rechtc

auf den Eingnffserwerb". (1909) 105 Archivjiir die civilistische Praxis 1 sqq.

³⁶ Die Lehre von der ungerechtfertigten Bereicherung nach osterreidnschetn und deutschem Recht (1934).

■ Ernst von Caemmerer, "Grundprobleme des Bereicherungsrechts", in: Gesammelte Schriften, vol. I (1968), pp. 374 sq.

Von Caemmerer, loc. cit.

^{^[4550]} Cf., for example, Hans-Wilhelm Kotter, "Zur Rechtsnatur der Leistungskondiktion",

(1954) 153 Archivjur die civilistische Praxis 193 sqq.; Hermann Weitnauer, "Die Leistung", in: Festschrift für Ernst von Caemmerer (1978), pp. 255 sqq.; Reuter/Martinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 80 sqq.; for criticism, see Berthold Kupisch, Gesetzespositivismus im Bereicherungsrecht (i978); Lieb, op. cit., note 174, § 812, nn. 23 sqq.

® The courts have, for some time, taken "at the expense" to mean that the person instituting the enrichment claim must have suffered a loss and that, furthermore, this loss and the enrichment of the other party must be directly related to each other (for a discussion cf. Ernst von Caemmerer, "Bereicherungsanspriiche und Drittbeziehungen'’, in: GesammeUe Schriften, vol. 1 (1968), pp. 321 sqq.). This proposition is not acceptable, however: the law of unjustified enrichment is not concerned with the compensation of losses.

³¹ The condictio based on an encroachment by the defendant is the most important enrichment-in-any-other-way claim within the typology proposed by von Caemmerer. The two others derive from the fulfilment of somebody else's debt (” RLi'ckgrijfskondiktion”) and from unauthorized expenditure on someone else's property ("Verwendungskondiktion”); cf. von Caemmerer, GesammeUe Schriften, vol. I, pp. 378 sqq.; idem, ’’Bereicherung und unerlaubte Handlung”, in: Gesammelte Schriften, vol. I, pp. 228 sqq. But in this regard there is still considerable discord among German writers. Thus, for example, Lieb, op. cit., note 174, § 812, nn. 182 sqq. favours a greater diversification of the enrichment-in-any- other-way claims. Reuter/Martinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 56 sqq., 232 sqq., 371 sqq. postulate a distinction between encroachment and ’’absorption” actions ("Abschopfungs- kondiktionen ").

^{^[4553]} Nor, incidentally, can the unlawfulness of the encroachment be regarded as the decisive element: cf. Lieb, op. cit., note 174, § 812, nn. 199 sqq.; but cf Schulz, (1909) 105 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 1 sqq.; Horst Heinrich Jakobs, Eingrijfserwerb und Vermogensverschiebung in der Lehre von der ungerecktfertigten Bereicherung (1964), pp. 54 sqq. If a businessman overtakes somebody else in contravention of the traffic laws in order not to miss a business appointment, he makes a profit by unlawful means, but is nevertheless not enriched at the expense of the person whom he overtook.

^{^[4554]} As, for instance, where the owner has allowed the other party to use or consume his object.

Cf, for example, Reuter/Martinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 32 sqq. Detlef Konig, commissioned by the German Minister of Justice, has recently recommended recodification along these lines: "Ungerechtfertigte Bereicherung", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge гиг Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. II (1981), pp. 1515 sqq. However, he also recommends inclusion of a general clause to accommodate miscellaneous cases. The positioning of the general clause (at the end of the draft provisions) corresponds to that of the condictio sine causa (§ 748 E I) within the system proposed by the first commission charged with the drafting of the BGB. For comment and criticism of the reform draft, see Manfred Lieb, "Das Bereicherungsrecht de lege ferenda", 1982 Neuefuristische Wochenschrift 2034 sqq.; Reuter/Martinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 67 sqq.

On third-parry enrichment in German law cf., in particular, the influential study by Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, "Der Bereichcrungsausgleich im Dreipcrsonenverha'ltnis", in: Festschriftfiir Karl Larenz (1973), pp. 799 sqq.; cf. further the overviews by Reuter/Marlinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 387-515; Lieb, op. cit., note 174, § 812, nn. 30-135 and Konig, Bereicherung, pp. 177 sqq. For a comparative analysis, see John P. Dawson, "Indirect Enrichment", in: lus Privatum Gentium, Festschrift für Max Rheinstein, vol. II (19691. pp. 789 sqq.; Konig, Bereicherung, pp. 219 sqq. Of fundamental importance in this respect is the refusal, on the part of the legislator, to recognize the actio de in rern verso ("Motive", in: Mugdan. vol. II. pp. 871 sqq.; on the application of that remedy in 19th-century German law—it was essentially confined, again, to third-party enrichment cases such as the one discussed in C. 4, 26, 7, 3—see Rudolf von Jhering, "Mitwirkung für fremde Rechtsgeschäfte",

(1857) 1 jhjb 330 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp, § 483; Kupisch, Versionsktage. pp. 114 sqq.; Brandi, op. cit., note 273, pp. 47 sqq., 55 sqq.; Reuter/Martinek, op. cit., note 174, pp. 18

sqq.; Konig, Bereicherung, pp. 182 sqq,, 203 sqq.). The underlying policy in not allowing the plaintiff to sue the third party is hinted at already in the genuine part of C. 4, 26, 7, 3

("... eins personam elegisti"): the plaintiff has chosen the middleman as his contractual partner and has thus relied on the willingness and ability of the latter to honour his obligation, He must seek his reward where he has placed his trust and cannot now decide to turn against a third party who has acquired the benefit through the middleman. This policy is generally regarded as sound today: cf., for example, Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 294 sqq.; cf. also (de lege ferenda) Konig, op. cit., note 354, pp. 1577 sqq.

^{^[4559]} Cf.T for example, the literature list provided by Lieb, op. cit., note 174, § 812, at the beginning.

³¹¹¹ Karl Larenz, Lehrbuch des Schuldrechts. Besonderer Teil (11th ed., 1977), preface and p.

466; Konig, Bereicherung, p. 225 (from a comparative perspective). It has been pointed out repeatedly that the practical solutions to individual cases are not normally in dispute; cf.

Konig, op. cit., note 354, p. 1520.

^{^[4563]} Zweigert/Kotz, p. 297: ",.. one appears to be entering another world."

- ' For a brief summary of the development, cf. Dickson, (1987) 36 International and

Comparative Law Quarterly 753: "Just as the law of contract developed out of the action in 'assumpsit', so, in turn, the law of quasi-contract developed out of the form of action known as 'indebitatus assumpsit'. Common heads of recovery under that action ('counts') were

(1760) 2 Burr 1005 (KB). For a most stimulating analysis of Lord Mansfield's use of his Roman learning in this case, see Peter Birks, "English and Roman Learning in Moses v. Macferlan", (1984) 37 Current Legal Problems 1 sqq. Generally speaking, the equitable principle enunciated in Moses v. Macferlan has not been well received; cf., for example, Holt v. Markham [1923] 1 KB 504 at 513 ("well-meaning sloppiness of thought"}; H.G. Hanbury, "The Recovery of Money", (1924) 40 LQR 35 ("Lord Mansfield definitely crossed the all too narrow bridge which leads from the sound soil of implied contract to the shifting quicksands of natural equity"); cf. further Dawson, op. cit., note 119, pp. 15 sqq.

^№ The Law of Restitution (2nd ed., 1978), pp. 13, 24.

GofT and Jones, Restitution, pp. 13 sq. Birks, Restitution, pp. 7, 16 sqq., 20 sq. and passim proposes a very similar pattern of analysis: the defendant must have been enriched, he must have been enriched at the expense of the plaintiff, the enrichment must have been unjust and there must be no other consideration that might bar the claim.

⁷¹ Cf, for example, Hussey v. Palmer [1972] 3 All ER 744 (CA); Eves v. Eves [1975] 3 All ER 768 (CA), both decisions relating to the problem of "constructive trust".

^{^[4570]} Cf., in particular, his splendid Introduction to the Law of Restitution (1985). The purpose of his book, as he himself describes it, is to find "the simplest structure on which the material in Goff and Jones can hang" (p. 3).

³³ For further indicia of this "wider movement by which Anglo-American common law has set about rectifying the error of having overlooked the subject for most of the century in which textbooks have re-shaped the law", see Birks, Restitution, p. 5; Michael Martinek, "Der Weg des Common Law zur allgemeinen Bereicherungsklage—Ein spater Sieg des Pomponius?", (1983) 47 RabelsZ 294 sqq., 305 sqq. Contra, most recently, Steve Hedley, "Contract, Tort and Restitution; or, On cutting the legal system down to size", (1988) 8 fournal of Legal Studies 137 sqq.; cf. also Atiyah, Rise and Fall. pp. 764 sqq. arguing that, while ideas of unjust enrichment permeate many aspects of the law, it would be wrong to extricate a separate body of law under that name; for a reply cf. Peter Birks, "Restitution and the Freedom of Contract", (1983) 36 Current Legal Problems 141 sqq.; on which, in turn, see P.S. Atiyah, Essays on Contract (1986), pp. 48 sqq. In Scotland restitution has been recognized as an established and independent source of obligations since the 17th century. For an analysis of the historical development, see Peter Birks, "Restitution: A View of the Scots Law". (19851 38 Current Legal Problems 57 sqq.

[4572] (-?· Dawson, op. cit.. note 119, pp. 3 sqq., I 1 1 sqq.

³⁵ Cf., in particular, George Palmer, The Law of Restitution (1978), vol. I, pp. 40 sqq.; vol. II, pp. 358 sqq. ("benefits conferred pursuant to an actual or supposed contract", "benefits actively acquired by the defendant through his own wrong", "unsolicited benefits").

³⁷¹¹ Restitution, pp. 43 sqq. Birks, Restitution, pp. 99 sqq. distinguishes between restitution for wrongs and restitution for unjust enrichment by subtraction. The latter category is subdivided according to three different factors rendering an enrichment unjust, namely non- voiuntary transfer (in the sense of a transfer that, under the circumstances, the plaintiff did not want to happen), free acceptance (i.e. what is recognized in equity under the name '’acquiescence”) and other miscellaneous cases.

^{^[4575]} Martinek, (1983) 47 RabclsZ 318 sqq., 330 sqq.; Konig. op. cit., note 354, p. 1521.

-^17K «81811 BGB.

^{^[4577]} § 818 III BGB. But see §§ 818 IV, 819: from the time of litispendence or from the

moment the recipient knows about the absence of a legal ground he is liable "under the general provisions" (§§ 292, 987 sqq. BGB); for further details, see Dawson, "Erasable Enrichment in German Law", (1981) 61 Boston University LR 2T1 sq., 303 sqq.

3K0 p_{or m} analysis "Restitution without Enrichment". (19811 61 Boston University LR 563 sqq.

³⁸³ Cf. supra, p. 882.

^3K4 Ulp. D. 26. 8. 1 pr.; Ulp. D. 26. 8. 5 pr.

³⁸³ Marei. D. 46. 3. 47 pr. For all details, see Hubert Niederländer. Die Bereichemngshaj- tung im klassischen romischen Recht (1953"). pp. 11 sqq.. 56 sqq.. 89 sqq.; Werner Flume. "Der Wegfall der Bereicherung in der Entwickkmg vom romischen zum geltenden Recht", in: Festschrift für Hans Niedermeyer, 1953. pp. 124 sqq.

^{^[4583]} On which see supra, p. 486.

^3H7Ter. Cl. D. 24. 1, 25.

35IH p_{or a}lj details, see Karlheinz Miscra, Der Bereichenmgsgedanke bei der Schenkung unter Eheeatten (1974), pp. 6 sqq.

^3HH Ulp. D. 24, 1, 7 pr.; Niederla'nder, op. eit., note 253, pp.' 11 sqq., 56 sqq., 67 sqq.; Flume, Festschrift Niedermeyer, pp. 116 sqq.; Miscra, op. cit., note 388, pp. 91 sqq., 189 sqq. For a detailed analysis of the reasons that may have induced the Roman lawyers thus to restrict the plaintiff's claim, see Misera, op. cit., note 388, pp. 216 sqq., 248 sqq.

^{^[4587]} Pomp. D. 12. 6. 7.

³⁴¹ Gai. III. 91; Inst. Ill. 14. 1.

³² Paul. n. 12. 1. 2. 1; Gai. Ill. 90.

^{^[4590]} Cf.. for example. Marei. D. 19. 5. 25; Flume. Festschrift Niedermeyer, p. 130.

^{^[4591]} Cf. supra, p. 837. note 28.

⁴¹¹⁴ Collegium theoretico-praaicum. Lib. XII. Tit. VI. XXIX.

^{^[4593]} Flume, Festschrift Niedermeyer. pp. 145 sqq. (who, however, at p. 144, draws attention to the fact that Duarenus had already abandoned the distinction between species and quantitas as the object of the enrichment claim and merely stated "eum a quo condicitur indebitum, eatenus damnari, quaternus sit factus locupletior"); Diesselhorst, op. cit.. note 400, pp. 42 sqq.; Flessner, op. cit., note 341, pp. 5 sqq.; Konig, Bereichenmg. pp. 52 sqq. The provisions of the Prussian General Land Law are still in tune with the traditional opinion; cf. in particular, § 193 116 PrALR.

Or, as it is often put, "innocent" receivers of unjustified gain must not be allowed to incur any loss as a result of the enrichment claim; they must not be required to "reach into their own pockets".

^{^[4595]} Cf. Dawson, (1981) 61 Boston University LR 271 sqq., who draws attention to a statement of the imperial Supreme Court (RGZ 118, 185 (187)) according to which the "principle of enrichment that is highest of all is that the duty of the enriched person to surrender... must in no event lead to a reduction of his estate by more than the amount of

^{^[4596]} "... malum passionis quod infligitur propter malum actionis": Grotius, Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XX, I; generally, see Eberhard Schmidhauscr, Vom Sinn der Strafe (2nd ed._5i 1971), pp. 34sqq.

■ Generally, on the distinction between criminal law and the law of delict, see Pierre Catala, John Anthony Weir, "Delict and Torts: A Study in Parallel", (1963) 37 Tulane LR 582 sqq.; Andre Tune, "Introduction", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. vol. XI, 1 (1983), nn. 49 sqq.; more specifically for England (crime and tort), see Percy H. Winfield, The Province of the Law of Tort (1971), pp. 190 sqq.; d. also Van den Heever, Aquilian Damages, pp. 1 sqq.

⁵ Green v. Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald v. Green 1914 AD 88 sqq.

^{^[4599]} Cf., for example. Pauw. Persoonlikheidskrenking. pp. 190 sqq.; J. Neethling, Persoonlikheidsreg (2nd ed., 1985), pp. 203 sqq. For Germany, see Andreas Wacke, in: Munchener Rammentar. vol. V, 1 (2nd ed., 1989), § 1353, nn. 39 sqq.

^{^[4600]} Crimes that result in harm to individuals do, however, normally constitute a delict. For a more detailed analysis, see Jean Limpens, Robert M. Kruilhof, Anne Meincrtzhagen- Limpens, "Liability for One's Own Act", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. vol. XI, 2 (1983), nn. 151 sqq.

902

^{^[4601]} Gai. HI, 88; c(. supra, pp. 10 sqq.

^{^[4602]} Cf. generally Tune. op. cit., note 2, nn. 32 sqq.

^H Supra, pp. 11 sqq. Cf. also G.H.L. Fridman, "The Interaction of Tort and Contract" (1977) 93 LQR 422 (who recommends a fusion of the two categories) and J.C. Smith, "Economic Loss and the Common Law Marriage of Contracts and Torts", (1984) 18 University of British Columbia LR 95 sqq. (who records the union of contract and tort, but warns that it may be premature to celebrate the nuptials).

^{Even comparative lawyers have their difficulties. Thus, Basil Markcsinis, "An Expanding Tort Law —The Price of a Rigid Contract Law", (1987) 103 LQR 354, after an analysis of how German courts deal with economic loss cases, criticizes English courts for expanding the law of torts rather than the law of contract. Christian von Bar, "Deliktsrccht". in: Gutachten itnd Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung des Schtldrechts, vol. II (1981). pp. 1685 sqq.. 1771 sqq.. on the other hand, after having examined the modern trends in French and English law. advocates de lege rerenda an expansion of the German law of delict at the expense of the contractual constructions employed de lege lata. On the nature of the liability arising from culpa in contrahendo (cf. supra, pp. 11 sq.. 244 sq.) cf. most recently. Dieter Medicus. "Die culpa in contrahendo zwischen Vertrag und Delikt", in: Festschrift fur Max Keller (1989). pp. 205 sqq.}

¹¹¹ Robert Stevens. "Medley Byrne v. Heiler. Judicial Creativity and Doctrinal Possibility" (1964) 27 Modern LR 161.

¹ Supra, pp. 12 sq.

^c Jeffrey O'Connell. "The Interlocking Death and Rebirth of Contract and Tort". (1976-77) 75 Michigan LR 662.

° John G. Fleming. (1982) 30 American Journal of Comparative Law 704.

¹¹ John G. Fleming, An Introduction to the law of Tons (1977), p. 1.

^B Cf., for example, John G. Fleming, "Is There a Future for Tort?", (1975) 58 Australian LJ 131 sqq.; Zwcigcrt/Kotz, pp. 433 sqq.; Tune, op. cit., note 2, nn. 21 sqq.

'" Charles Fried, Contract as Promise (IY8I), pp. 2 sq.

^{^[4612]} Cf. W.B.C. Palton, "Tort or Contract", (1966) 82 LQR 346 sqq.

must, in addition, be contra bonos mores). For an overview of the German provisions, cf. B.S. Markesinis, JI Comparative Introduction to the German Law of Tort (1986), pp. 24 sqq., 509 sqq., 513 sqq.

~ Cf. Schlechtriem, op. cit., note 28, pp. 63 sqq.; Weir, op. cit., note 18, nn. 52 sqq.

^{^[4614]} Art. 1382: "Tout fait quekoiique de I'hottttiie, qui cause d autrui uti dommage, oblige celui par la (ante duquel il est arrive, a le reparer, "

~^M Tr. Weir, in Zweigert/Kotz/Weir. p. 283.

² Van Wyk v. Lewis 1924 AD 438 sqq.

³⁶ LiUicrap, Wassenaar and Partners v, Pilkington Brothers (SA) (Pty.) Ltd. 1985 (1) SA 475 (A); cf. p. 500G, where Grosskopf AJA states that "the Aquilian action does not fit comfortably in a contractual setting like the present".

³⁷ See infra, pp. 1042 sq.

^3K P.Q.R. Boberg, "Back to Winterbottom v. Wright?— Not Quite!", (1985) 102 SALJ 213 sqq.; Dale Hutchison and D.P. Visser, "Lillicrap Revisited: Further Thoughts on Pure Economic Loss and Concurrence of Actions", (1985) 102 SALJ 587 sqq., 590 sqq.

^{^[4616]} Cf. infra, pp. 1038 sqq.

® "It is a familiar position in our law that the same wrongful act may be made the subject

of an action either in contract or in tort at the election of the claimant, and, although the

course chosen may produce certain incidental consequences which would not have followed

had the other course been adopted, it is a mistake to regard the two kinds of liability as

themselves necessarily exclusive of each other": Lister v, Romford Ice and Cold Storage Co. [1957] AC 555 (HL) at 587 (per Lord Raddiffc). Cf. Weir, op." cit.. note 18. nn. 67 sq. For criticism see Fridman. (1966) 82 LQR 428 sqq.

⁴ Winfield, op. cit.. note 2. pp. 8 sqq.: Tune. op. cit.. note 2. n. 5.

^{^[4622]} Supra, pp. 824 sq.

“B For a comparison, see Buckland/McNair. pp. 338 sqq.: Catala/Weir. (1963) 37 Tulane LR 573 sqq.: B.S. Markesinis. "The Not So Dissimilar Tort and Delict". (1977) 93 LQR 78 sqq

* Cf.. for example. Karl Scha'fer. in: Staudinqer (12th cd.). §§ 823-832 (1986). § 823. nn. 1-625 (334 pages).

^{^[4625]} For an overview cf. Limpens/Kruithof/Meinertzhagen-Limpens. op. cit.. note 5. nn. 5

For details, see infra, pp. 1031 sqq.

¹⁷ Catala/Weir. (1963) 37 Tulane LR 580.

⁴⁵ Zweigert/Kotz. p. 343.

^{^[4629]} Fleming Torts, p. 5. Cf also Ashby v. White (1703") 2 Ld Kaym 938 (per Holt CF);

Chapman v, Pickersgill (1762) 2 Wils 145 ("This action is for a tort: torts are infinitely various,

not limited or confined, for there is nothing in nature but may be an instrument of

mischief": p. 146). For a more modern case in point, see Rookes v. Barnard 11964] AC 1129

(HL) (establishing the tort of intimidation).

³³ Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, p. 525.

³ Derived from the Latin "transgressio" (Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 511 sq.). For

what follows see S.F.C. Milsom, "Trespass from Henry 111. to Edward III.", (1958) 74 LQR

Foundations, op. cit., note 51. pp. 249 sqq.

195 sqq., 407 sqq., 561 sqq.; idem. Historical Foundations of the Common Law (1969),

pp. 244 sqq. Cf also Theodore F.T. Plucknett, A Concise History of the Common Law (5th

ed., 1956), pp. 455 sqq.; C.H.S. Fifoot, History and Sources of the Common Law (1949),

pp. 44 sqq.

³² Cf. Fifoot, op. rit., note 51, pp. 81 sq. (A.D. 1373); on which, sec Milsom, Historical

^5э Cf. supra, pp. 777 sqq.

® Scott v. Shepherd (1773) 2 Black W892 at 894 sq.

^{^[4645]} Fleming, Tons, p. 17.

^5K Fleming. Torts, pp. Y3; cf. also Tune. op. cit.. note 2. nn. 71 sqq.

^{^[4647]} [1932] AC 562 (HL^-); on which see R.F.V. Houston. "Donoghue v. Stevenson in Retrospect". (1957] 12 Modern LR 1 sqq.; idem. "Dotioghne k. Stevenson: A Fresh Appraisal". (1971]24 Current Legal Problems 37 sqq.\). C Smith. Liability in Negligence (1984]. pp. 15 sqq.

[1932] AC 562 (HL] at 579.

^{^[4649]} Fleming. Torts, p. 94. But cf. also Smith, op. cit.. note 59. pp. 15 sqq. and passim, who argues that the law of negligence cannot be reduced to a single principle of liability.

¹² Cf. for example. Leatne v. Bray (1803] 3 East 593 at 600; but see also Percy H. Winfield. "The Myth of Absolute Liability". (1926] 42 LQR 37 sqq.; S.F.C. Milsom. "Trespass from Henry III to Edward III. Part III: More Special Writs and Conclusions". (1958] 74 LQR 578 ^sqq-

Cf. Fleming. Torts, pp. 18. 93 sqq.; Tune. op. cit.. note 2. nn. 71 sqq.; cf. also infra, pp. 1034 sq.. 1129 sq.

⁴⁴ For what follows, see Winfield and Jolowicz, pp. 116 sqq.

^{^[4653]} [IU91] 1 QB 86 (cf. infra, p. 1006, note 50).

^{also Kaser. RPrll, p. 343 and Hans Ankum, "Gaius, Theophilus and Tribonian and the Actioncs Mixtae". in: Studies in Justinian's Institutes in memory ofJ.A.C Thomas (1983), pp. 4 sqq.}

According to Hans Ankum, "Actions by which we claim a thing (res) and a penalty (poena) in classical Roman law", (1982) 24 BIDR 28 sqq., already in classical law. Traditionally it is held that the splitting up of the award is of post-classical origin; cf.. for example, Kaser, RPr II, p. 429.

^{^[4689]} hist. IV, 6, 19.

¹¹⁷ Cf. Paul. D. 47, 8, 1.

^raGai. IV, 8 ("secundum quorundam opinionc"); Gai. IV, 112; Ulp. D. 47, 8, 2, 27;

Ankum, (1982) 24 BIDR 18 sq„ 30 sq.

^ra Generally on actioncs mixtae, see Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp. 53 sqq. and the two articles by Ankum, Studies Thomas, pp. 4 sqq. and (1982) 24 BIDR 15 sqq.

^{12Etudes sur le fartum dans le Ires anciert droil remain (19151. pp. 380 sq.; Bernardo Albanese, "La nozione del furtum fino a Nerazio", (1953) 23 Annali Palermo 44 sq.}

^{^[4722]} Cf. D. 47. 2, 37. The original version of the decision is reflected in the words "Si pavonem meum mansuetum, cum de domo mea effugisset, persecutus sis, quoad is perit, agere tecum furti potero". Pomponius qualified it by adding "... ica potero, si aliqms eum habere coeperit". Cf. Huvelin, op. cit.. note 26, p. 619; Albanese, (1953) 23 Annali Palermo 51 sq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Contrectatio. complicity and furtum". (1962) 13 lura 82 sqq.

^2H Ulp. IX 47, 2, 52, 22.

^{^[4724]} Aulus Gellms, Nodes Atticae. Lib. XI, XVIII. 14.

Cf, for example, Schulz, CRL, p. 572 (referring to Mela/Ulp. D. 47, 2, 52, 22).

³ Paul Huvelin, "L'animus lucri faciendi dans la theorie romaine du vol". (1918) 42 X'RH 73 sqq.; Emilio Albertario, "Animus furandi", in: Studi di diritto rotnano, vol. Ill (1936), pp. 211 sqq. But see Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. LV sqq.; Thomas, (1968) 19 lura 1 sqq.; David Pugsley, "Animus furandi", in: Scritti in onore di Antonio Guarino, vol. V (1984), pp. 2419sqq.

^{^[4727]} Cf, for example, David Pugsley (1980) 15 The Irish Jurist 341 sqq. But see Alan Watson, "Contrectatio as an Essential ofFurtum", (1961) 77 LQR 526 sqq.; j.A.C. Thomas (1962) 13 Zwra 70 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack, "Definitions: Furtum and Contrectatio", 1977 Actajuridica 129 sqq.

^{^[4728]} Thomas, (1968) 19 lura 28 sqq.; idem, TRL, p. 353; J.P. verLoren van Themaat, Diefstal en, in verband daarmee, bedrog in die Romeins-Hollandse Reg (1949), pp. 23 sqq., 125 sqq.

⁴ Thomas, (1962) 13 lura 85; idem, TRL, p. 354 (Contrectatio "is best conceived as some positive physical interference with, not necessarily entailing actual touching of, the thing stolen").

² Op. cit., note 12, p. 48.

^{^[4731]} (1941) 57 LQR 470 sq.

^{^[4732]} (1961) 77 LQR 526 sqq. and "Contrectatio again", (1962) 28 SDH/331 sqq. Contra: Thomas, (1962) 13 lura 70 sqq. (pointing out that this would mean that one person can be

liable as an accomplice, even though he was not working in concert with the actual thief). As far as the case involving the toga is concerned, cf. also Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, p. XXIV.

MacCormack, 1977 Actajuridica 129 sqq. (quotation from p. 130).

⁵ Thus, for instance, the terms "dolus mains", "animus furandi", "animus celandi", "animus lucri faciendi" and others are used to denote the mental element of furtum. On the factual element of contrectatio, see MacCormack, 1977 Ada Juridica 144: "... [an] extraordinarily wide range of meaning... attaches to contrectatio. It is never defined in the texts and an attempt to express its essence produces some such statement as: contrectatio denotes a physical connection or contact between the property stolen and the thief. The point is both that the range of circumstances which might be held to constitute a physical connection is infinite, and that the opportunity for disagreement is immense." De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note 1, pp. 301, 311 regard contrectatio as a term without any specific meaning. On contrectatio, cf. further (apart from the literature already referred to) VerLoren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, pp. 8 sqq. and Carel Rainier Snyman, Die animus lucri faciendi en die toe-eieningsbegrip by diefstal: 'n regsvergelykende Studie, (unpublished LLD thesis, Bloemfontein, 1972), pp. 14 sqq.; on lucri faciendi gratia, see Snyman, pp. 33 sqq.

^{^[4736]} Peter Stein, "School Attitudes in the Law of Delicts", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi. vol. II (1982), pp. 281 sqq.

⁴ Cf., for example, Albanese, (1953) 23 Annali Palermo 43 sqq.; Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. XX sqq.; Thomas, (1962) 13 lura 86 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 614 sq.

^{AFor a discussion, see Albanese, (1953) 23 Atlitali Palermo 139 sqq.; Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 29 sqq.; J.A.C. Thomas, "Digest 47. 2. 21", in: Syntekia Vituenzo Arangio-Rniz. vol. II (1964), pp. 607 sqq.; MacCormack, 1977 Ada Juridica 134 sqq.}

^{^[4755]} Neither contrectatio alone (without the appropriate mental attitude) nor the mere theftuous intent (unaccompanied by a physical element) constituted theft. For the first

® Cf. Ulp. D. 47. 2. 50. 4; Gai. Ill. 202; Albanese. (19531 23 Annali Palermo 54 sq.; MacCormack. (19831 51 TR 274 sqq.

® Cf. infra, pp. 976 sq.. 986 sq.

For another interesting case of complicity, see Ulp. D. 47, 2, 52, 21: A wants to invest money by lending it to a person of good credit. He asks B for advice, who recommends C. C is indeed a man of substance. When it comes to handing over the money, however, B presents someone else (a penniless D, rather than the respectable C) under the name of C. B and D subsequently share the money. D has committed theft, B is liable "quasi ope... consilioque furtum factum sit". In this case, too. the veteres would not have hesitated to regard both B and D as actual thieves: cf. Paul, (ad Plautium) D. 47, 2, 67, 4.

^{^[4759]} MacCormack, (1983) 51 TR 283.

^{^[4760]} Huveiin, op. cit., note 26, pp. 385 sqq.; Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. LXV sqq.; Albanese. (19511 23 Annali Palermo 164 sqq.

^{^[4761]} Cf. for example. Stein. Studi Biscardi, vol. II. p. 285.

^{^[4762]} The crucial text is Lab./Paul. D. 50. 16. 53. 2. on which see. most recently. Stein. Studi Biscardi, vol. II. pp. 285 sq.. but also MacCormack. (19831 51 TR 276 sqq.

⁷¹ lav. D. 47. 2. 91. 1; Pedius/Paul. D. 25. 2. 21. 1; Pedius/UIp. D. 47. 2. 50. 2; Cels./Ulp. D. 47. 2, 50. 1; analysed, most recently, by MacCormack. (19831 51 TR 282 sqq.

* Ulp. D. 47. 2. 50. 2.

^{7non-manifest [heft was the more serious offence: cf. infra, note 185. Others who defended the traditional distinction (which was still preserved in artt. 157 sq. of the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina) drew attention to the fact that the apprehension of the thief was very disgraceful ("quia deprehensio tanta rurpitudo") and gave rise to clamour and commotion ("quia clamorem. tumultum... excitavit"): cf. Heinrich Janssen, Der Diehstahl in seiner Ent wicklung von der Carolina bis ziim Ausgang des 18. Jahrlutmierts, (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Gottingen, 1969), pp. 69 sq, (with the quotations from a commentary on the Carolina by Johann Paul Kress from 1721). For a more frivolous comment, cf. Plucknctt, History, p. 447: "No reasons seem to be evident for the rule [sc: that the manifest thief fared much worse than the one whose guilt was only established after a lapse of time]..., but some savages are said to adopt it as a special condemnation for those who are not merely thieves, but incompetent thieves."}

¹⁽¹ On concept and etymology of furtum manifestum, see Fernand de Visscher, "Le 'fur manifestos' ", (1922) 46 RH 442 sqq. (unconvincing); contra: Ernst Rabel, (1932) 52 ZSS 473 sqq.; cf. also the discussion by Jolowicz, op. cit.. note 12, pp. LXVIII.

Cf. Gai. Ill, 185 ("nam quod manitestum non est, id nee manifestum est"); Gai. I). 47, 2, 8 ("Nee manifestum turtum quid sit, apparet: nam quod manifestum non est, hoc scilicet nee manifestum est"). Cf. also MacCormack, (1983) 51 TR 271.

^{^[4799]} "... discreditable example of Roman conservatism": De Zulueta, Gains II. p. 199; cf. also Thomas, Institutes, p. 264.

^B For Germanic law cf. Heinrich Brunner/Claudius Freiherr von Schwerin, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, vol. II (1928). pp. 626 sqq.; for the old English common Saw, cf. Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 495 sqq.; cf. also Stephen, op. cit., note 9, p. 132, who draws attention to the fact that the division of thefts into manifest and non-manifest theft by Bracton was taken directly from Roman law.

¹¹¹ Op. cit., note 12, p. LXIX.

^B Cf. also Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, p. 495 ("... we doubt whether we can wholly acquit our forefathers of the [il-llogical idea that half-proven guilt is proven half-guilt").

^h Ancient Law, p. 223.

^{^[4804]} Cf. supra, pp. 915 sqq.

“^HCf. Gai. hl, 189.

^{^[4806]} On which see, most recently, Walter Selb, "Vom geschichflichcn Wandel der Aufgabe des 'iudex' in der 'legis actio'", in: Geddchtnisschnftfiir Waljgatig Kunkel (1984), pp. 423, 443; Max Kaser, "Unmittelbare Vollstreckbarkeit und Burgenregress", (1983) 100 ZSS 94. For a parallel in the old English common law (summary mode of dealing with "hand-having" thieves), see Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 160 sq.

¹²¹¹ Aulus Gellius. Nodes Atticae. Lib. XI. XVIII. 8.

^{^[4808]} Tab. 8, 12.

^{^[4809]} Tab. 8, 13. Cf. generally the sources and literature in Kaser. RPr I. p. 158 (n. 341; Wieacker, RR, p. 244 (n. 38); also Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. LXXIV sq.

^{^[4810]} Cf, Gai. D. 9, 2, 4, 1 ("cum clamore testificfare]"). On the parallel in Germanic law ("Geriifte"), see Wieacker. Festschrift jtir Leopold Wenger, vol. 1 (1944), pp. 129 sq.; for England, cf. Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 160 sq.

'~⁴ Gai. Ill, 190; cf. tab. 8, 16, as reconstructed on the basis of Festus. De verkomm signification?, sub "ncc" (but see Rcuven Yaron, "Si adorat furto", (1966) 34 TR 510 sqq.). The duplum is perhaps explainable, originally, as a form of taliation: the defendant must be placed in the same position, financially, as he had placed the plaintiff. Cf. Kelly, Roman Litigation, pp. 154 sqq.; Detlef Liebs, "Damnum, damnare und damnas", (1968) 85 ZSS 191 sq.

Cf. Schulz, CRL, p. 582; Watson, Obligations, pp. 231 sq.; as far as slaves were concerned, cf. still Pomp. D. 12, 4, 15.

^I2f)Gai. Ill, 189.

¹² The following were the main differences between the actio furti nee manifest! and the actio furti manifest!: the former had a formula in ius concepta (thus, it applied only to Roman citizens; to peregrini it had to be extended by way of fiction: cf. Gai. IV, 37 and De Zulueta, Gains II, p. 257). it lay for double the value and could be brought against the main perpetrator as well as his accomplices (on account of the "opevc consiliove" clause). The actio furti manifest! had a formula in factum concepta (since it was a praetorian creation), lay for fourfold the value and could only be brought against the thief himself, not against any of his accomplices (the formula did not contain the "opevc consiliove" clause; reason: " [i] s, qui opem furtum facienti fert, numquam manifestus est: itaque accidit, ut is quidem, qui opem tulit, furti nee manifest!, is autem, qui deprehensus est, ob eandem rem manifest! teneatur").

^I2* For what follows, see Gai. Ill, 184; Ulp. and Paul. D. 47, 2, 3-7; Inst. IV, 1, 3; De Visschcr, (1922) 46 RH493 sqq.; Rabel, (1932) 52 ZSS 475 sqq.; Jolowicz, op. at., note 12, pp. LXXHI sq.

" ¹. neutrum conim procedit, si id quod quaeratur eius magnitudinis aut naturae sit,

ut neque subici neque ibi imponi possit."

¹³⁷ For an overview, cf, for example, Egon Weiss, "Lance et licio", (1922) 43 ZSS 455

sqq^A; Franz Horak, RE, vol. XXIV, col. 788 sqq.; Wicacker. RR, p. 245.

™ Romisches Stra/recht, p. 748.

^ш For a detailed analysis, cf. Joseph Georg Wolf, "Lanx und licium. Das Ritual der

Haussuchung im altromischen Recht", in: Sympotka Franz Wieacker (1970), pp. 59 sqq.

^{^[4823]} Cf. Watson, Obligations, pp. 232 sq.

^M Gai. Ill, 193 ("quae res ridicula cst").

^№ Gai. Ill, 186, 191; Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae, Lib. XI, XVIII, It. Cf. David Daube, "Some Comparative Law—Furtum conceptum", (1937) 15 77? 48 sqq.; Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. LXXV sqq.; De Zulueta, Gains II, pp. 201 sqq.; Jolowicz/Nicbolas, pp. 168 sq. Of course, it could happen that the object had not in fact been stolen by the occupier of the premises but had been placed there by someone else. If that was the case, the latter was liable to the occupier under an actio furti oblati: Gai. Ill, 187, ГЛ.

Gai. Ill, 188, 192. By the time of Justinian not only the actio furti prohibit! but also the actiones furti concepti and oblati were obsolete: /nsi. IV, 1, 4.

^{^[4824]}. neque ea res arbitrio tuo restituetur": the clausula arbitraria. ¹⁴¹

Like all other actiones in rem: lust. IV, 6, 17.

^{^[4825]} Gai. IV, 7.

¹⁴⁷ Supra, note 13.

^I4M Cf. supra, note 15. Generally on the relationship between contractual liability and redress for furtum in locatio conductio, and on their interplay, seej. A.C. Thomas, "Furtum

and locatio conductio", (1976) 11 The Irish jurist 170 sqq.

¹⁴⁴ Ulp. D. 13, 1, 1 ("In furtiva re soli domino condictio competit"). For further details, see Wolfram Pika, Ex causa furtiva condicere im klassischeti romischen Recht (1988), pp. 35 sqq.

¹⁵⁽¹ Cf., for example, supra, pp. 6. 835.

^{^[4831]}IV, 4.

^{^[4832]} For a discussion, see Pika, op. cit., note 149, pp. 20 sqq. It is likely that the condictio was extended to cases of furtum at a time when "dare oportere" had not yet acquired the technical meaning of "to have to transfer ownership". Cf. further Pernice, Labeo, vol. Ill, p. 233; Schwarz, Condictio, p. 278; Roy Stone, "Gaius noster and 'Res nostra' ", (1966) 83 ZSS 357 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 618; but cf. also Liebs, Klagenkonkumnz, pp- 96 sq.

^131,3 Possibly not under that name, though: Schwarz. Condictio, p. 53: Pika. op. cit.. note 149, pp. 21 sq.

^{^[4834]} Gai. IV, 8; cf. also lul./Ulp. D. 11,3, 11,2("... quamvis enim condictione

hominem, poenam autem furti actione consecutus sit¹¹); Ulp. D. 13, 1, 7, 1; Pika, op. cit.,

note 149, pp. 28 sqq.

¹⁵ Ulp. D. 13, 1, 10 pr.

¹³⁵ Pomp./Ulp. D. 47, 2, 21, 10: "Quamvis autem earum quoque rerum, quas quis non

abstulit, furti teneatur, attamen condici ei non potest, idcirco quia condici ea res, quae ablata est, potest: et ita Pomponius scribit."

^{^[4840]} Ulp. D. 13, 1, 10 pr.

¹³⁵ D. 13, 1, 20.

^b9 Liebs, KlagettkoYikttrrenz, pp. 136 sqq.; Pika, op. cit., note 149, pp. 30 sqq.

^№ Apart from that, the plaintiff did not (as under the rei vindicatio) have the notoriously difficult task of proving his quiritary ownership. A third point was that, as a result of "fur

semper in mora", the defendant was condemned into the highest value that the object had had since the commission of the theft (i.e. the plaintiff was indemnified for lucrum cessans): Ulp. D. 13, 1, 8, 1; Paul. D. 13, 1, 13; Tryph. D. 25, 2, 29. For condemnation under the rei vindicatio the time of litis contestatio was relevant. On the advantages of the condictio ex causa furtiva, cf. generally Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 212 sqq.; Pieter Pauw, "Historical Notes on the Nature of the condictio furtiva", (1976) 93 SALJ 396.

^H Gai. D. 47,2, 55, 3; Ulp. D. 13, 1, 7 pr. and 1; Levy, Konkumnz, vol. I, pp. 416 sqq., 428 sq.; Liebs, Klagenkonkurrenz, pp- 91 sqq.; Pika, op. cit., note 149, p. 108.

^{^[4846]} For the technical details, sec Pomp. D. 47, 2, 9, 1; Levy, Konkurrenz, vol. II, pp. 90 sqq.; Pika, op. dr., note 149, pp. 109 sqq.

¹ '■ If a wife, in view of an imminent divorce, had stolen something from her husband, a special actio rerum amotarum (here the edict used the term "amovere" as opposed to merely "contrectare") was made available by the praetors to the husband (in classical law wives enjoyed the same protection against thefts by their husbands). It was a purely reipcrsecutory remedy and appears to have been introduced because theft was regarded as conceptually impossible between husband and wife ("... quibusdam existimantibus ne quidem furtum earn [i.e.: the wife] facere, ut Nerva Cassio, quia societas vitae quodammodo dominam cam faceret": Paul. D. 25, 2, 1). The actio rerum amotarum thus replaced both the actio furti and the condictio ex causa furtiva. Later, however, it was argued that theft was in fact possible in this situation, but that the matrimonial reverence owed by the spouses to each other prevented them from suing each other with the actio furti, a remedy which was penal and entailed infamia ("... aliis, ut Sabino et Proculo, furto quidem cam facere.... sed furti non esse actionem constitute» iure... nam in honorem matrimonii turpis actio adversus uxorem negatur": Paul. D. 25, 2, 1 and Gai. D. 25, 2, 2). This docs not, however, explain why the condictio ex causa furtiva should have been excluded between husband and wife; in fact, it may well have become available as an alternative remedy (perhaps only through Justinian's intervention) to recover the stolen property. Whether or not the condictio ex causa furtiva may be brought by spouses against each other has always remained disputed (cf.. for example, Gliick. vol. 28, pp. 48 sq. on the one hand, Windscheid/Kipp, § 454, n. 24 on the other). Those who answered the question in the affirmative usually argued that the actio rerum amotarum had been abrogated by disuse, since it did not give the spouse anything over and above what he could obtain by the condictio (Wmdscheid/Kipp, loc. cit.). For all details on the development and scope of application of the Roman actio rerum amotarum, see Andreas Wacke, Actio rerum amotarum (1963), passim; Liebs, Klayenkonkiirrenz. pp. 146 sqq.; Kaser RPr I, pp. 618 sq.; idem, RPr II, p. 436, ^M For an example, cf. supra, p. 939 (with note 132).

“ TRL. p. 360.

^las Cf. also Kelly. Roman Litigation, pp. 162 sq.. the classical actio furti... must have been in practice a fairly useless remedy").

^{^[4850]} Cf., for example, Mommsen, Strafrecht, pp. 260 sqq., 346 sqq, and passim; A.H.M. Jones, The Criminal Courts of the Roman Republic and Princip ate (1972), pp. 107 sqq.; Jolowicz/Nicholas, pp. 401 sqq. Some thefts were public offences already under Republican law—for example, plagium (kidnapping: D. 48, 15; Mommsen, Strafrecht, pp. 780 sqq.; Berger, ED, p. 632) and abigeatus (cattle-rustling; D. 47, 14; Mommsen, Strafrecht, pp. 775 sq,)—many others were added under the Principate (on furtum balneanum, theft committed in a bath-house, see D. 47, 17; on the crimen cxpilatae hereditatis, 15. 47, 19; Mommsen, Strafrecht, pp. 777 sqq.; Berger. ED, p. 418); generally cf Mommsen, Strafrecht, pp. 733 sqq., 760 sqq.; cf. also Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12, pp. Xll sqq.

^If>H For a similar process in the history of the early common law, cf. Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 157 sqq., 494 sq.

^Ir'⁹ Genuine, according to Kaser. RPr I, p. 617; idem, RPr II, p. 435.

¹⁷⁽¹ D. 47, 2. 57, 1 (suspected by Jolowicz, op. cit., note 12. pp. 8f> sq. and others).

ⁿ He even emphasized that it was open to the victim of a theft to resort to civil rather than criminal proceedings: cf. I). 47, 2, 93 in fine (interpolated: Kaser, RPr I, p. 435).

They were not received in France: cf. Auguste Dumas, Histoire des obligations dans Fanden droit fraticais (1972), pp. 33 sq.; Coing, pp. 506 sq.

^ra Cf. VerLoren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, pp. 38 sqq.; Snyman, op. cit.. note 39, PP- 45 sqq.

Cf., tor example, Gudelinus, Commetitani de iure novissimo, Lib. III. Cap. XIII, n. 18

("... fisco solo poenas ob vindictam publicam iudicio criminati persequentc"). On the factors militating against dealing with crime by way of delicta pnvata in general, cf. Coing, pp. 504 sqq. On the history (and eventual decline) of the poena dupli generally, see Karl Otto Schemer, "Der doppelte Fahrpreis oder der Geist des deutschen Privatrechts", in: Wege europäischer Rechtsgeschichte, Karl Kroeschel! zum 60. Geburtstag (1987), pp. 361 sqq., 367 sqq.

^i7,> Artt. 157. 158. In the case of art 157 the thief was. however, liable to be incarcerated if he could not pay the duplum (in accordance with the maxim "qui non habet in acre, luat in corpore"; cf. Ulp. D. 48, 19, 1, 3 in fine); according to art. 158, condemnation in quadruplum was applicable only if the thief was a respectable person and provided one could expect him to improve his ways (otherwise the penalties were pillory, whipping and banishment). Neither the duplum nor the quadruplum appears to have been applied in practice: cf. H. Holzhauer, HRG, vol. Ill, col. 1996.

¹⁷⁽¹ Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. I, XLVII.

^{^[4860]} Stryk, Usus mademus pandectamm. Lib. XLVII, Tit. I, § 1.

^{^[4861]} Cf. Gudelinus, op. at., note 174, Lib. Ill, Cap. XIII: "... omnes actiones apud nos reipersecutorias esse dicendum cst earumque omnium conceptionem esse in simplum."

⁷⁹ As far as Holland was concerned, cf. Groenewegen, De iegibus abrogatis, Inst. Lib. IV, Tit. I, § 5 poena; Voet, Commentarhis ad Pandectas, Lib. XLVII, Tit. II, XV.

^iao At the same time, the distinction between manifest and non-manifest theft became obsolete.

^B Wachter, Pandekten, § 214; Windscheid/Kipp, § 453, 2.

[4865] rjcrnburg, vol. II, § 130 in fine; cf. also Arndts, Pandekten, § 323 in fine.

- Originally, every act of theft carried capital punishment. According to art. 160 CCC (dealing with furtum magnum) the judge was no longer obliged to impose the death penalty. For details cf. Janssen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 91 sqq. For England cf. Stephen, op. cit., note 9, p. 129; Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 495 sqq.

^{^[4867]} Cf. artt. 157 sq. as opposed to art. 160 CCC. For a definition, cf., for example,

Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-praaicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. II, XII ("Ab Objecti quantitate in Magnum, secundum Const. Car. quod 5 solidos vel aureos eorumve aestimationem continet, vel excedit; et Parvum, quod est intra illam summam"); for a discussion of the distinction and its historical foundations, seejamsen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 68 sqq., 82 sqq. For England, where "both an old English and an old Frankish tradition may have conspired

to draw the line between 'grand' and 'petty larceny' at twelve pence", see Pollock and Maitland, vol. II, pp. 495 sqq.; Holdsworth, vol. ill, pp. 366 sq.

^llb This distinction related only to petty theft and it determined whether the thief had to pay duplum or quadruplum: see artt. 157 sq. CCC, Whether it derived (via the Italian jurisprudence) trom Roman law or from Germanic roots is disputed: cf. Janssen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 6H sq. It appears that already by the beginning of the 17th century the distinction was no longer observed in practice. Some authors even claimed that manifest theft deserved to be punished more mildly, not more severely, than non-manifest theft; among these authors were Carpzov, who argued (on the basis of the theory of ablatio; on which cf. supra, p. 939) that manifest theft was tantamount merely to attempted theft, and Johann Paul Kress, who drew attention to the fact that the manifest thief did not usually cause any damage, since he was able to return the object stolen: cf. Janssen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 71 sq.

¹⁸⁵ C(. art. 170 CCC e contrario.

^{^[4870]} Cf. R. Lieberwirth. "Oicbstahl". in: HRG_t vol. I. 1971. col. 730 sq.; Snyman. op. cit.. note 39, pp. 55 sqq. This view of theft prevailed throughout the history of the English common law: "There can... be little doubt that the 'taking and carrying away', upon which our later law insists, had been from the first the very core of' the English idea of theft.

'He stole, took and carried away': this is the charge made against the thief." Even Bracton's definition of the crime in terms of contrectatio (cf. supra, p. 923, note 10) did not change that, for the notion of contrectatio was "narrowed down to the case where there has been an actual physical change of possession effected by the act of the thiet without the consent of the person entitled to the goods" (Holdsworth, vol. Ill, p. 361); cf, further Stephen, op. cit., note 9, pp. 134 sqq. In the same vein, the Larceny Act of 1916 still provided that "a person steals who, without the consent of the owner, fraudulently and without a claim of right made in good faith, takes and carries away anything capable of being stolen with intent, at the time of such taking, permanently to deprive the owner thereof'. The expression "carries away", it was further specified, "includes any removal of anything from the place which it occupies, but in the case of a thing attached only if it has been completely detached". This definition of theft obviously did not include embezzlement, which, in turn, was made a separate crime in 1799 (with regard to servants or clerks; later extended to other persons too). For details, see Stephen, op. cit., note 9, pp. 152 sqq.; Plucknett, History, pp. 449 sqq. and s. 17 of the Larceny Act of 1916. The Theft Act of!968, however, has redefined theft so as to include (inter alia) embezzlement; it no longer requires an act of asportation but refers, instead, to the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another. For details, see Smith, op. cit., note 4, nn. 17 sqq.

^K Friedrich Schaffstein. Studien ~ur Entwicklung der Deliktstatbestande im Gemeinen Deutsche» Strafrecht i 1984). p. 35.

¹⁸⁴ For a discussion, see Janssen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 4 sqq.

" That is, at the very time when public law (of which criminal law is a prominent part; cf. Ulp. D. 2, 1, 3) emerged as a scientific discipline in its own right—a process which has recently been analysed by Michael Stolleis, Geschichte des offentlichen Rechts in Deutschland, vol. 1 (1988).

¹⁴¹ Cf. the observation by Vinnius, Itistitutiones, Lib. IV, Tit. I, 6, based on the example discussed in Paul. D. 47, 2, 40.

^{^[4875]} Practica nova, op. cit., note 8, Pars II, Quacst. LXXXV, 1; fora discussion of Carpzov's doctrine (and also of his fellow Saxonian Matthias Berlich's work, on which it was based), seejanssen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 8 sqq., 13 sqq.

^№ For details of the development, seejanssen, op. cit., note 109, pp. 17 sqq., 26 sqq., 42 sqq.; cf. also Lieberwirth, op. cit., note 187, col. 733 sqq.

¹⁴ Cf. supra, p. 922; for the development in England (where the narrow, Germanic concept of theft had always been adhered to), see Stephen, op. cit., note 9, pp. 145 sqq.; Plucknett, History, pp. 446 sqq.

^{^[4878]} That is, where they did not at the same time fulfil the requirements of any of the other crimes (as, for example, fraud).

^№ Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 229 sqq.; Wachter, Pandekten, § 214; Windscheid/Kipp, § 452.

^{^[4880]} On the nature of the condictio ex causa furtiva, cf. Pika, op. cit., note 149, pp. 102

sqq.; Gluck, vol. 13, pp. 230 sqq.; Pauw, (1976) 93 SALJ 396 sqq.; Windscheid/Kipp,

§§ 425, 453, 1; Baron, Pandekten, § 311. II.

¹⁵⁸ "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 475.

^№ Infra, p. 1036; cf. also Hugo Grotius, Inleiding, III, XXXVII, drawing together damage to property and theft under the heading of "misdaed tegens goed" (on which see Stnit v. Saipem 1974 (4) SA 918 (A) at 929 sq.).

^2(XI Cf. supra, pp. 889 sq.

²³ For a detailed analysis of Roman-Dutch law, cf. Ver Loren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, pp. 61 sqq.; cf. also Snyman, op. cit., note 39, pp. 61 sqq. The main respect in which

the Roman-Dutch crime of theft appears to have differed from the Roman delict of furtum

was that depositaries, borrowers, pledgees, etc., exceeding their contractual rights in respect of the thing, were not liable "moribus nostris" to criminal prosecution; reason: "quasi minores sint tales a pudorc recessus, quam ut infamiae et corporali subjacerent coercitiom"

(Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLVII, Tit. II, XV); cf. also Groenewegen, De legibus abrogatis, Inst. Lib. IV, Tit. I, § 7 placuit; Vinnius, Institutiones, Lib. IV, Tit. I, 6; but see also the analysis by VerLoren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, pp. 132 sqq.

²² Cf. supra, note 187.

An important catalyst in this reception process was the Native Territories' Penal Code of 1886 (applicable in Transkei). Its definition of theft (copied from Sir James Fitzjames

Stephen's draft Criminal Code) was substantially adopted by the most prominent South African textbook (Gardiner and Lansdowne, p. 1082) when it first appeared in 1919. In the same year, the definition was adopted by Kotze JP in R v. Siboya 1919 EDL 41 at 43 sq. KotzeJP (one of the most influential judges in the late 19th and early 20th centuries) seems to have had a particular predilection "om ons gemene reg oor diefstal in die [Transkeian Penal Code] te soek" (De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note 1, p. 311; cf. also pp. 313 sq.). For another prominent example of this tendency, cf. R v. Carehe and Kay 1920 CPD 471 at 474 (per KotzeJP), where s. 180 of the Native Territories' Penal Code is referred to as authority for the proposition that theft requires actual asportation.

²⁰¹ For a concise summary of where South African courts have followed and where they have refused to follow English law, cf. Milton, op. cit., note 1, pp. 601 sqq. According to j.C. de Wet (De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note 1, p. 307), this partial reception of English law has turned theft into " 'n byna onhanteerbare regsfiguur". "So seer is dit die geval", he- continues, "dat daar vandag op hierdie terrein omtrent geen reel is waaroor daar duidelikheid en censtemmigheid bestaan nie."

²² Percivat Gane, The Selective Voet, vol. VII (1957), p. 150.

²⁶ Cf., in this context, the remarks by MacCormack, quoted supra, note 39.

²⁵⁷ Cf. R v. Tarusika 1959 (1) R & N 51 (SR) at 51-2, where contrectatio is defined as a mere "touching or handling [of] the thing with a view to its asportation". Contra ("[a] mere touching of the thing is not enough") Milton, op. cit., note 1, p. 607 ; cf. also VerLoren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, p. 71 ("... uit ons hofbeslissmgs blyk dat blote aanraak nie voldoende is nie maar hantccr vcreis word").

2(№f _Op_ _cjt _note J pp_ 6Q7 _Sq_

^2m De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note 1, pp. 308 sqq.; contra: Milton, op. cit., note 1, p. 608.

^{^[4893]} R v. Makonit 1942 OPD 164 at 165.

²¹ According to R P. Strydom 1952 (2) SA 397 (T) at 399H-400A, in the case of theft of money the manipulation of cheques or a book entry may constitute a contrectatio even without the actual physical handling of any individual coins; but "[w)hen it comes to theft of an individual object such as a beast... the rule still seems to be that there must be an actual physical dealing with the thing concerned or some conduct which is akin to physical handling. As an example of the latter type may be mentioned the case where a bird or animal the property of another is enticed into an enclosure and captured and appropriated". Contra: Milton, op. cit., note 1, p. 607.

³² Cf. R V. Nerera 1939 SR 297 at 299; R v. Carehe and Kay 1920 CPD 471 at 474 (both under the influence of English law; cf. s. 1 of the Larceny Act of 1916). Contra: Moodley v. 51 (1914) 35 NLR 514 at 519; 51 c. Mlooi \92S AD 131 at 152; Milton, op. cit., note 1, pp. 606 sq.; Snyman, op. cit., note 39, p. 209. English law itself has now abandoned this criterion.

~¹³ Op. cit,, note 1, p. 603. Cf. also the detailed discussion (33 pages) by VerLoren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, pp. 66 sqq. (whose work also contains a valuable analysis of

contrectatio in Roman law: pp. 8 sqq.). De Wet (De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note t, p. 311) argues that already in Roman law contrectatio was " 'n uitgediende uitdrukking sonder *n spesifieke betekenis".

^{^[4897]} R v. Siboya 1919 EDL 41 at 43 sq.; Milton, op. cit., note 1, pp. 621 sqq.; Snyman, op.

cit., note 39, pp. 222 sqq.; but sec VerLoren van Themaat, op. cit., note 33, pp. 125 sqq.

English law itself has toyed for some time with the idea of including lucri faciendi gratia into

the definition of theft (cf. Blackstone, Commentaries, Book IV, chapter XVII, I and the

discussion by Snyman, op. cit., note 39, pp. 167 sqq.); it was rejected only in the case of R v. Cabbage (1815) Russ & Ry 292.

²⁵ Cf. the analysis by Milton, op. cit., note 1, pp. 616 sqq.; Snyman, op. cit., note 39, pp. 235 sqq.; but see also De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note 1, pp. 312 sqq., who argue

that the essential requirement is "die bedoeling van die dader om horn die goed toe te eien".

²⁶ Cf, for example, R v. Fortuin (1883) 1 Buch AC 290 (theft of the use of an ox is not a crime).

³⁷ R v. Mtaung 1948 (41 SA 120 (Ol.

³⁸ Cf. supra, p. 945 (with note 1831.

³⁹ 1955 (41 SA 247 (Al.

³⁰ R v. Sibiya 1955 (41 SA 247 (Al at 257C. The decision contains a very interesting dissenting opinion by Van den Heever JA (at pp. 257E sqq.).

²¹ Cf. The State v. NeUmapius 2 SAR 121 at 126 ("But this distinction fsc: between theft and embezzlement] docs not exist in the Roman-Dutch law.... Just as one may by our law commit theft by means of false pretences, so likewise may he commit theft by means of embezzlement"'); De Wet en Swanepoel. op. cit.. note 1. p. 317.

“ Milton. op. cit.. note 1. pp. 629 sq. ("fAn owner] commits theft where he effects a contrectatio of his own property when someone else has a special property or interest in it of which the owner intends permanently to deprive him"].

²³ The various actiones furti were already obsolete in Roman-Dutch law: cf. supra, note 179.

³¹ Cf. supra, pp. 886 sq.

^2r?> Minister van Verdedi'im; v. Van Wyk 1976 (1) SA 397 (T) at 400C-H; De Vos, Verrykwpaanspreeklikbeid.'p. 213; Pauw, (1976) 93 SALJ399 sq.

ff' Cf supra, p. 948.

^{^[4910]} 1988 (4) SA 315 (W). The last cases before Clifford v. Farinha were that of Minister van Verdediving v. Van Wvk (supra, note 225) and John Bell & Co. Ltd. v. Esselen 1954 (1) SA 147 (A).

^22H Clifford v. Farinha 1988 (4) SA 315 (W) at 320D-E: "The difficulty experienced by the plaintiff in establishing Aquilian liability, on the facts of the present case is that the defendant's intentional acts... were not intended to cause the loss of the vehicle, while the act which proximately caused the loss of the vehicle—namely the theft by a third party—was not attributable to any fault on the part of the defendant." But quaere. The question is not so much whether the defendant was liable for the second theft but whether—under Aquilian principles—she was liable for her own act of furtum. If so, she was liable to pay damages, covering the plaintiffs interest in the car. The fact that this claim would normally (i.e. without the interference by the second thief) have been settled by way of restitution of the car is quite irrelevant. Cf, as far as German law is concerned (to which Cilliers AJ refers (at p. 321) when dealing with the principle of fur semper in mora), § 251 IBGB and Jens Peter Meincke. 1980 Juristenzeitimg 677 sqq.

^{^[4912]} Minister van Verdediging v. Van Wyk 1976 (1) SA 397 (T) tinned on the same point. In that case the defendant had unlawfully taken the plaintiffs car and driven it to a dance. He parked the truck at a parking lot, where it caught fire and humt out. The court applied the condictio ex causa furtiva because it allowed the plaintiff to recover the highest value of the stolen thing since the commission of the theft. Again, I think, the plaintiff could also have received the same amount (value of the truck before it burnt out) under Aquilian principles.

’in,, Farinha 1988 (4) SA 315 (W) at 322G ("... there is nothing to indicate that the Roman-Dutch writers..., in dealing with civil actions based on theft in its various manifestations, considered a civil claim to be dependent on the particular manifestation of theft also being a crime").

^{^[4914]} Uip. D. 9, 2, 1, 1.

" Ulp. D. 9, 2, 1 pr. On the effect ot this clausula derogatoria and on the provisions preceding the lex Aquilia, see Pernice, Sachbeschädigungen, pp. 21 sqq.; Van den Heever, Aquiiian Damages, pp. 15 sqq. ("Oh how I wish that Ulpian had given us an inkling of these prior laws": Franciscus Balduinus); Kaser, Altrcimisches ins, pp. 132 sqq.; Fritz Pringsheim, "The origin of the lex Aquilia", in: Gesantmelle Abhandlungen, vol. II (1961), pp. 410 sqq.; J.Μ. Kelly, "The Meaning of the Lex Aquilia", (1964) SQ'LQR 81 sqq.; von Liibtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 22 sqq.; Lawson/Markcbinis, pp. 2 sq.

¹ But sec J.A. Crook, "Lex Aquilia", (1984) 72 Athenaeum 75 sq.

* Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 4.

Norr, Causa mortis, p. 128.

¹ Gai. D. 9. 2, 2 pr.

^{^[4920]} Ulp. D. 9. 2. 27. 5.

953

” Commentaruis ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. II, V.

^{^[4922]} Ben Beinart, "Roman Law in South African Practice", (1952) 69 SALJ 157; for a collection of further conjectures (Cuiacius, Bynkershoek and many others) c(. Johannes van der Linden in his notes on Voet, Commetttarhts ad Pandectas, printed (in translation) in Percival Gane, The Selective Voet, vol. II (1955), p. 550; Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 359 sqq.

The manuscript was found in a Veronese library; it is a palimpsest: some works of St. Jerome had been written over the Gaius text.

¹ Siro Solazzi. L'estinzione dell' obbligazione tie! diritto ratnana (2nd ed., 1935), pp. 72 sqq.; Frezza, Gctranzie, vol. I, pp. 5 sqq.; Gaetano Schenllo, "L'adstipulator", (1963) 10 RIDA 241 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 660; Honscll/Mayer-Malv/Selb, p. 285. An adstipulatio was primarily applied when the stipulator wanted to make sure that payment would be made after his death; a direct stipulation post mortem was invalid: Gai. Ill, 117; Berger, ED, p. 352.

^{^[4925]} For details cf. Levy-Bruhl, "La deuxieme chapitredcla loi Aquilia", (1958) 5 RIDA 507 sqq.; Giuseppe Grosso, "La distinzione fra 'res corporates' e 'res incorporates' c it secondo capo della 'lex Aquilia' ", in: Synteleia Vincenzo Arangio-Ruiz, vol. II (1964), pp. 791 sqq.; C. St. Tomulescu, "Les trois chapitrcs de la lex Aquilia". (1970) 21 lura 191 sqq.; Bernhard Schebitz, BeeecKnuty ah Ersatzes nach der lex Aquilia (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Berlin, 1987), pp. 147 sqq.'

^D Gai. Ill. 216.

^{^[4926]} Cf. e.g. Van den Heever, Aquilian Damages, p. 7; Den Bcinart, "Once More on the Origin of the lex Aquilia", 1956 Butterworth's South African LR 70; Theodor Joseph Gerke, "Geschichtliche Entwicklung der Bemessung der Anspruche aus der Lex Aquilia¹ ", (1957) 23 SDHI 61; Watson, Obligations, p. 234; Thomas, TRL, p. 363; Kaser, RPr I, p. 161; Paul van Warmelo, "A propos de la loi Aquilia", (1980) 27 RIDA 333; Richard A. Bauman, Lawyers in Republican Roman Politics (1983), pp. 83 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 364; Hans Ankum, "Quanti ea res erit in diebus XXX proximis dans le troisicme chapitre de la lex Aquilia: un fantasme florcntin". in: Religion, societe et politique, Melanges en hommage a Jacques Ellul (1983"). p. 171.

^b Paraphrasis institutionum. Lib. IV. Tit. Ill. § 15.

^{^[4928]} Gai. I. 3; plebiscita were thus practically equated to leges.

^{^[4929]} This point is emphasized by W.M. Gordon. "Dating the lex Aquilia". 1976 Actajuridica 316.

^{^[4930]} Cf. A.M. Honore. "The Background to Justinian's Codification". (1974148 Tutane LR 873. On Theophilus, who was also a member of the commission charged by Justinian with the drafting of the Institutes, cf. C. 1. 17. 2. 9 ("... virum illustrem magistrum iurisque peritiim in hac splendidissima civitate laudabiliter optimam legum gubernationem extendentem"’).

^B A.M. Honore. "Linguistic and Social Context of the Lex Aquilia". (19721 7 The Irish Jurist 145 sq.

² (19721 7 The Irish Jurist 145 sq.

³ Gordon. 1976 Ada Juridica 315 sq. comments (sarcastically?!: "It is. of course, well known that deans of faculties arc accustomed to putting together scraps of information and blending them into what they hope will be a plausible story...

² 1956 Butterworth's South African LR 70 sqq.; he argues that the main purpose of the statute was to protect plebeian property owners and to enable them to exact reparations for the losses which they had suffered at the hands of the patricians.

Cf. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 16; Jolowicz/Nicholas, p. 275; Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 126 sq.; but see, in support of Beinart, Bauman, op. cit., note 14, p. 83.

^{^[4933]} (1972) 7 The Irish Jurist 145 sqq.

²⁵ On which see, for example, H. Chantraine, in: Kleiner Pauly, vol. I. col. 632 sqq.

²⁵ Cf., for example, Plinius, Historia naturalis, Lib. XXXIII, XIII (42 sqq.).

²⁷ (1972) 7 The Irish Jurist 149 sq. Cf. also Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 36 sqq. who, for

different reasons than Honore, argues in favour of a date around 210 B.C. For an overview

of other opinions differing from the majority view, cf. Arnaldo Biscardi, "Sulla data della

'lex Aquilia' ", in: Scritti in memoria di Antonio Giuffre, vol. I (1967). pp. 77 sqq.

^{^[4940]} Cf. e.g. Norr, Causa mortis, p. 128; against Honore, see also Alan Watson, "Personal Injuries in the XII Tables", (1975) 43 TR 217; Georg Thielmann, " 'Actio utilis' und 'actio in factum'—Zu den Klagen im Umfeld der lex Aquilia", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi, vol. II (1982), p. 297; Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 31 sqq.

"⁹ It may, however, have been validly enacted even before 286 (the year of the lex Hortensia) as a plebiscite, provided it was endorsed by the Senate; cf. Biscardi, Scritti Giujfre. p. 81; Honore, (1972) 7 The Irish Jurist 146; Theo Mayer-Maly, (1974) 126 GottirAscht Gelehrte Anzeigen 132; Non, Causa mortis, p. 128.

" Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 22 ("Si mulier pugno vel equa ictu a te percussa eiecerit, Brutus ait Aquilia teneri quasi rupto").

¹ Cf. e.g. Biscardi, Studi Giuffte, pp. 83 sqq.; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 16 sq.; Mayer-Maly, (1974) 226 Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen 132; G. Cardascia, "La Portee Primitive de la Loi Aquilia". in: Daube Noster (1974), pp. 53 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 161; Thomas, TRL, p. 363; Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 124 sqq.; Honsell/Maycr-Maly/Selb, p. 364.

^{^[4944]} Theophilus' statement is confirmed by the scholiast to Basilica 60, 3, 1. Bauman, op. cit., note 14, p. 83 thinks that the accounts of Theophilus and of the scholiast are based on different sources (which would be an argument in favour of their credibility). According to Norr, Causa mortis, p. 127, the scholiast does in fact not link the lex Aquilia with the sccessio plebis. Generally on the reliability of the two Byzantine statements on the lex Aquilia, see Gordon, 1976 Ada juridica 315 sqq.

^{^[4945]} Kaser, for instance, thinks that the connection between lex Aquilia and lex Hortensia is spurious (RPr I, p. 161); but cf. Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 364.

³¹ Emphasized by Bauman, op. cit., note 14, p. 83.

²³ Cf. the summary given by Gai. Ill, 217.

^{^[4948]} Gai. Ill. 216.

^{^[4949]} Cf. David Daube. "On the Use of the Term Damnum", in: Studi in onoredi Siro Solazzi (1948), p. 155 ("Gaius' explanation is no explanation. It fails from whatever angle we look at it. It is one of the many rationalisations of historical difficulties undertaken by the Roman jurists").

^3M Cf., particularly, David Daube, "On the Third Chapter of the Lex Aquilia", (1936) 52 LQR 261 sq.; idem, Studi Solazzi, pp- 154 sqq.; Pringshcim, Gesammelte Abhandtungen, vol. II, pp. 410 sqq.

³⁵ Supra, note 2.

⁴³ Ulp. D. 9. 2, 1 pr. ("... sivc alia flex] quae fuit").

⁴ Tabula 8, 3; for all details d. Artur Volkl, Die Verfolgung der Korperverletzung imfmhen Romischen Recht (1984), pp. 144 sqq.

® Daube, (1936) 52 LQR 267 sq.

^{^[4953]} Pringshcim, Gesammelte Abhandlutigen, vol. II, p. 414.

⁴⁴ According to David Pugsley, "Si quis alteri damnum faxit", 1977 Acta juridica 299, the

three chapters were originally three different ieges.

® According to Pringsheim, Gesammelte Abhandlungen, vol. II, pp. 410 sqq., chapter 3 had

its predecessors, too. In fact, he detects five historical layers which succeeded each other in a logically and historically understandable manner. Pringsheim's analysis is based on the account provided by Gaius III, 210 sqq.

^4fI Cf. Daube. (19361 52 LQR 268. who argues that it requires a much more developed technique to amalgamate new and old rules than only to add the new ones to the old. He also suggests that it may have had some influence that, for a long time, statutes were written on srone; making an appendix was then easier than fitting in an interpolation. Cf., however, the reservations by Cardascia, Daube Nosier, pp. 67 sq. and Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 9 sqq.

^{^[4959]} But see Crook, (1984) 72 Athenaeum 16 ("... all too likely that what was quoted as the lex Aquilia in the days of Gaius and Ulpian was a heavily modernized text into which a sprinkling of obvious archaisms had been reintroduced for verisimilitude").

^{^[4960]} Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 11,6 ("Legis autem Aquiliac actio ero competit, hoc crat domino"); cf. also Gai. Ill, 154 a; Pernice, Sachheschadiguttgen, pp. 14 sq.; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 19; also, generally, Wittmann, Korperuerletzuitg, pp. 44 sq.

⁴⁴ Cf. e.g. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 19; Crook, (1984) 72 Athenaeum 70.

A comprehensive reconstruction of both chapters one and three in general has been proposed by Pugsley, 1977 Ada Juridica 295, 302. His views have not, however, gained acceptance.

^{^[4963]} Cf. e.g. Kelly, (1964) 80 LQR 78; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 21; Wittmann, Korperverletzung, p. 40; Crook, (1984) 12 Athenaeum IT, Hausmaninger, Lex Aquiiia, p. 7.

^5l Cf. e.g. Otto Lend, (1922) 43 ZSS 577; De Zulueta, Gaius II, p. 210 ("It is as certain as such a thing can be that Ceterarum — occisos is a gloss"); Pringsheim, Gesammelte Abhandlmtgen, vol. II, p. 416; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 21: Wittmann, Korperverletzung, pp. 39 sqq.; Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 114 sqq.

⁷¹³ Pcmicc, Sachbeschädigungen, p. 14; Lenel, (1922) 43 ZSS 575; H.F. Jolowicz, "The Original Scope of the Lex Aquilia and the Question of Damages", (1922) 38 LQR 221; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 21.

^{^[4966]} RPr I, p. 161 (trans. Honorc, (1972) 7 The Irish Jurist 138); cf. also the interpretation by Cardascia, Daube Noster, pp. 60 sq.

" For all details, see Fritz Schwind, Zttr Frage der Publikation itn romischeti Reeht (2nd ed., 1973), pp. 26 sqq.

³⁵ Dieter Norr, "Texte zur lex Aquilia". in: Iuris Prafessio, Festgabe fur Max Kaser (1986), p. 215; cf. also Honore, (1972) 7 The Irish Jurist 139 sq.

^{^[4969]} Honore, loc. cit.

^xCf. UIp.D. 9, 2, 27, 22.

^wCf Paul- D. 9, 2, 31.

*” Honore, (1972) 7 The Irifh Jurist 140.

^a This point is emphasized by Norr, Causa mortis, p. 125.

⁰² "ForentUther Qenitiv": Norr, Festgabe Kaser, p. 216.

^o Cf. Honore, (1V72) 7 The Irish Jurist 140 (who argues that the term ’'res" was used in an abstract sense before 120 B.C.) and Norr, Festgabe Kaser, pp. 215 sq., who shows that the words "ceterarum rerum" were used (in a generalizing sense: as far as other matters are concerned) by the Roman legislator; further, see Pugsley, 1977 Actajuridica 302.

^{^[4976]} It should have been "praeter hominem et pecudem occisum". But see Crook, (1984) 72 Athenaeum 73.

^{^[4977]} This discrepancy of terminology may, however, also be explicable on the basis that chapter three was drafted at another (later) time than chapter one.

has been advanced by MacCormack, (1970) 5 The Irish Jurist 170.

’"j. A. Iliffe, " 'Thirty days hath Lex Aquilia ", (19581 5 RIDA 493 sqq.; Watson.

Obligations, pp. 234 sq.; Wittmann, Korpervertetztmg, pp. 40 sqq.; John Μ. Kelly, "Further

Reflections on the 'Lex AquiHa⁷ ", in: Studi in onore di Edoardo Volterra, vol. 1 (1971), pp. 239

sqq.; Thomas, TRL, p. 364; V61kl, (1977) 24 RIDA 478; Thielmann, Studi Biscardi, vol. II,

pp. 299 sq.; Crook, (1984) 72 Athenaeum 74; Hausmaningcr, Lex Aquilia, p. 29; Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 116 sqq.—Norr, Festgabe Kaser, p. 217 contemplates retrospectivity in spite of "erit"; Cardascia, Daube Noster, pp. 72 sq. argues the other way round—that one can

maintain prospectivity despite reading "fuit".

^{^[5013]} Cf. supra, p. 963.

"" Cf. e.g. Daube, (1936) 52 LQR 261; d. also, most recently, Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 114 sqq.

¹⁽² Cf. supra, pp. 959 sq., 965 sq. (note 94).

^ICß It has been advanced by Wittmann, Korperverletzung, pp. 40 sqq.; approved by Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 366; Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 123 sq.; rejected by Ankum, Melanges Ellui, p. 178. For exactly the opposite view cf. Van Warmelo, (1980) 27 RIDA 347.

^{^[5014]} Cf. also Daube, Studi Solazzi, p- 146 (lectio difficilior); Cardascia, Daube Noster, p. 59.

¹¹¹⁵ Cf. supra, p. 960.

^{^[5016]} C(. e.g. Volkl, (1977) 24 RIDA 465 sqq.; also MacCormack, (1970) 5 The Irish Jurist 171 sqq. MacCormack agrees that the third chapter covered all types of objects, but he reads the "quanti ea res" clause backwards (fuit). In order to avoid the absurdities pointed out above, he is thus forced to argue that "urere frangere rumpere" originally expressed types of physical damage, which constituted a serious injury to a slave, animal or other object. Thus, it makes good sense to say that the owner received the highest value within the previous year (along similar lines, see Van den Heever, Aquilian Damages, pp. 11 sqq.; Beinart, 1956 Buttertvorth's South African LR 77; Iliffe, (1958) 5 RIDA 502 sqq,; Detlef Liebs, "Damnum, damnarc, damnas", (1968) 85 ZSS 197). But it is implausible that no protection should have existed against less serious (but more frequent!) forms of damage.

¹⁽¹⁷ Cf. Kelly, Smdi Volterra, vol. I, pp. 240 sq.; Volkl, (1977) 24 RIDA 477 sqq.

^{I(note 114)) cf. e.g. Ernst Levy. Privatstrafe und Schadensersatz im klassischen romischen Recht (1915). pp. 135 sqq.: Kaser, RPrl, p. 621;'Honsell/Maycr-Maly/SeIb, p. 365. Contra: Schulz, CRL. p. 589; von Lubtow, Lex Aquiiia. pp. 36 sqq., who attribute a purely penal character to the actio legis Aquiliae. They regard many of the texts contained in [he Digest as interpolated and do not even believe Gaius ("... has been added by a man who had in mind Gai. 4, 17T": Schulz, p. 589); but cf. Mayer-Maly (1974) 226 Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen 133. More recently, Hans Ankum, "Actions by which we claim a thing (res) and a penalty (poena) in classical Roman law", (1982) 24 BIDR 31 sqq. has also argued that the actio legis Aquiliae was purely penal. While rejecting von Lubtow's opinion as "ft]otally inacceptable" (p. 17), he argues that Gaius made a mistake (p. 19). Generally, one tends to believe that at least the penal element (if not also the compensatory one) was characteristic of the lex Aquilia from early on. For a different view (the original lex Aquilia did not have a penal character at all), ct Cardascia, Daube Master, p. 63.}

Since the actio legis Aquiliae was an actio mixta, it could not be cumulated with other reipersecutory actions; cf. Levy, Konktirrenz. vol. II, pp. 1 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 621; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia. pp. 35 sqq.; contra: von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia. pp. 69 sqq.

^B But see Geoffrey MacCormack, "Aquilian Studies", (1975) 41 SDMI 67 sqq., who regards it as misleading to picture the development of the law as a progression from objective (market) value to subjective interest. In his opinion, it cannot be assumed that the jurists, even at the time of the enactment of the lex Aquilia, applied inflexibly some particular standard for the assessment of compensation.

Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 23 pr.

¹¹⁷ III, 212. For further discussion of the problems arising from the killing of slaves instituted as heirs, cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2. 15, 1 in fine; Marci. D. 9, 2, 16; Ulp. D. 9, 2, 23, 1 and 2; Gerke, (1957) 23 SDHI66 sqq.; Alan Rodger, "Damages for the Loss of an Inheritance", in: DaubeNoster (1974), pp. 289 sqq.; MacCormack, (1975)41 SDHI 71 sqq.; Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 290 sqq.

¹ Paul. D. 9, 2, 22, 1 ("non solum... perempti corporis aestimatio facienda esl, sed ct eius ratio haberi debet, quo cetera corpora depretiata sunt"); Gai. Ill, 212 ("non solum occisi fit aestimatio, sed eo amplius id quoque computatur, quod ceteri qui supersunt depretiati sunt"); for a recent analysis, see Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 273 sqq.

^{^[5028]}m,212.

Trans. C.F. Kolbcrt, in: Justinian, The Digest of Roman Law, Theft, Rapine, Damage and Insult (1979), p. 80.

“ Paul. D. 9. 2. 22. 1.

^c "Illud non ex verbis legis, sed ex interpretations placuit.. Inst. IV. 3. 10.

¹³ Cf. e.g. Kaser. RPrI. p. 621; MacCormack. (1975141 SDHI 69 sqq.; Lawson/ Markesinis, pp. 35 sq.; Hans Ankum, "L'actio de pauperie et Tactio legis Aquiliae dans le droit romain classique", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. II (1982), pp. 47 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 367 sq.; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia, pp. 28 sqq. Contra: von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 121 sqq.; cf. also Gerke, (1957) 23 SDHI 66 sqq., 82 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 238 sqq.; Schebitz, op. cit., note 12, pp. 268 sqq., 355 sqq.

⁰¹ D. 9, 2, 21, 2; regarded as interpolated by von Lubtow, Lspeculations by Norr, (1987) 6 RJ 113. He thinks the actio legis Aquiliae in duplum may have been available only if the wrongdoer denied that he had committed the delict, not if he merely disputed that he had acted iniuria.

^{^[5044]} According to Norr, (1987) 6 RJ 113, thejurists in Rome were typically concerned only with cases where the question whether a particular person had committed the delict could not easily be disputed.

⁴ That litiscrescence could not have been what gave the actio legis Aquilia its penal

nature is also emphasized by De Zulueta, Gaius II, p. 230; von Liibtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 37

sq.; Cardascia, Daube Nosier, p. 70; Lawson/Markesinis, p. 5; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia,

pp. 34 sq.; but see e.g. Wittmann, Korperverhtzung, p. 41 and others.

^{^[5049]} Inst. IV, 3, 9 ("qua ratione creditum est poenalem esse huius legis actionem"); lust. IV, 6, 19.

^{^[5050]} "Aliquando" {Inst. IV, 3, 9); "imerdum" (Inst. IV, 6, 1У); but see Ankum, (1982) 24 BIDR 31 ("in many cases").

^I4H Cf., particularly, Cardascia, Daube Noster. pp. 57 sqq. ("ине veritable loterie avec un petit nombre de numeros perdants"'); also already. Pernice. Sachbeschädigungen, p. 121.

^14y Cardascia, Daube Noster. p. 63 therefore chinks that the accio legis Aquiliae was originally not an actio pocnalis. But cf. e.g. Mayer-Maly, (1974) 226 Gb'ttmgische Gelehrte An~ei%en 133.

“ Supra, pp. 961 sq.

^H Cf. the formulation by De Zulueta. Gains II, p. 210.

^E But see Ankum, f 1982') 24 BIDR 31 ("the excess is a penalty"").

^bv Ccls./Ulp. D. 9. 2, 7, 6. For a detailed analysis and the historical development of the phrase "causam mortis praestare", see Dieter Non, Causa mortis; for a summary in English of the main points, see Dieter Non, "Causam mortis praebere", in: The Legal Mind. Essays for Tony Honors (1986), pp. 203 sqq. Non's views have been favourably received by, inter alia, Willvonseder, (1988) 105 ZSS 737 sqq.; Mayer-Maly, (1986) 37 lura 148 sqq. and MacCormack, (1988) 56 TR 209 sqq.; for very critical comments, sec Watson, Failures, p. 83.

^lfl"Cf. e.g. UGH, 1971 Neue Jumtische Wochenschrift 1980 (1981); BGH, 1971 Neue Juristische Wodwiischrift 1982 (1983) (though not dealing with injury to life but to bodily integrity); Wolfgang Gnmsky, in: Miitichetter Kommvntar. vol. II (2nd ed., 1985), Vor § 249, nn. 61 sqq.

^{^[5057]} For further discussion, see Reinhard Zimmcrmarm, "Herausforderungsformel und Haftung fur fremde Willensbetatigungen nach § 823 I BGB'", 1980 Juristenzeitt tbng 10 sqq.

Cf. e.g. the discussion by Ernst von Caemmcrer, "Wandlungen des Deliktrechts", in: Gesammelte Schriften, vol. I (1968), pp. 478 sqq.

^{^[5059]} lul. D. 9. 2. 51 pr.; von Lublow. Lex Aquilia, p. 138. Cf also Lab./Ulp. D. 29. 5. 1. 17 concerning the senatus consultum Silariianum ("Occisorum appellatione eos contineri Labeo scribk, qui per vim aut caedem sunt interfecti..

^If'⁴ lul. D. 9, 2, 51 pr. Likewise, tresspass has traditionally been defined as the tort of inflicting direct and forcible injury; the formal allegation of the writ of trespass was that the defendant had acted "vi et armis et contra pacem Domini Regis". It was on the strength of this allegation (whether true or not) that the jurisdiction of the king's courts (as opposed to the local courts) was established. Cf F.W. Maitland. The Forms of Action at Common Law (1965), pp. 48sqq.

^IS D. 9, 2, 7, I: "Occisum autem accipere debemus, sive gladio sive etiam fuste vel alio telo vel manibus (si forte strangulavit cum) vel calce petiit vel capite [lapide? cf Wesel, Statuslehre, p. 83] vel qualiter qualiter."

^lffi Cf., in particular, N.H. Andrews, " 'Occidere' and the lex Aquilia", (1987) 46 Cambridge LJ 315 sqq.

^{^[5063]} Lab./Ulp. D. 9, 2, 9 pr. On this text cf. Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 166 sqq.

^I6H Cf. UIp. D. 9, 2. 9, 1.

"’"Cf. Ulp. D. 9. 2. 9. 1.

“ Cf. Lab./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 9 pr.; cf. also Cels./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 7. 6.

“ III. 219; d. also hist. IV. 3. 16.

^{^[5068]} The same applies to the tort of trespass: the wrong must have been committed by "direct means". For details cf, for example, Winfield and Joiowicz, pp. 42 sqq., 53 sqq.; Fleming, Torts, pp. 15 sqq., 23 sqq.; cf. also Maitland, op. cit., note 164, p. 50 ("... it was to the last necessary that there should be some wrongful application of physical force to the defendant's lands or goods or person—but... a wrongful touch to his person or chattels was held to be force enough and an adequate breach of the king's peace").

^ra For very useful schemes of cases falling under chapter one and being remedied by actiones in factum, cf. Andrews, (1987) 46 Cambridge LJ 316 sqq.

“ Cels./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 7. 7.

¹⁵ Ulp. D. 9. 2. 7. 2.

^1,1 Ulp. D. 9. 2. 9. 4; cf. also Alf. D. 9. 2. 52. 2 ("aeque si quis..

^{^[5073]} Sometimes (cf. e.g. Gai. Ill. 2191 also referred to as actiones utiles.

“ Ulp. D. 9. 2. 11. 1.

^l7"Cf. Gai. Ill. 219.

“ Cels./Ulp. 11. 9. 2. 7. 6.

^s Proc./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 7. 3 ("Proinde si quis alterius impulsu damnum dederit. Proculus scribit neque eum qui impulit teneri, quia non occidit, neque eum qui impulsus est, quia damnum iniuria non dedit").

^1H3 Supra, p. 976. note 157. ^1!"

Supra, p. 976. note 158. ^1M4

Ulp. D. 9. 2. 9. 2.

¹¹ "Ceterum placuit ita demum ex hac lege actionem esse, si quis praecipue corpore suo damnum dederit": hist. IV, 3. 16. Only by adding the word "praecipue", did Justinian acknowledge a somewhat more liberal usage that may have gained ground in post-classical times; cf. e.g. von Liibtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 213.

^№ D. 9, 2, 51 pr.

¹⁴⁵ Cf. Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 7 sq., who draws attention to a passage in Plautus' play Psendolus where the author achieves a comical effect by opposing "occidere gladio" and "occidere fame".

^{^[5084]} "Occidere" was also interpreted strictly in another statutory context: Lab./Ulp. D. 29,

5, 1, 17; cf. Peter Stein, "School Attitudes in the Law of Delicts", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo

Biscardi, vol. II (1982), pp. 287 sq.; Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 166 sq.

¹⁴⁵ Ofilius/Ulp. IX 9. 2, 9, 3. For an analysis, see Schipani, Lex Aquilia, pp. 165 sqq.;

MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI 17 sq.; Stein, Studi Biscardi, vol. II, pp. 289 sq. and,

particularly, Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 139 sqq.

' "... quemadmodum si servus metis ab alio in insidias deductus, ab alio esset occisus." On the use of the word "quemadmodum" and arguments by analogy in the texts on the lex

Aquilia, sec MacCormack, Studi Satijilippo, vol. I, pp. 255 sqq.

¹⁹⁷ Cf. generally Max Kaser. " ius honorarium' and 'ius civile' ", {1V84) 101 ZSS 48 sqq.. 65 sqq.; also Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 146 sqq.; Wieacker, RR, pp. 470 sqq.

¹⁹ Watson, Obligations, pp. 241 sqq.; cf. also Stein, Stttdi Biscardi, vol. II, p. 288.

^№ Behrends, Fraus legis, pp. 33 sqq.

^{^[5093]} The discussion turns mainly on Alf. D. 9, 2, 52, 2 (a case involving two heavily laden carts proceeding up the Capitoline hill. The first cart rolled back and crashed into the second one, which, in turn, knocked down a slave. The text does not make it clear whether the slave was killed or merely wounded; whether, in other words, the decision concerned a case of "occidere" or of "rumpere"). On ]~). 9, 2, 52, 2 cf. Watson, Obligations, p. 242; Schipani, Lex Aquilia, pp. 179 sqq.; MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI13 sqq.; idem, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. I, pp. 257 sq.; Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 142 sqq.; Andrews, (1987) 46 Cambridge Lj 323.

²¹ Cf. Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 6 sq.; Andrews, (1987) 46 Cambridge LJ 322 sq.

²¹² Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 126. 136 sq. He draws attention to the fact that many of the examples concerning the actio in factum have the air of the schoolroom.

¹⁸ Causa mortis, pp. 126, 137 sq., 149; cf. also idem, (1987) 6 RJ 105 sqq.

*⁰⁵ (19881 56 TR21Q.

^20fl Early Law and Custom (1861), p. 389.

^{^[5097]} Gai. HI, 219; Insc. IV, 3, 16.

^{2(pp. 180 sqq.; J.L. Barton, "The Lex}

Aquilia and Decretal Actions", in: Daube Noster (1974), pp, 15 sqq.; MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI 30 sqq. ²³⁸ Alf. D. 19, 5, 23.

^{^[5129]} Sab./Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 21

^{^[5130]}Proc. D. 41, 1, 55.

[5131]

Cf. Ulp. D. 47, 2, 50, 4.

^{^[5132]} In D. 47, 2, 50, 4, the flag-waver is held liable under the actio furti if he acted "furti faciendi causa". But where the waving of the flag is merely a silly practical joke ("lusus perniciosus") there is no theft. In some instances, the actio de dolo was available. On the relationship between actio de dolo and actiones in factum, see Alan Watson, "Actio de dolo and actiones in factum", (1961) 78 ZSS 392 sqq.

²⁸ Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 21 (often regarded as interpolated; cf. e.g. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilla, p. 181; but cf. MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI 31 sq.). To make things even more puzzling, Ulpian attributes to Sabinus also the opinion that an actio in factum was applicable (D. 9, 2, 27, 21 in fine). Did Sabinus possibly express different opinions on the question in different works (Barton, Daube Noster, p. 19)?

[5134] "-phe suggestion chat a direct Aquilian action may lie in the circumstances can only be described as pretty startling": Barton, Daube Noster, p. 19.

²⁶ Birks, (1981) 16 The Irish Jurist 141.

³⁶ D. 9, 2, 30, 2.

²¹⁷ Cf. e.g. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 185 sq.

²⁸ (1981) 16 The Irish Juris! 141 sqq.; d. also the sequel in (1985) 20 The Irish Jurist 352

sqq. (under the title "Cooking the meat: Aquilian Liability for Hearths and Ovens" and concerning Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 10 and Coll. XII, VII, 8 (oven against party wall)—a case "of particular obscurity" (MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI 30); for further discussion of these texts, cf. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 162 sqq.; MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI 36 sqq.; Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 171 sq.).

■'*’ Overseas Tankships (U.K.) Ltd. v. Marts Dock & Engineering Co. Ltd. (The Wagon Mound) [1961] AC 388 (HL) at 423. 419.

³¹ H.L.A. Hart. A.M. Honore. Causation in the Law (2nd ed.. 1985). p. 1 (the standard work in the field).

^{^[5141]} Cf. e.g. Boberg. Delict, pp. 380 sqq. (an exceptionally lucid account of Aquilian

liability in the South African usus hodiernus); cf. also Hart and Honore, op. cit., note 250, p. 110 ("bifurcation of causal questions"); Dieter Giesen, International Medical Malpractice Law (1988), pp. 163 sqq.

^2-2 Cf. e.g. Hart and Honorc, op. cit., note 250, pp. 108 sqq.; A.M. Honore, "Causation and Remoteness of Damage", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. XI, 7, nn. 106 sqq.; Fleming, Torts, pp. 173 sqq.; for South Africa cf. e.g. Minister of Police v. Skosana 1977 (1) SA 31 (A) at 33 sqq.

²³³ On the use of the term "condition" and on the (German) " Aquivalenztheorie", cf. Hart and Honore, op. cit., note 250, pp. 431 sqq.

^{^[5144]} And therefore, in a way, presupposes what it sets out to prove, on the basis of a priori conclusions derived from experience. For criticism of the sine qua non test, cf., for example, the discussions by Honore, op. cit., note 252. nn. 108 sqq and Boberg, Delict, pp. 383 sqq.; cf. also e. g. Jurgen Rodig, Die Denkform der Alternative in der Jurisprudenz (1969), pp. 115 sqq.

³⁵ Supra, p. 977.

^{^[5145]} Boberg, Delict, p. 380.

²⁵⁷ Boberg, Delict, p. 387; cf. also Fleming, Torts, pp. 173, 181 sqq.; Hart and Honore, op.

cit., note 250, passim, e.g. pp. 88 sqq.

^25H For an overview of the different theories that have been developed, cf. Boberg, Delict, pp. 439 sqq.; Honore, op. cit., note 252, nn. 67 sqq.; Fleming, Torts, pp. 181 sqq.; Lange, Schadensersatz, pp- 51 sqq.

~⁶⁷ Karoly Visky, "Die Frage der Kausalität aufgrund des D. 9, 2 (ad legem Aquiliam)", (1979) 26 RIDA 475 sqq., 501; MacCormack, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. f pp. 263 sqq.; c(. also e.g. Lord Dunedin in Leylattd Shipping Co. Ltd. v. Norwich Union Fire Insurance Society [1918] AC 350 (HL) at 362 ("... question... to be determined by common-sense principles").

26^R _th_e comppeheHsive analysis of this phrase in philosophical, rhetorical and legal literature by Norr, Causa mortis, passim.

^{^[5150]} For a detailed analysis, see Reinhard Willvonscder, Die Verwendung der Denkfigur der "conditio sine qua non" bei den romischen Juristen (1984), pp. 32 sqq.

^27,1 Willvonseder, op. cit., note 269, pp. 12 sqq., 194.

^{^[5152]} Dieter Norr, Essays Honore, p. 205 writes: "If that were right we would have to conclude that the Romans, a warlike people, did not properly understand what they were doing when they killed enemies or criminals by starvation." The argument is developed in greater detail in Causa mortis, pp. 2, 122 sq.

^{^[5153]} Particularly clear on this point is Andrews, (1987) Cambridge LJ 315 sqq., 328.

MacCormack, Studi Sanjitippo, vol. I, p. 282.

^{^[5155]} Sec, generally, Honore, op. cit., note 252, nn. 130 sqq.; Hart and Honore, op. cit., note 250, pp. 205 sqq.; Ernst von Caemmerer, "Das Problem der überholenden Kausalität im Schadensersatzrecht", in: Gesammette Schriften, vol. 1 (1968), pp. 411 sqq.; Lange, Schadensersatz, pp- HO sqq.

⁷³ Honore, op. cit., note 252, n. 111. This is only one of the conundra raised by the sine qua non test. For exceptions and alleged exceptions to the conditio sine qua non rule, sec Honore, op. cit., note 252, nn. 119 sqq.

D. 9, 2, 11, 3.

^{^[5158]} Cf. e.g. Honore, op. cit., note 252, n. 130 read in conjunction with nn. 77 sqq. Cf., in this context, Weld-BlundeU v. Stephens [1920] AC 956 (HL) at 986: "Perhaps one may be forgiven for saying that B snaps the chain of causation; that he is no mere conduit pipe through which consequences flow from A to C, no mere moving pan in a transmission gear set in motion by A; that, in a word, he insulates A from C"; on which, see A.L. Goodhart, "The Third Man or Novus Actor Intcrveniens" (1951) 4 Current Legal Problems 190: "My only comment is that four metaphors do not constitute one argument."

²™ lul. D. 9. 2, 51 pr.

^{^[5160]} But see also Ulp. D. 9, 2, 15. 1, where lulianus is purported to have adopted the same

view as Celsus. This contradiction has given rise to a host of speculations. The three texts

D. 9, 2. 11, 3, D. 9, 2. 15, 1 and D. 9, 2, 51 and the problem of the "overtaking cause" have

frequently been discussed; cf., in particular, Karl-Heinz Schindler, "Ein Streit zwischen Julian und Celsus", (1957) 74 ZSS 201 sqq.; David Pugsley, "Causation and Confessions in the lex Aquilia", (1970) 38 TR 163 sqq.; von Liibtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 59 sqq.; MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDHI 26 sqq.; Visky, (1979) 26 RIDA 486 sqq.; Hans Ankum,

"Das Problem der 'überholenden Kausalität' bei der Anwendung der lex Aquilia im klassischen romischen Recht", in: De iustitia et iure, Festgabe für Ulrich von Liibtow (1980"). pp.

325 sqq.; Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 30 sqq.; Willvonseder, op. eit., note 269, pp. 144 sqq.; Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 181 sqq,; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia, pp. 17 sq.

^2m Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 21, 1; supra, p. 961, note 69.

Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 21, 1; supra, p. 961, note 69.

^{^[5168]} Frier, Roman Jurists, p. 44,

²f³ Supra, p. 981, note 196.

^{^[5170]} Norr, Causa mortis, p. 158.

^28-1 Barton, Dattbe Nosier, pp. 21 sqq. (who argues that this explains the "hostility" and "viciously restrictive [attitude]" of the classical lawyers towards the actio directa; they wished to force plaintiffs to use praetorian actions in the greatest possible number of cases, because they could thus avoid the inequitable doubling of damages); Norr, Causa mortis, pp. 149 sqq.; idem, (1987) 6 111 sqq. (on the basis of a most ingenious reconstruction of

the "drama" in front of the praetor, when the correct type of action had to be chosen).

^{^[5172]} Thielmann, Studi Biscardi, vol. II, pp. 314 sqq.

Cf. e.g. Walter Selb, "Formulare Analogien in 'actiones utiles' und 'actiones in factum' am Beispiel Julians", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi, vol. Ill (1982), pp. 315 sqq.

^{^[5174]} Cf. e.g. UIp. D. 47, 8, 2, 20; Gai. D. 47, 2, 51; UIp. D. 9, 2, 27, 9; Paul. D. 9, 2, 30. 2.

²⁸⁵ For an overview cf. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 169 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, p. 622;

Hausmaningcr, Lex Aquilia, pp. 33 sq. Cf. also J.M. Thomson, Who Could Sue on the lex

Aquilia? (1975) 91 LQR 207 sqq. He argues that the actio directa was granted to persons who

were not strictly dominus. Only towards the end of the Republic and in the course of a general move towards an interpretative restriction of the lex Aquilia (cf, in another context, supra, p. 982, notes 198, 199) was the actio directa confined to owners and did the praetor therefore have to devise analogous claims for non-owners.

^{^[5179]} Cf. supra, note 48.

³¹ Ulp. D. 7. 1. 17. 3; ("Si quis servum occiderit, utilem actionem exemplo Aquiliae fructuario dandam numquam dubitavi"); Ulp. D. 9, 2, 11, 10; but see the discussion by John Iliffe, "The Usufructuary as Plaintiff under the lex Aquilia according to the Classical Jurists", (1965) 12 RIDA325 sqq.

^{^[5181]} But only "propter inopiam debitoris vel quod litem amisit" and limited "ad modum debiti": Paul. D. 9, 2, 30, 1. Normally, the actio legis Aquiliae was available to the pledgor/debtor, and it would have been inequitable to give an action against the wrongdoer both to the pledgor and to the pledgee. For details cf. Joseph Georg Wolf, "D. 20, 1, 27 Marc. 5 dig. Zur Aktivlcgitimation des Pfandglaubigcrs fur die actio legis Aquiliae", (1959) 76 ZSS 520 sqq.

Cf. Ulp. D. 19. 2.41; contra: lul./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 11. 9 (based on lul. D. 13. 6. 19: "Ad eos, qui... utendum [aliquid] accipiunt, damnum iniuria ab alio datum non pertinere procul dubio est").

²⁴ Cels./Uip. D. 9, 2, 27, 14; for details: MacCormack, (1973) 20 RIDA 341 sqq.

^{^[5184]} Ulp. D. 9, 2, 17; for details: Pernice, Sachbeschädigungen, pp. 190 sqq.; Felix Wubbe, "Der gutgläubige Besitzer. Mensch oder Begriff?". (1963") 80 ZSS 193 sqq.

^Ä Ulp. D. 9, 2, 17.

^{^[5186]} Supra n. 292.

^29R Cf. Pap. D. 1, 1, 7, 1 ("lus praetorium est, quod praetores introduxerunt adiuvandi vel supplendi vel corrigendi iuris civilis gratia propter utilitatem publicam"); Marci. D. 1, 1, 8 ("Nam et ipsum ius honorarium viva vox est iuris civilis").

^{^[5188]} Cf, in particular, Walter Selb, "Actiones in factum und Formeltechnik", in: Festschrift fiir Heinrich Demelius (1973), pp. 230 sqq.; idem, Studi Biscardi, vol. Ill, pp. 312 sqq.; idem,

"Formulare Analogien in actiones utiles und actiones in factum vor Julian", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. V (1984), pp. 729 sqq.; Max Kaser, " 'Ius honorarium' und 'ius civile' ", (1984) 101 ZSS 95 sqq.

^3IM1D. 3. 5. 46. 1. ³⁰¹

III. 219.

[5191]

Selb, Festschrift Demelius, pp. 223 sqq.; idem, Studi Biscardi, vol. Ill, pp. 328.; but cf. also Hasse, Culpo, pp. 36 sq.; Pernice, Sachbeschädigungen, pp. 145, 157 sqq.; Schulz, CRL, p. 591; Kaser, RPrl, p. 621; idem, (1984)101 ZSS 101; Thielmann, Studi Biscardi, vol. II, pp. 303 sqq.; Paul van Warmclo, "Les actions autour de la loi Aquilic", in: Studi in onore di Arnaldo Biscardi, vol. Ill (1982), pp. 351 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 367; Gunter Wescner, "Utiles actiones in factum", in: Studi in onore di Emilio Betti, vol. IV (1962), pp. 503 sqq.

³³ Van Warmclo, Studi Biscardi, vol. Ill, p. 360.

³³¹ On which see, for example, von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 209 sqq.; Paul van Warmelo, "The Institutes ofjustinian as Students' Manual", in: Studies in Justinian's Institutes in memory o/J.A.C. Thomas (1983), pp. 175 sqq.

[5194] That [st t_ne cases where an object was damaged, but not as a direct consequence of a physical action of the wrongdoer.

"[O]ne of the most impressive achievements of the Roman legal mind": Lawson/ Markesinis, p. 19,

^{^[5196]} Cf. Gai. D. 9, 2, 4 pr.

^{^[5197]} Cf. Cels./Ulp. D. 9, 2, 49, 1.

^{^[5198]} Cf. Ulp. D. 18, 6, 13.

^{^[5199]} Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 7, 4.

^{^[5200]} For the modern concept of wrongfulness, cf. e.g. Jean Limpens/Robert Μ. Kruithof/ Anne Meinertzhagen-Limpens, "Liability for One's Own Act", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. XI, 2 (1983), nn. 28 sqq.; Erwin Deutsch, Haftungsrecht, vol. I (1976), pp. 190 sqq.; Boberg, Delict, pp. 30 sqq. In French legal science, no clear distinction is drawn between unlawfulness and fault; both are taken to be implicit in the concept of faute, as contained in art. 1382 code civil; cf. e.g. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 356 sqq.

^{^[5201]} Ulp. D. 47, 10, 1 pr.; cf. also Ulp. D. 9, 2, 5, 1 ("Iniuriam autem hie accipere nos oportet... quocl non iure factum est, hoc est contra ius..."); Paul. Coll. II, V, 1 ("Generaliter dicitur iniuria omne, quod non iure fit"); Inst. IV, 4 pr.; for a discussion cf.

998

^E Paul. D. 9, 2, 45, 4; cf. also Cockrofl v. Smith (1705) 11 Mod Rep 43.

^B Cf. also Limpens/Kruithof/Meinertzhagen-Limpens, op. cit., note 6, n. 168 ("'The force used in defence must be proportionate to the attack"); Fleming, Torts, p. 77 ("The force used must not exceed what reasonably appears to be necessary to beat off the attack"), § 227 IIBGB.

^{^[5203]} U!p. I). 9, 2, 5 pr. ("Sed et si qucmcumque alium ferro se petentem quis Occident, non

videbitur iniuria occidisse").

^{^[5205]} LJlp. D. 9, 2, 5 pr. ("... sin autem cum posset adprehendere, maluit occidere, magis est ut iniuria fecisse videatur"); cf. also Cook v. Beal 1 Ld Raym 176 at 177.

^B Alf. D. 9, 2. 52, 1.

¹⁷ Or sword-cane: flagellum, in quo dolor inerat.

™ Alf. D. 9. 2, 52, 1. The taker of the lantern was, incidentally, not treated as a thief in this text; the incident, from which the scuffle developed, was probably nothing but a

"drunken prank": ct~. Geoffrey MacCormack, "Aquilian Studies". (1975) 41 SDHI46 sq. For a full interpretation of Aif. T). 9. 2. 52, 1 from the point of view of defence, see Wacke,

(1987) 20Dc_/im?88sqq.

The Roman sources thus contained all the essential elements stilt constituting the justification of self-defence in modem law; cf. Limpens/Kruitbof/Meinertzhagen-Limpens, op. cit., note 6, nn. 167 sqq.; Fleming, Torts, pp. 76 sq.; § 227 BGB. For details of the historical development cf. Hans Schmitt-Lcrmann, Die Lehre von der Notwehr in der Wissenschaft des getneineti Strafrechts (1930), pp. 12 sqq.; Kühner, op. cit., note 10. pp. 334 sqq.; cf. also Van Warmelo, 1967 Acta Juridka 10 sqq., 15 sqq. (Roman-Dutch law); Wacke, (1987) 20 De Jure 86 sq. Bartoius and Baldus labelled the three requirements restricting the right of defence "circa causam" (the causa of the act must be defence not revenge), "circa tempus" (attack must be imminent) and "circa modum" (the requirement of paritas armorum). Christian doctrine had some difficulty in reconciling the right of self-defence with Christ's admonition in his Sermon on the Mount: "But I say unto you that ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek turn to him the other also" (St. Matthew 5, 39). A whole variety of arguments were advanced in the course of time: Christ did not intend to abrogate the ius naturale (implication: natural law and the teachings of the Bible have equal ranking!); a person who allowed himself to be killed without offering resistance was like a person who committed suicide, and suicide is a tresspass against God (cf. Andreas Wacke, "Der Selbstmord im romischen Recht und in der Rechtsentwicklung", (1980) 97 Z.SS32 sqq.).

^1,11 For details, sec Limpens/Kruithof/Meinmzhagen-Limpcns. op. cit.. note 6. nn. 170 sqc-.; Fleming, Tom, pp. 86 sqq.: §§ 228, 904 BGB.

-¹ Fleming, Toris, p. 86.

For details, sec Pernice, Labco, op. cit., note 10, pp. 66 sqq.; Longo, h'estgabe von Liibrow, pp. 331 sqq.; Geoffrey MacCormack. "Aquilian Studies", (1975) 41 SDMI S3 sqq.; Lawson/Markesinis. pp. 20 sqq.; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia, pp. 21 sq.; Wacke. (1987) 20 De Jure 97 sqq.

Ulp. D. 43, 24, 7, 4; on this text, see Schipani, Lex Aquilia, pp. 153 sqq.

^{^[5216]} Ulp. D. 9, 2, 49, 1 (also emphasizing, however, that the person pulling down his neighbour's house acted iniuria, "nisi magna vi cogente fucrit factum"). On D. 9, 2, 49, 1, sec Schipani, Lex Aquilia, pp. 310 sqq. Cf. also Cope v. Sharp? [19121 1 KB 496 (CA), where the defence of" necessity was successful, even though the fire was eventually extinguished before it reached the defendant's property; at the moment, however, at which the defendant acted, there appeared to be real and imminent danger.

^{^[5217]} Ulp. D. 47, 9, 3. 7 in fine; for a discussion of the whole text, see Schipani. Lex Aquilia, pp. 206 sqq. Ulpian's view was regarded as authoritative on the matter by the authors of the ius commune: cf. Andreas von Tuhr, "Der Nothstand im Civilrecht" (1888). p. 62.

²⁵ Cf. e.g. § 228 BGB (harm must not be disproportionate to the danger), § 904 BGB (imminent harm must be our of all proportion to the harm inflicted); tor France and the French legal family cf. Limpens/Kruithof/Mcinertzhagen-Limpens, op. cit., note 6, nn. 173

"trespasser" also acted for the benefit of everybody else on board. Cf. also Mouse's case, (1609) 12 Co Rep 63. On Quint. Muc./Pomp. D. 9, 2, 39, c(. Okko Behrends, 1985 Juristische Schulunq 878 sqq.; Hausmanmger, Lex Aquilia, p. 23; Wacke, (1987) 20 De Jure 92 sqq.

^{^[5219]} Lab./Proc./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 29. 3; Wacke. (19871 20 De Jure 94 sqq.; cf. also RGZ 5. 160; 88. 211.

¹³ For the historical development of the modern doctrine of necessity in private law. cf. Andreas Hatzung, Dogmengeschichtliche Grundlagen und Entstehung des zivilrechttichen Notstands (1984), pp. 56 sqq. (usus modernus), 63 sqq. (natural law), 69 sqq. (pandectism), 90 sqq. (codifications of the age of reason), 134 sqq. (origin of the §§ 228, 904 BGB).

³¹ Ulp. D, 47, II), 13, 1. For examples cf. Ulp. D. 9. 2, 29, 7 (where the magistrate was compelled "quid... adversus resistentem violentius [facere]"); Ulp. D. 43, 24, 7, 4 ("incendii arcendi causa vicini aedes intercidfere]"). Cf. generally Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia, pp. 23 sq.; for modern law Limpens/Kruithof/Meinertzhagen-Limpens, op. cit., note 6, nn. 181 sqq.; Boberg. Delict, pp. 771 sqq.

^{^[5222]} Ulp. D. 9. 2. 29. 7.

^3,1 Ulp. D. 9. 2. 29. 7.

^{^[5224]} Ulp. D. 9. 2. 7. 4. On this text cf.-Pernice. Labeo, op. cit.. note 10. pp. 82 sqq.; Schipani, Lex Aquilia, pp. 319 sqq.; Wittmann, Korperverletzung, pp. 95 sqq.; Andreas Wacke, "Accidents in sport and games in Roman and modern German law", (1979) 42 THRHR 282 sq.

On the relationship between iniuria and culpa and on the historical development, cf. Beinart, Studi Arcitigio-Rniz, vol. I, pp. 279 sqq.; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, pp. 83 sqq.; Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 19 sqq., 22 sqq.; Honscll/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 229 sqq.

® Cf. the situation in Paul. D. 9, 2. 30, 3.

⁴⁵ Cf. Alf./Ulp. P. 9, 2, 29, 4.

^{^[5228]} Cf. supra, pp. 978 sq.

^4M Cf. supra, pp. 9H4 sq.

^{^[5230]} Cels. Coll. XII, VII, 5.

^J° Lawson/Markcsinis, pp. 19 sq. In England, this has become the generally accepted view since the end of the 19th century (!), as a result of the decision of Stanley v. Powell [1891] 1 QB 86 (per Denman!; the defendant, while firing at a pheasant, had shot the plaintiff (who was employed to carry cartridges) with a pellet which ricochetced from a tree at a considerable angle. Since the injury was held to have been accidental, the action tor tresspass was unsuccessful).

^{^[5232]} For the development in England cf. Salmond and Heitston on the Law of Tons (18th ed., 1981), p. 128: "In so far as Stanley v. Powell decided that inevitable accident was a good defence to an action of tresspass it probably cannot now be questioned. But in recent years a series of decisions... have extended Stanley v. Powell so far as to hold that a plaintiff in an action of tresspass for injuries to the person must always prove intention or negligence on the part of the defendant."

⁵- Beinart, Studi Arangio-Ruiz- vol. I, pp. 284 sqq.; Lawson/Markcsinis, p. 25. Contra: MacCormack, (1975) 41 SDH! 56 (according to whom iniuria was probably understood by the jurists, from the time of the enactment of the lex, as expressing the requirement of fault).

^x That that was not the case in classical law has been emphasized by Geoffrey MacCormack, "Aquilian Culpa", in: Daube Noster (1974), pp. 201 sqq.

”¹⁴ Cf. Beinart, Studi Arangio-Ruiz, vol. I, p. 286.

³³ Like the concept of "faute" in art. 1382 code civil; cf. supra, note 6.

^{^[5236]} Beinart, Studi Aean^o - Ruiz, vol. I, p. 285; Kaser, RPr I, p. 505.

⁵⁷ Insl. IV, 3, 2.

⁵ * Inst. IV, 3, 3 sqq.

^yj Cf. Schipam, Lex Aquilia, pp. 439 sqq.; Kaser, RPr II. p. 438.

⁶⁰ Analysed in great detail by Schipani, Lex Aquilia, pp. 133 sqq.; MacCormack, Daube Noster, pp. 203 sqq.; idem, (1975) 41 SDMI 43 sqq.; cf. also von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia,

pp.. 9 8 sqq.

⁰ Paul. D. 9. 2. 31.

^{^[5243]} Paul. D. 9. 2. 30. 3.

^f13 Ulp. D. 9, 2, 9, 4. On javelins and javelin throwing in the Ancient World, sec Harris,

op. cit., note 38, pp. 92 sqq.; idem, Athletics in Ancient Greece (1976), pp. 196 sqq.

^fl4Mela/Proc./Ulp. D. 9, 2, tl pr.

^fl5 Cf. abo Pcmicc. Siichbvschadiyuuqett. p. 51; von LCibtow. Lev Aquilia. pp. 87, 105.

"" MacCormack, Danbc Noster. 'pp. 202, 204.

^{^[5248]} As, for instance, they were in Paul. D. 9. 2. 31.

^I,s MacCormack, Daube Vaster, p. 202. Neither furiosus nor infans can be made liable under the lex Aquilia; reason: "quae enim in eo culpa sit, cum suae mentis non sit" (Pegasus/Ulp. D. 9. 2, 5, 2). On the delictual liability of an impubes infantia maior, see Lab./Ulp. D. 9, 2, 5, 2; Lab./Iul./Ulp. D. 47, 2, 23; Bernard Perrin, "Le caractere subjectif de Ilniuria Aquilicnne a Fepoque elassique". in: Stndi in oiwre di Pietro de Francisci. vol. IV (1956), pp. 271 sqq.; MacCormack, Daube Nosier, pp. 2!8 sq.; Schipani, Lex Aquilia. pp. 219 sqq., 270 sqq.; Hausmaninger, Len Aquilia. p. 26.

" Cf. von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia. pp. 83 sqq.; Schipani. Lev Aquilia. passim, e.g. pp. 131 sqq., 192 sqq.; MacCormack, Daube \oster. pp. 201 sqq.; Honsell/Maycr-Maly/Selb, p. 366; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia. p. 25. That culpa was seen in an objective light is also apparent, for instance, from the one (apparently) more generalizing statement on culpa that we possess: "... culpam autem esse, quod cum a dihgente provider! potent, non ent provisum" (Paul. D. Y, 2. 31; attributed by Paul to Quintus Mucius). This phrase has often been regarded as spurious (cf. e.g. Arangio-Ruiz. Responsabilita. pp. 234 sqq.; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia. pp. 99 sq.), but see. for example, Schipani, Lex Aquilia. pp. 141 sqq., 371 sqq. It should, however, not be seen as providing a general definition of culpa (in terms of foreseeability); the remark was probably related by Quintus Mucius more directly to the circumstances of the case than appears from I). 9, 2, 31: MacCormack, Daube Nosier, pp. 203 sqq. For a different evaluation, cf. Okko Hehrends, "Die Rechtsformen der romischen Handworks". (19811 22 Ahhandlnngeu der Akadenrie der 'Wissemchaften in Gottingen 145. It should also be noted that the problem of fault was not considered in isolation. The Roman lawyers did not go through a list of specific requirements, defined and categorized as neatly as in a modem textbook, when they tried to establish whether a particular plaintiff was liable under the lex Aquilia. Just as fault and unlawfulness were not neatly separated, so the issue of fault was frequently merged with causal questions: a higher degree of fault could, for instance, "compensate" for a certain lack of directness in the infliction of the injury. The point has been emphasized and illustrated by Geoffrey MacCormack, "Juristic Interpretation of the Lex Aquilia", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. I (1982), pp. 270 sqq. The bonus (or diligens) paterfamilias as a general model of the standard by which the issue of

culpa, or negligence, is determined (and as such, i.e. as a general standard, of Justinianic vintage; cf. Kaser, RPr II, pp. 351) sqq.) lives on in modem South African law. Representing "an embodiment of all the qualities which we require of a good citizen” (Van der Walt, Delict, § 39), he displays neither "the foresight of a Hebrew prophet" in anticipating harm nor "the ability of an acrobat" in avoiding it (Broom v. Administrator, Natal 1966 (3) SA 505 (D) at 516G-H. Or, as Holmes JA put it (5 i'. Burger 1975 (4) SA 877 (A) at 879D-E): "One does not expect of a diligens paterfamilias any extremes such as Solomonic wisdom, prophetic foresight, chameleonic caution, headlong haste, nervous timidity, or the trained reflexes of a racing driver. In short, a diligens paterfamilias treads life's pathway with moderation and prudent common sense." His English counterpart is the famous reasonable man, an "excellent but odious character" (A.P. Herbert, Uncommon Law (1982), p. 4 (Is there a reasonable woman?)) who is "free both from over-apprehension and from over- confidence" (Glasgow Corporation v. Mitir f 19431 AC 448 (HL) at 457). He is variously described as "the man in the street", "the man in the Clapham omnibus" or "the man who takes the magazines at home, and in the evening pushes the lawn mower in his shirt sleeves" (Hall v. Brooklands Auto Racing Club [1933] 1 KB 205 (CA) at 224; for details, see Fleming. Torts, pp. 97 sqq.; Andre Tune, "Introduction", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. XI, I (1983), nn. 133 sqq.; cf. also Holmes, The Common Law, p. 1(18: "[The law] does not attempt to see men as God sees them"). ⁷⁽¹ Cf. supra, pp. 386 sq., 397 sq.

¹ Proc./Ulp. D. 9, 2, 7. 8.

^{^[5252]} Gai. D 9, 2, 8 pr.

⁷¹ Gai. 15. 9, 2, 8, 1. The position was the same if the muleteer did not possess the (physical) strength required to hold back the mules. Cf. further Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 29, where a diatretarius is held liable if he breaks a calix meant for diatrcting because of a lack of skill; on this text cf. Peter Birks, "Other Men's Meat: Aquilian Liability for Proper User", (1981) 16 The Irish Jurist 163 sqq., but also von Lubtow, Lev Aquilia, pp. 100 sqq. On imperitia culpae adnumeratur and Aquilian liability in general, sec Schipani. Lex Aquilia, pp. 246 sqq. (D. 9, 2, 8, 1), 324 sqq. (D. 9, 2. 7, 8); von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia. pp. 103 sqq.; MacCormack, Daubc \oster, pp. 210 sqq.; T.J. Scott, "Die reel imperitia culpae adnumeratur as grondslag vir die nalatigheidstoets vir deskundiges in die deliktereg", in: Petere Fontes, L.C. Steyn—Gedenkbundel (n.d.), pp. 124 sqq. (especially on Roman law: pp. 130 sqq.); Van der Walt, Delict, § 41; cC also Behrends, op. cit., note 69, pp. 144 sqq. The position is the same in the English common law. " 'Imperitia culpae adnumeratur' says the Digest. 'Spondet peritiam artis', says Story on Bailments": Buckland/McNair. pp. 259 sq. "Those who undertake work calling for special skill must not only exercise reasonable care but measure up to the standard of proficiency that can be expected from persons of such profession" (Fleming, Torts, p. 104); cf. also Scott, op. cit., pp. 140 sqq.

^{^[5254]} But see Lawson/Markesinis, p. 28.

^{^[5255]} For a comparative survey, cf. A.Μ. Honore. "Causation and Remoteness of Damage", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. XI, 7 (1983), nn. 144 sqq.; additionally (for South African law) Boberg, Delict, pp. 652 sq.

¹⁵ Cf., for example, Pernice, Labeo, op. cit., note 10, pp. 97 sqq.; Buckland/McNair, pp. 370 sqq.; Medicus, Id quod interest, pp. 322 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, p. 587; Peter Aumann, Das mitwirkendc Verschulden in der neueren juristischen Dogmengeschichte, (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Hamburg, 1964), pp. 4 sqq.; Klaus Luig, "Überwiegendes Mitverschulden", (1968) 2 his Commune 192 sqq.; von Liibtow, Lex Aquilia. pp. 106 sqq.; Christian Wollschiager, "Das eigene Verschulden des Verletzten Im romischen Recht", (1976) 93 ZSS 115 sqq.; Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 33 sq.; Hausmaninger, Lex Aquilia, pp. 26 sqq.

^{^[5257]} Cf". Uip. 9, 2, 9, 4 in fine; Paul. D. 9, 2, 31 ("quod si nullam iter ent, dolum dumtaxat

praestare debet, nc immittat in cum, quem videril transeuntem").

™ Paul. IX 9, 2. 31.

¹⁴ Paul. IX 9, 2, 28.

Ulp. IX 9, 2, 9. 4 (cf. supra, note 63).

^M1 Mela/Proc./Ulp. D- 9, 2, 11 pr. (cf. supra, note 64).

^{^[5262]} Cf. further Wollschlager, (1976) 93 ZSS 128 sqq., who draws attention to a Greek parallel (or rather: model) for the case of' the javelin-thrower.

^H3 "[A] stock... case in classical jurisprudence": MacCormack, Daube Noster. p. 215.

^{^[5264]} But, on the other hand, he could hardly be thought to have caused the damage directly (damnum corpori datum). Did Mela, therefore, only contemplate an actio in factum? What kind of game were the players busy playing? Wacke, (197Y) 42 THRHR 277 thinks it was a game similar to hockey (where the ball was hit); according to Wollschlager, (1976) 93 ZSS

132, the ball had been thrown by hand; the text merely says "pila percussa". On Roman ball games generally, see H.A. Harris, Spoil in Greece and Rome (1972), pp. 75 sqq.; Weiler, op. cit., note 38, pp. 265 sqq.

- People of lower rank were shaved by itinerant barbers in the open air; for the wealthier Romans, elegant barbershops were available; for details, see e.g. Carcopino, pp. 175 sqq.

^7,6 Genuine? No, says von Liibtow, Lex Aquitia. p. 107 ("naive Ghsse"). Contra: Theo Mayer-Maly, "lie se queri debere, offida erga se und Verschulden gegen sich selbst", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976"). p. 248.

^{^[5267]} The idea of compensatio culpac; cf. infra, pp. 1030, 1047.

^11X1 Cf, in particular, Luig, (1968) 2 his Commune pp. 193 sqej. Wacke, (1979) 42 THRHR 276 explains the decision in D. 9, 2, 9, 4 (javelin-thrower) on this basis.

*⁹ Cf. Buckland/McNair, pp. 370 sqq., but also Pcrnice, Sachbeschadigmigen. p. 60. Contra, in particular, MacCormack, Studi Sanfilippo, vol. I, pp. 277 sqq. ("In a sense one can say that the jurists reduced the question of causation to one of fault").

" Originally, the common law treated contributory negligence as a complete defence: it not only impaired but completely barred recovery except against an intentional wrongdoer. "fl]f there is blame causing the accident on both sides, however small the blame may be on one side, the loss lies where it falls" was the principle, as formulated by Lord Blackbum, in Cayzer. Irvine & Co. i>. Canon Co. [1884] 9 AC 873 (HL) at 881. It wasjustified on the basis that, in a practical sense, the plaintiff was the author of his own wrong (Butterjield v. Forrester (1809) 11 East 60 at 61) and therefore the only effective cause of his injury (Fleming, Torts. p. 243, who criticizes this argument as being "a hollow pretence" and "hypocritical"). Subsequently, this harsh rule was mitigated by the "proximate cause", or "last opportunity", test. As a result of it, the entire blame was now thrown on whoever had had the last opportunity of avoiding the harm. "Not surprisingly", writes Fleming, p. 244, "the result [which was still all or nothing] was again explained in the abracadabra of causation,"

^|I5 Supra, pp. 984 sq. ^|J

Supra, pp. 978 sqq.⁹⁷

Supra, pp. 986 sq.

^9H Supra, pp. 10(15 sqq.; cf. also Ulp. D. 9, 2, 44 pr. ("In lege Aquilia et levissima culpa venit").

^{^[5275]} Supra, pp. 969 sqq., 973 sq.

^1UJ Supra, pp. 994 sqq.

ⁿ Supra, pp. 965 sqq.. 976, 983 sqq.

^{^[5278]} Ulp. D. 9, 2, 13 pr. (a text, incidentally, which is frequently referred to in discussions concerning the question who owns the body of a deceased person; this, in turn, is relevant when a request is made to dissect that body or to use it for transplant purposes. Cf. e.g. 1979 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 570).

¹¹⁾³ Cf. supra, p. 959, note 48.

“ Supra, p. 995.

¹⁶ Cf. infra, pp. 1059 sqq.

¹⁰⁶ For details, see Wittmann, Korperverletzung pp. 62 sqq.; cf. also Lawson/Markesinis, p. 11.

¹¹¹⁷ For details cf. supra, pp. 970, 972.

^{1Dr. iur. thesis, Frankfurt, 1954), passim; most recently, c(. Kiefer, op. cit,, note 126, pp. 29 sqq.; cf. also Charles Fried, "The Lex Aquilia}

as a Source of Law For Bartolus and Baldus", (1960) 4 American Journal of Legal History

142 sqq.; Harvey Chalmers, "The Concurrence of Criminal and Civil Actions in Medieval Law), (1973) 39 SDHI385 sqq.

^12K Ic appeared in 1703; I have used the edition Halae Magdeburgicae, 1750. The quotation

("actio nostra...") is taken from § I of this treatise.

¹³ Cf. supra, pp. 961 sqq.

¹²⁰ Cf.. for example. Konig, op. cit.. note 127. p. 38.

^a Cf. Kaufmann. Lex Aquilia, pp. 85 sq.; the quotation is taken from Stryk. Usus modernus pandectarum, Lib. IX. Tit. II. § 2.

³ Cf. Kaufmann. Lex Aquilia, p. 86.

^{^[5302]} Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX. Tit. II. §§ 2 sq.; cf. also Struve. Syntagma, Exerc. XIV. Lib. IX. Tit. II. XXV; Lauterbach. Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. IX. Tit. II. XXIV.

^{^[5303]} Cf. supra, p. 974.

^{^[5304]} Vsus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX. Tit. II. § 20.

¹³⁵ Kaufmann. Lex Aquilia, p. 88.

¹³⁷ Gliick. vol. 10. p. 385. For the 19th century, cf. Windscheid/Kipp. §§ 263. 455. 5 in fine.

^{^[5305]} Inst. IV. 3. 9; cf. supra, pp. 974 sq.

^№ Gai. IV. 9; cf. supra, p. 970.

^11,1 De legibus abrogatis, Inst.. Lib. IV. Tit. Ill. § 15. For further details on the development, see Tobias Johannes Scott, Die Geskiedetiis van die Oorerfiikheid van Aksies op grond van Onregmatige Daad in die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Leiden, 1976), pp. 48 sqq., 154 sqq.

^M Cf. e.g. Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. II, §§ 4, 21; Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practimtn. Lib. IX, Tit. II, XXIV.

^{^[5308]} Cf. supra, pp. 916, 973.

¹⁴⁵ The medieval lawyers (who still regarded the actio legis Aquiliae as both reipersecutoria and poenalis) had confined the cumulation to the amount by which the award exceeded ehe plaintiffs interessc, i.e. the duplum(in the case of litiscrescence) or any surplus on account of the assessment clauses: cf. Konig, op. cit., note 127, pp. 46 sq.; Lange. Schddensersatz und Privatstrafe, pp. 135 sq., 138.

¹⁴¹ Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. II, § 21.

^{^[5311]} Stryk, loc. cit.; cf. also Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 385 sqq.; Kaufmann, Lex Aquilia, pp 91 sqq.

¹⁴⁵ Supra, p. 973.

^{^[5313]} Cf. Gai. D. 50. 17. 139 pr.; Paul. D. 50. 17. 164; Call. D. 44. 7. 59.

^14K Cf. Scott, op cit.. note 140. pp. 21 sqq.

^I4y Kaufmann. Lex Aquilia, pp. 95 sqq.

^{15cit., note 110, pp. 205 sqq.; cf. also Durantis, Speculum iudiciale, as quoted by Konig, op. cit., note 127, p. 40.}

¹⁸¹ Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. II, XL Cf. also Struve, Syntagma, Exerc. XIV, Lib. IX, Tit. H, XXII; Grotius, Inividing. III. XXXIII, 2; Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 341 sq; for the 19th century, see Dernburg, Pandekteti, vol. II, § 132. 2; Windscheid/Kipp, § 455. 5

(who draw attention to the fact that the claim, recognized in practice, is "certainly not" justifiable theoretically); today § 844 IIBGB.

^{^[5352]} For which period did one have to assume that the relatives lost the opera of the dead person? Bartolus and Baldus argued (on the authority of Pap. D. 7, 1, 56 in fine) that the assessment had to be based on the presumption that the deceased would have become 100 years old. Durantis said "usque ad tempus quo verisimile est eum occisum vivere potuisse" (Kaufmann, Lex Aquilia. p. 20), but also referred (like Azo and Roffredus before him) to D. 35, 2. 68 pr. (the so-called lex Hereditatum computation!, providing a table for the computation of the value of a legatum concerning alimenta (problem: does it infringe the lex Falcidia?)); cf. the detailed analysis by Feenstra, in: Schrage, op. at., note 110, pp. 223 sqq. As far as Roman-Dutch and South African law are concerned, cf, Grocnewcgen, De leqibus abrogate. Digest. Lib. XXXV, Tit. II, 1. 68;J.E. Schohcns, "Damages for Death", (1959) 76 SAL/373 sqq.

^OT> Supra, p. 1015.

^!H7 Cf. supra, p. 1015.

^lfld Cf. Robert Feenstra, "Theories sur ia responsabilitc civile en cas d'homicide et en cas de lesion corporelle avant Grotius", in: idem, Fata iuris romani (1974), pp. 327 sqq.; Wieiing, Interesse mid Privatstrqje. pp. 136 sqq.; Olivier, op. cit., note 108, pp. 37 sqq., 120 sqq., 155 sqq,

^{^[5356]} Kaufmann. Lex Aquilia, pp. 30 sqq.; Manfred Herrmann. Der Schutz der Personlichkeit in der Rechtslehre des 16. bis 19. Jahrhunderts f 1968'). pp. 64 sqq.: Olivier, op. cit.. note 108. pp. 121 sqq.. 152 sqq.. 160 sqq.

¹⁹¹¹ Stryk. Usus modemtis pandectarum. Lib. IX. Tit. II. § 10.

But cf. the somewhat unfortunate attempts of (for example) Lauterbach to apply the scholastic causa doctrine: Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. IX, Tit. II. I—III, XL For turther details, see Kaufmann Lex Aquilia, pp. 64 sqq.

²⁽¹¹ Cf. e.g. Stryk, USUS modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. II, § 7 ("Quale ergo hie subest interesse? scil. nullum aliuci, quam ut constet, an actione directa. 1. aquil. an in factum agendum. Verum inter haec nihil interesse, jam dictum est").

²⁽¹² Cf. e.g. Lauterbach. Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. IX, Tit. II. II and III: "Causa sive factum, ex quo oritur, est damnum facientis injuria... Causa efficiens remota est Lex;... [p]roxima est malitia, infirmitas, ignorantia, negligentia vel imperitia horninis...,"

²¹¹³ Konig, op. cit.. note 127. pp. 31 sq.

^{^[5361]} D. 7, 1, 13, 2 ("... nam qui agrum non proscindit, qui vites non subserit, item aquarum ductus conrumpi patitur, lege Aquilia non tenetur"); on this text cf. Pernice, Sachbeschädigungen, pp. 166 sqq.; Van den Heever, Aquilian Damages, pp. 41 sqq; Ben Beinart, "Culpa in omittendo", (1949) 12 THRHR 152 sqq.; von Lubtow, Lex Aquilia, p. 97; Alan Watson, "D. 7. 1. 13. 2 (Ulp. 18 ad Sab,): the lex Aquilia and decretal actions", (1966) 17 Iura 174 sqq.; Kemp J. Kemp, Delictual Liability for Omissions (unpublished LLD thesis, Port Elizabeth. 1978), pp. 75 sqq.

²¹¹³ Commentariiis ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. II, III.

^{^[5363]} Cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, 27, 9; Gai. D. 9, 2, 8 pr.; see also the discussion by Van den Heever, Aquilian Damages, pp. 37 sqq.; Kemp, op. cit., note 204, pp. 62 sqq., 88 sqq.

^A°⁷ Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. II, III; Gluck, vol. 10, pp 319 sq.; Halliwell v, Johannesburg Municipal Council 1912 AD 659 at 670 sq.; Kemp, op. cit., note 204, pp. 137 sqq.

^{^[5365]} Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. IX. Tit. II, X.

*⁰⁹ Stryk. Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX. Tit. II. § 14.

*^lu Struve. Syntagma, Exerc. XIV. Lib. IX. Tit. II. XX; cf. also Grotius. Inteidinq, III. XXXII. 3. 4. 12. 14.

³¹ Cf. supra, pp. 1011 sq.

Pomp. D. 50. 17. 203. on which see Medicus. Id quod interest, pp. 323 sq.; Aumann. op. cit.. note 76. pp. 30 sq.; Lange. Schadensersatz und Privatstrafe, pp. 71 sq.

^{^[5370]} Supra, pp. 1010 sqq.

^J4 Lauterbach. Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. IX. Tit. II. VII; cf. also XL

^{^[5372]} Gl. Tenebitur ad D. 9. 2. 9. 4.

¹⁶ An unsuitable name, according to Buckland/McNair. p. 371; cf. also Lawson/ Markesinis. pp. 33 sq.

*¹⁷ Luig. (19691 2 ius Commune 206 sqq.; d. further Kaufmann. Lex Aquilia, pp. 77 sqq.; Aumann. op. cit.. note 76. pp. 50 sqq.; Wieling. Interesse und Privatstrafe, pp. 222 sqq.

^{^[5375]} De jure belli ac puds. Lib. II, Cap. XVII, I. Cf. also Inieiding. Ill, XXXII, 7, 9, 12 (referring to "het aengheboren recht" (natural law).

For a discussion, sec Hans-Peter Bcndhr, "Ausscrvertragliche Schadcnsersaizpfiicht ohne Verschulden? Die Argumente der Naturrcchtslehrcn und -kodifikationcn", (1976) 93 ZSS 209 sqq.; Kiefer, op. cit., note 126, pp. 78 sqq.

Characteristic is the following passage from his De jure naturae et gentium: "Ex hisce positis facile est rundamentum legis naturalis in venire. Scilicet manifesto apparet, hominem esse animal sui conservandi studiosissimum, per se egenum, sine sui similium auxilio servari ineptum, ad mutua commoda promovenda maxime idoneum, idem tamen saepe malitiosum, petulans, et facile irritabile, ac ad noxam inferendam prom tum, ac validum. Ejusmodi animali, ut salvum sit, bonisque fruatur, quae in ipsius conditionem hie cadunt, necessarium est, ut sit sociabile, id est, ut conjungi cum sui similibus velit, et adversus ilios ita se gerat, ut ne isti ansam accipiant euni laedendi, sed potius rationem habeant ejusdem commoda servandi, aut promovendi" (Lib. II, Cap. Ill, XV).

—⁴ De jure naturae et gentium Lib. Ill, Cap. I, I; c(. further Benohr, (1976) 93 ZSS 213 sqq.; Kiefer, op. cit., note 126, pp. 83 sqq. "Ut ne quis alterum laedat" (alterum non laedere) is the more basic of the two statements; (II.) has to be added, though, because, as Thomasius (op. cit., note 128. § II) explains "Iflmstraneum hoc esset praeceptum, si post laesionem non tenerer laeso ad satisfactionem").

"^A D. 1, L 10, 1 (on which, see Malte Dicsselhorst, "Die Gerechtigkeitsdefinition Ulpians in D. 1, L 10 pr. und die Praecepta iuris nach D. 1, L 10, 1 sowie ihre Rezeption bei Leibnitz und Kant", in: Rotnisches Recht in tier enropa'ischen Tradition, Syinposion Franz Wieacker (1985"). pp. 185 sqq.; Gottfried Schiemann, "Das allgemeine Schadigungsverbot: 'alterum non laedere¹ ", 1989 Juristische Sdmliing 345 sqq.). On the precept of alterum non laedere, cf., most recently, Hans Hattenhauer, drundbegrijj'e des Bürgerlichen Rechts (1982), pp. 103 sq.; Diesselhorst, op. cit., pp. 196 sqq.; Klaus Luig, "Digesten und Dogmatik", (1986) 5 RJ307 sqq.; Eduard Picker, "Vertragliche und deliktische Schadenshaftung", 1987 Juristenzeitung 1048 sqq.; Schiemann, 1989 Juristische Schnhmg 345 sqq.

"^;,Op. cit., note 128, § II.

^{^[5381]} Op. cit., note 128, § IV; "lalequum est, quia piutn et humanum est. aliis, quibus etiam

non a nobis damnum datum est, ex abundantia nostra succurrere et in solatium, rerum amissarum quaedam donare; quanto magis lis. qui facto nostro damnum passi stint: Justum est, quia tranquillitas humani generis id postulat." On the notions of aequalitas and tranquillitas, in this context, cf. Benohr. (1976) 93 ZSS 220 sqq.

~f Op. cit., note 128, § IV. Cf. further § VII. but also § V.

²²⁴ Blackbum j, in the famous case of Rylands v. Fletcher [1861-73) All ER 1 at 11 appears to have had something similar in mind, for his way of arguing implies that he regarded nofault liability as the primary principle of delictual liability, negligence as an exception (cf. also A.W.B. Simpson, "Legal Liability for Bursting Reservoirs: The Historical Context of Rylands v. Fletcher". (19841 13 Journal of Legal Studies 213 sqq.'). In the course of the 19th century, English courts vacillated on the question ot whether to deduce negligence based liability or no-fault liability from the maxim of "sic utere tuo ut alieno non laedas"; cf. infra, p. 1137, note 317.

^21,1 Benohr. (19761 93 ZSS 226 sq.

^a On this notion cf. from an analytical point of view, foachim Hruschka. "Imputation", in: Albin Eser, George P. Fletcher, Rechtfertigung und Entsdntldigung, vol. I (1987), pp, 121 sqq.

^{^[5386]} On Pufendorf's concepts of an actio moralis, of imputatio and imputativitas, cf. e.g. De jure naturae etgentium. Lib. I, Cap. V; W. Hardwig, Die Zureclniung (1957), pp. 35 sqq.; Joachim Hruschka, "Ordentliche und ausserordentliche Zurechnung bei Pufendorf", (1984) 76 ZStrW66\ sqq.

^{^[5387]} Philosophia practica utiiversalis. Pars I (Francofurti et Lipsiae, 1738), § 692 ("Defectus rectitudinis actionis dicitur vincibilis, si cum evitare potuisses, modo voluisses"); § 696 ("Defectus rectitudinis actionis vincibilis dicitur in genere culpa"); § 701 ("Defectus actionis a rectitudine quoad voluntatem et voluntatum dicitur Dolus"); § 717 ("Culpa in specie dicitur defectus rectitudinis actionis quoad intellectura vincibilis").

“ Cf. UIp. P. 50. 17. 23 in fine.

^{^[5389]} On the fault principle in the natural law codifications, see Benohr, (1976) 93 ZSS 228 sq. (Codex Maximiliancus), pp. 229 sqq. (Prussian General Land Law), 233 sqq. (ABGB), 242 sqq. (code civil). On the most direct sources of art. 1382 code civil, cf. infra, note 248.

^{^[5390]} Grotius had used certain passages from Aristotle's Nicomachaean Ethics as the starting point for his views on delict: cf. De jure belli ac pads. Lib. Ill, Tit. XI, II sqq.

^{^[5391]} Analysed in detail by Hans-Peter Benohr, "Die Entscheidung des BGB fur das Verschuldensprmzip", (1978) 46 TR 1 sqq.

^23K Cf. e.g. Josef Esser, Grundlagen und Entwicklung der Gefahrdungshaftung (2nd cd., 1969), pp. 50 sqq.; Roscoe Pound, "The Role of the Will'in Law", (1954) 68 Harvard LR 1 sqq. (8, 17); Ogorek, Gefahrdungshaftung, pp. 23 sq.

^{^[5393]} Cf. e.g. System, vol. V, pp. 1 sqq.; Obligationetinrht, vol. II, p. 295.

^{^[5394]} Cf. e.g. Hem Kotz, "Haftung fur besondere Gefahr", (1970) 170 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 2 sqq.

~⁴¹ Fleming, Tons. pp. 93 sqq., 302 sqq. (" No liability without fault' became the banner of an individualistic society set on commercial exploitation and self-help").

^{^[5395]} Bcnohr. (1978) 46 TR 10 sqq.

"⁴" Cf., in particular, Rudolf von Jhering. Das Schuldmoment im romischen Privatrecht (1867). "Protokolle", in: Mugdati. vol. II. p. 1074; [ have, in general, followed the translation

by Weir, in Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 31 i.

~^4j "IV]estigial anomalies of an uncivilised past when individual freedom was less esteemed than in the new era of middle class democracy": Fleming, Toils, p. 302; for Roman law, cf. Jhering, op. cit.. note 243, pp. 41 sq.

^{^[5399]} Cf. infra, pp. 1132 sqq.

*⁴⁷ Cf. e.g. Hans Jcntsch. Die Entwicklung voti den Euizeltjtbestiindcn des Deliktrechts гиг Gcncralnorm ttnd die Berechtigung finer solchen (unpublished Dr. шг. thesis. Leipzig. 19391. pp. 5 sqq.; Friedhelm Keppmann. Die neiiere Entwicklung der objektiven Tatbestände der §§823, 826 BGB (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Minister, 1959)', pp. 18 sqq.

^24H The way to the famous general clause of art. 1382 led via Jean Domat, Les loix chiles. Lib. П. Tit. VIII, Sect. IV. 1; cf the analysis by Yosiyuki Noda, "Jean Domat et le Code civil frangais" (19561 3 Comparative Law Review (Japan Institute of Comparative Law) 1 sqq.; cf also Pothier, Train da obligations, nn. 116, 123. Art, 1382 code civil has been received by the Dutch legislator: art. 1401 BW. There is one interesting difference, however: the Dutch Code has "elke onregtmatige daad" as opposed to the "tout fait quekonqtte" of art. 1382 code civil (for details of the development cf. Robert Fccnstra, Vergelding en vergoeding (1982), pp. 3 sqq.). French legai science has, however, read the requirement of wrongfulness into the notion of "fautf": cf. supra, p. 998, note 6.

^{^[5402]} Cf also §§ 1. 8, 10 I 6 PrALR, on which see Kiefer, op. cit., note 126. passim. He draws attention to the continuity between the doctrines of the usus modernus and the provisions of the Prussian General Land Law on the law of delictual liability. The natural-law theories merely provided the philosophical framework.

^2bI> Cf, for example, Demburg, Pandekten, vol. П, §§ 131. 135; Hasse, Culpa, pp. 26 sq.; Vangerow, Pundekten. % 681; Windschcid/Kipp, §§ 451,"455; RGZ 9, 158 sqq. (163 sqq.); for a discussion, see Keppmann, op. cit., note 247, pp. 52 sqq. Legal practice did not always follow suit; c(. August Hefke. "Das Wesen des damnum iniuna datum", (1886) 14 Archiv fitr praktiiche Rechtswissenschaft 212 sq. Under the influence of pandectist doctrine the provisions of the PrALR (cf. supra, note 249) were also restrictively interpreted and brought into line, as far as possible, with the scope of Aquilian liability in Roman law. Cf. Kiefer, op. cit., note 126, pp. 165 sqq., 189 sqq., 224 sqq.

¹ The first draft had still opted for a general clause: cf. §§ 704 sq. E I. On the discussions in the course of the traveaux preparatoires, cf Keppmann, op. cit., note 247. pp. 97 sqq.; Michael Fraenkel, Tatbestand und Ziirechnung bei § 823 Abs. ! BGB (1979), pp. 97 sqq.; Kiefer, op. cit., note 126, pp. 270 sqq. In the end, the general clause was rejected by the second commission by a bare majority often to eight votes.

"^л" Which, incidentally, can also be traced back to Grotius (cf. his InSeidim;. Ill, ХХХШ (Van misdaed tegen't leven), III, XXXIV (Van misdaed tegen 4 lichaem). Ш, XXXV (Van hoon). Ill, XXXVI (Van misdaed tegens goed)) and beyond him, ultimately, to Doncllus (cf. infra, p, 1086. notes 270 and 274); Feenstra, op. cit., note 248, pp. 13 sq.

^{^[5406]} Delictual protection of family relationships, of the right to an established and operative business, and of the general right to one's personality, to mention the three most notable examples. For an overview, cf. U.S. Markesinis, A Comparative Introduction to the Gentian Law of Ton (1986), pp. 34 sqq. (with reproduction, in translated form, of some ot the most important cases: pp. 173 sqq.); Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 340 sqq. The "or any other right" clause

® Anns v. Merton London Borough Council [1978] AC 728 (HL) at 751 sq. (per Lord Wilberforce). The famous "neighbour test", reaffirmed by Lord Wilberforce in the Anns' case, for determining whether a duty of care exists, has been formulated by Lord Atkin in Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562 (HL) at 580 ("one of the most oft-quoted dicta in the law of tort": Boberg, Delict, p. 53; cf. also Smith, op. cit., note 8, p. 20: "Seldom in the history of the common law has a single statement of a single judge in a single case had such a profound effect on the development of the law"): "The liability for negligence... is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay. But acts or omissions which any moral code would censure cannot in a practical world be treated so as to give a right to every person injured by them to demand relief. In this way rules of law arise which limit the range of complainants and the extent of their remedy. The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who, then, in law is my neighbour? The answer seems to be—persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question."

Lord Atkin's famous dictum has been hailed, rather extravagantly, as "a seed of an oak tree, a source of inspiration, a beacon of hope, a fountain of sparkling wisdom, a skyrocket in the midnight sky" ((Mr. Justice) A.Μ. Linden, "The Good Neighbour on Trial: A Fountain of Sparkling Wisdom", (1983) 17 University of British Columbia LR 67). For a somewhat more critical analysis, see Smith, op. cit., note 8, pp. 15 sqq. He refers to a "judicial platitude" which "is now a liability to the law of negligence" and should be "laid gracefully to rest in the tombs of the law reports alongside the myriad of other cases which are no longer relevant in the last two decades of the 20th century." On the impact of Anns' decision, see Smith, op. cit., note 8, pp. 38 sqq.

^{^[5408]} Cf., in this context, also Junior Books Ltd. v. The Veitchi Co. Ltd. [1983] 1 AC 520 (HL) and the conclusions drawn by J.C. Smith, "Economic Loss and the Common Law Marriage of Contracts and Torts", (1984) 18 University of British Columbia LR 95 sqq.; but cf. also Peter Cane, "Economic Loss in Tort: Is the Pendulum out of Control?", (1989) 52 Modem LR 201 sqq. ("constructively" overruled?; p. 203). For further comments, from a comparative perspective, see Werner Lorenz, "Verkehrspflichten zum Schutze fremden Vermogens?" and Peter Schlechtriem, "Deliktshaftung des Subunternehmers gegenüber dem Bauherrn wegen Minderwert seines Werks—Eine neue Entscheidung des House of Lords", in: 25 Jahre Karlsruher Forum (1983), pp. 48 sqq., 64 sqq.; B.S. Markesinis, "An Expanding Tort Law—The Price of a Rigid Contract Law", (1987) 103 LQR 357 sqq., 376 sqq., 385 sqq.; Lorenz, Essays Lawson, pp. 95 sqq.

^{^[5409]} In the meantime, however, "a strong reaction against this tendency has... prompted a return to the traditional caution against generalized principles, if not a repudiation of the idea that a new start, untrammelled by past experiences, was now in order": Fleming, Torts, p.

162, referring, inter alia, to Governor of the Peabody Donation Fund i>. Sir Lindsay Parkinson &Co. Ltd. [19851 AC 210 (HL) and Chndtewood Navigation Corporation Ltd. v. Mitsui OS.K. Lines Ltd. /The Mineral Transporter) [1986] AC 1 (t*C). Later cases also show a tendency to return to the earlier view. In Leigh & Sillcti'iin Ltd. v. Aliakmon Shipping Co. Ltd. [1986I2AU ER 145 (HL), the fear of "opening the floodgates so as to expose a person guilty ot want of care to unlimited liability to an indefinite number of... persons" (at 154G) prompted the court to dismiss the action (on the Aliakmon case, see Markesmis. (1987) 103 LQR 387 sqq. ("... an opinion that at times display* an inadequate consideration tor the repercussions of the decision, opts for a solution that is clearly utopic, and unforgivably misses the opportunity to bring some order into the prevailing chaos")). The same tendency is revealed in the trilogy of 1987 cases, viz. Smith v. Liitlewood Organisation Ltd. [1987] 1 AC 241 (HL) (where Lord Goff opined that too general a notion of reasonable foresight or proximity could not "accommodate all the untidy complexities of life" (at 736A)). Curran v. Northern Ireland Co-ownership Housing Association Ltd. [1987] 2 All ER 13 (HL) (where their Lordships felt themselves "entitled to be wary of effecting any extension ot the principle appplied in Anns v. Merton London Borough" (at 18D)) and Yuen Kun-yeu v. Attorney General of Hong Kong

[ 1987] 2 All ER 705 (PC); cf now also D&F Estates Lid. v. Church Commissioners for England [1988] 3WLR 368 (HL); on which sccJ.N. Duncan Wallace, (1989) 105 LQR 46 sqq.; Cane, (1989) 52 Modem LR 200 sqq. In view of these constantly changing judicial sentiments, one can certainly subscribe to the statement that "the English law on the recoverability of mere economic loss is today possibly in greater confusion than ever before” (Dale Hutchison, "Negligent Statements: Why the Reluctance to Impose Liability? ". (1978) 95 SAU 519); cf. also Smith, op. cit., note 8, p. 49 ("The one thing which is clear about the topic of economic loss is that the principles regarding recovery are obscure") and the concluding remark by Cane, (1989) 52 Alodern LR 214: "Given this conceptual morass, it seems unlikely that the law of tort liability for economic loss is yet in its final form. The pendulum is swinging wildly and is yet to find a regular rhythm."

^2W Juristenzcitung 1041 sqq., 1047 sqq.

~'^pK Cf. Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, "Schulzgesetze— Verkehrspflichten— Schutzpflichten", in: (Zweitcj Festschrift für Karl Larcttz (1983), pp. 27 sqq.

Cf. Klaus J. Hopt, "Nichtvertragliche Haftung ausserhalb von Schadens- und Bereicherungshaftung", (1983) 183 Archiv für die civilistisdw Praxis 608 sqq.

^{27< 1} Cf. Hans HoHc. "Aussergesetzliche Schuldpflichtcn", (1943) 103 7StW67 sqq., 72 sqq.

^{^[5414]} For further attempts to provide a theoretical justification for an expansion of liability in the no man's land between contract and delict, cf. Hans Sloll. "Vertrauensschutz bei einseitigen Leistungsversprechen", m: Festschrift fur Wenter Fhtnte, vol. I (1978), pp. 741 sqq.; Johannes Kondgen, Silbstbitiditnq oline Vcrlrtu; (1981): Christian von Bar. Verkehrspfiichteii (1980), pp. 204 sqq.

" - As far as negligent misstatement cases are concerned, ct.. for example, the analysis by Werner Lorenz, "Das Problem der Haftung iur primäre Vermogensschaden bei der Erteilung einer unnchtigen Auskunft", in: Festschrift Jür Kari Larcnz (1973), pp. 575 sqq.; Siegbert Lammel. "Zur Auskunftshaftung", (1979) 179 Archiv jür die cii'ilistisdw Praxis 337 sqq. Lawson/Markesinis. p. 85 sum up as follows: "The extension of the law ot contract thus seems to be attempted whenever the maker of the statement occupies some 'responsible position' and/or stands to make a gain from his statement, provided always that he knows that some other person, usually though not necessarily clearly identified, is going to rely on it and (if it is wrong) suffer loss. In practice, more often than not, this is done in the sort of circumstances that would lead the common law to discover a 'special relationship'. Hi.it in German law, if such a 'special relationship' is discovered, it will lead to the creation of a contract between the maker and the ultimate receiver of the statement, rather than give rise to a duty to take care which, if breached, will be actionable in tort." Alternatively, the courts tend to water down the requirements of § 826 BGB (plaintiff must have acted intentionally and his behaviour must constitute an infringement of the boni mores) in order to be able to impose liability (cf. the references in Lorenz and Lammel, loc. cit.). That the giving ot erroneous advice does not. by itself, lead to liability, is specifically stated in § 676 BGB (cf supra, p. 422). In the disappointed beneficiary cases (supra, p. 1037, note 256), the German Supreme Court has employed the construction of a contract with protective ambit in favour of third parties (BGH 1965 Nate Juristische Wochenschrift 1955 (1956 sq.)); on this method of extending contractual protection in general, cf, for example, Peter Gottwald, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. II (2nd ed., 1985), § 328. nn. 60 sqq. Generally on the German approach to economic loss cases, cf. also Lorenz. Essays Lawson, pp. 86 sqq., and the (rather sympathetic) comparative analysis by Markesims, (1987) 103 LQR 356 sqq. A similarly well-stocked armoury of theories and constructions designed to undermine the economic loss rule is available in Swiss law: cf. Peter Gauch, "Dcliktshaftung für remen Vermogensschaden", in: Festschrift für Max Keller (1989), pp. 121 sqq.

§ 1295 ABGB.

^{^[5417]} In 1916 the legislator even added (totally unnecessarily, one should have thought) a second subsection to § 1295 ABGB which corresponds to § 826 BGB. For a critical evaluation of the assimilation between German and Austrian law of delict, cf. Rudolt Reischauer, in: Peter Rummel (cd.), Kotnmentar zutti ABGB, vol. II (1984), § 1294, n. 16; for a different view, see Friedrich Harrer, in: Michael Schwimann (ed.), Pmxiskommentar zum ABGB, vol. V (1987), § 1295, nn. 1 sqq. Very much the same development, interestingly, appears to have occurred in Swiss law (with regard to the general clause of art. 41 I OR); cf. Gauch, Festschrift Keller, p. 136. The French general clause (art. 1382 code civil), on the other hand, has not been narrowed down, by way of interpretation, in a similar manner. French courts have thus arrived at results, which, as Harrer points out, are hardly imaginable under Austrian law (cf. e.g. the action of a soccer club against a person who carelessly killed one of their (professional) players. The club was allowed to claim damages for having to pay a high transfer fee to obtain the services of a substitute player: Zweigert/Kotz, p. 361). For a comparative discussion, cf. Lawson/Markcsinis, pp. 80 sqq.

^27ff Van der Walt. Delict, n. 24.

*^7f>Boberg. Delict, p. 103.

*⁷⁷ Administrator, Natal v. Trust Bank van Afrika Bpk. 1979 (3) SA 824 (Al at 829 sqq. RumpfFCJ specifically referred to Roman-Dutch law in this context. He also drew attention to the fact that, for a long time, an unsatisfactory situation of uncertainty prevailed in South African law. Taking up a metaphor by Learned Hand j ("Nor is it desirable for a lower court to embrace the exhilarating opportunity of anticipating a doctrine which may be in the womb of time, but whose birth is distant"), he continued: "The birthpangs of such a right of action have endured so long that the time has arrived, perhaps even with a Cesarian section, that this child should be brought into the world. It should immediately be added that it can be foretold that the child will be a problem child" (p. 831, as rendered into English on p. 825). Admhiistratem, Natal v. Trust Bank van Afrika Bpk. in fact vindicates the liberal view of Watermeyer J in Peri man v. Zoutettdyk 1934 CPD 151, who stated, inter alia, that "Roman- Dutch law approaches a new problem in the continental rather than the English

^2|;[ As in the case of direct infliction of an injury where the action is taken to be wrongful unless the requirements of a specific legally recognized defence are satisfied; cf. supra, p. 999, note 8 and Boberg, Delict, p. 32 ("... it is settled law that all harm to person or property caused by a positive act is prima facie wrongful"); Smith, op. cit., note 8, p. 26 ("... the prima facie duty doctrine has application only to risks of physical harm arising out of action").

^{^[5419]} Minister van Potisie v. Eweis 1975 (3) SA 590 (A) at 597B.

Delict, p.214.

^{^[5421]} Declared untranslatable by Lawson/Markesinis, p. 78.

³¹¹² For a comprehensive analysis, see Christian von Bar, Verkehrspfiichtcn (1980), pp. S3 sqq. and passim. For the historical development (starting with RGZ 52, 373 sqq.; RGZ 54, 53 sqq.), cf. von Bar, pp. 1 sqq., 15 sqq.

^3d BGHZ 66, 51 sqq. (though transposing the whole problem, rather oddly, into the law of contract).

^3M For ail details, see Hans-Joachim Mertens, in: Mumhener Kommentar. vol. HI, 2 (2nd cd., 1986). § 823, nn. 223 sqq.

^{^[5425]} Aumann. op. cit.. note 76. pp. 170 sqq.: Luig (19691 2 Ins Commune 234.

^1IS Christian Wolff. Jus naturae. Pars IV. Cap. Ill. § 591. Cf. further Pars II. Cap. II.

§§ 628 sqq. and Aumann. op. cit.. note 76. pp. 42 sqq. "^M Jus Naturae, Pars II. Cap. Ill. § 632.

^{^[5428]} § 1304 ABGB.

^3IH Art. 51 II OR (18811: Art. 44 I OR (19111.

^31,1 Lavvson/Markesinis. pp. 132 sqq.: Aumann. op. cit.. note 76. pp. 132 sqq.

^K1 § 254 I: on the legislative history cf. Aumann. op. cit.. note 76. pp. 140 sqq.. 175 sqq.

Act 34/1956.

^{^[5433]} Fault, however, also plays an important (though secondary) role in German law in determining the amount of the reduction; cf.. for example, Wolfgang Grunsky, in: Miinchetier Kommetttar, vol. II (2nd ed., 1985), § 254. nn. 61 sqq.

^{^[5434]} South British Insurance Co. Ltd. v. Stnit 1%2 (3) SA 826 (A) at 835H.

u™ Jones V. Santam Bpk. 1965 (21 SA 542 (Al at 555A-555D.

—¹ For a discussion, see Boberg. Delia, pp. 655 sqq.. 663 sqq.

" Cf. Holmes J in Taylor v. South African Railways & Harbours i958 (11 SA 139 (DI at 142A- B: "This brings me to the Apportionment of Damages Act of 1956. The law in England was adjusted in this regard in 1945. Its counterpart in South Africa was long in reaching our statute books. 'No matter', one thought with Voltaire, 'perfection walks slowly— she requires the hand of time'. And so it is a little disappointing to find that after all the lawgiver, with two and possibly three languages at its disposal, has not expressed itself in words so simple and clear that he who runs may read."

^{^[5438]} On which cf. supra, pp. 1012 sq. (note 90).

^32H Pierce v. Hau Мои 1944 AD 175 at 195.

³² Fleming. Torts, p. 244.

^{33(1969) 37 TR 188 sq. and Artur Volkl, Die Verfolgung der Korperverletzung im frühen Romischen Recht (1984), pp. 169 sqq.}

^{^[5448]} Peter Birks, (1969) 37 TR 163 sqq., has argued, however, that tab. 8, 4 had nothing to do with the later delict of iniuria; it did not constitute a separate and independent delict, but was an integral part of the provision for os frangere of tab. 8, 3. According to Manfredini, op. cit., note 4, tab. 8, 4 (and also tab. 8, 5) did not form part of the XII Tables but has to be regarded as a rule of interpretation, worked out in the course of the 4th century by priests. Against both Birks and Manfredini, see Volkl, op. cit., note 5, pp. 18 sqq.

^{^[5449]} The exact meaning of membrum ruptum is much disputed. Cf. Santi di Paola, "La genesi storica del delitto di 'iniuria' ", (1947) 1 Annali Catania 268 sqq.; Ulrich von Lubtow,

1050

"Zum romischen Injurienrecht", (1969) 15 Lubeo 131 sqq.; Wittmann, Korperverletzung. pp. 3 sqq.; Kaser, RPr 1, p. 156; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, p. 368; Elemer Polay, "Iniuria- Tatbestande im archaischen Zeitalter ties antiken Rom", (1984) 101 ZSS 152 sqq. (all in the sense mentioned in the text).

For different views cf. Paul Huvelin, "La notion de l"iniuria' dans le tres ancien droit Romain", in: Melanges Ch. Appieton (1903), pp. 377 sqq. (membrum rumpere included only amputations); Ch. Appieton, "Notre enseignement du droit romain", in: Melanges de droit romain dedies a Georges Comil. vol. I (1926), pp. 51 sqq.; Giovanni Pugliese, Studi still' "iniuria" I (1941), pp. 29 sqq.; Simon, (1965) 82 ZSS 163 sqq.; Birks, (1969)37 TR 179 sqq.; Manfredini, op. cit., note 4, p. 54; Volkl, op. cit., note 5, pp. 42 sqq. (all kinds of bodily harm). In favour of a wide interpretation of the term "membrum" (more general than "limb"), cf. Birks, (1969) 37 TR 183 sqq.; Alan Watson, "Personal Injuries in the XII Tables", (1975) 43 TR 218; Volkl, op. cit., note 5, pp. 47 sq.

^s On tab. 8, 3, see, most recently, Volkl, op. cit., note 5, pp. 144 sqq. He argues that this provision was designed to exempt the wrongdoer from the harsh consequences of tab. 8, 2, because a person who hit another man manu fusrive did not normally intend to break a bone. Traditionally, the justification for the special rule contained in tab. 8, 3 is seen in the fact that os fractum was a less serious injury, when compared with the membrum ruptum of tab. 8, 2; whether the wrongdoer acted intentionally or merely negligently is widely held to be irrelevant.

^{^[5451]} Cf., most recently, Volkl, op. cit., note 5, pp. 184 sqq. and Polay, (1984) 101 ZSS 160 sqq. For an ingenious explanation why the word "iniuria" was used to denote physical assaults

in the nature of an insult, see David Daube, "Societas as a Consensual Contract"!!) (1938) 6 Cambridge LJ 40i sqq. and idem. "Matthew v. 38 f." (19441 Mtjournal ofTheological Studies 182 sq. ("Were membrum ruptum and os fractum not also instances of iniuria in [a wide untcchnical] sense? They were, and no doubt the Romans knew it. But it was only in cases like a slap in the face that unlawfulness alone, so to speak, constituted the offence... [and was] not concealed behind any more concrete facts like a broken limb or a torn out eye.... Consequently it was cases like a slap in the face, cases of wrong pure and simple, that received the technical appellation of iniuria, 'unlawfulness proper' "). ¹⁰ On which cf. supra, pp. 2 sq., 914.

It is interesting to note that slaves were still equated to free persons and not yet (as in the lex Aquilia) seen as things.

^E Cf., for example, von Liibtow, (1969) 15 Labeo 139 (25 pounds of copper).

^B For details, see Peter Birks, "Lucius Veratius and the Lex Aebutia", in: Daube Noster (1974), pp. 44 sq.

^{^[5455]} Nodes Atticae. Lib. XX, I, 12.

^B Nodes Atticae, Lib. XX, f 13 (on the authority of Labeo). On this story, cf. von Liibtow,

(1969) 15 Labeo 133 sq.; Alan Watson, "The Development of the Praetor's Edict", (1970) 60J RS

112 sq.; Birks, Daube Noster, pp. 39 sqq.; Manfredini, op. cit., note 4, pp. 79 sqq.

^B But see Birks, Daube Noster. pp. 40 sqq.

¹⁷ On which see Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae, Lib. XX, I, 13; von Lubtow, (1969) 15 Labeo 139 sqq.; Wittmann, Korperverletzung. pp. 25 sqq.; Volkl, op. cit., note 5, pp. 208 sqq.

^III Cf the reconstruction by Volkl, op. cit., note 5, p. 214; Walter Selb, "Die Formel der

Injurienklage", 1978 Ada Juridica 36.

^{^[5463]} But the actio iniuriarum continued to be granted also in cases of physical harm. For all details, see Wittmann, Korperverletzung, pp. 34 sqq., 47 sqq. He argues that in classical Roman law (since the time of Labeo) minor bodily injuries constituting contumelia gave rise to an action only if the wrongdoer had acted intentionally (as in all other cases of contumelia iniuria; cf. infra, pp. 1059 sqq.). With regard to bodily harm going beyond mere contumelia, the actio iniuriarum could, however, still be instituted even in cases of negligence. But the evidence is very scanty (see, however, Lab./Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15 pr., as interpreted by Wittmann, Korperverletzung, pp. 48 sqq.), since the compilers (apparently) regarded protection under the lex Aquilia (which had been developed in the meantime; cf. supra, pp. 1015 sqq. ) as sufficient and therefore limited the actio iniuriarum generally to cases of dolus.

^{2D. 47. 10. 15. 2.}

^{^[5471]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 3. Cf. also Ulp. D. 47. 10. 1. 1.

² Cf. the literature cited supra, note 25: Birks. (19691 37 TR 206 sq.: Honsell/Mayer- Maly/Selb, p. 369; cf. also Manfredini, op. cit., note 25, pp. 49 sqq., maintaining that convicium originated as a political delict (unconvincing); and see Polay, (1985) 27 BIDR 16. On the etymology of convicium, cf. Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 4 ("Convicium autem dicitur vel a concitatione vel a conventu, hoc est a collatione vocum, cum enim in unum complures voces conferuntur, convicium appellatur quasi convocium"); Raber, Injurienansprikhe, pp. 23 sq.; Wmmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 308 sq.

^{^[5473]} Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 11.

^{^[5474]} Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 12. Could an individual person commit the offence of convicium

(provided he acted in the presence of a crowd of people)? Cf. Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 4 and Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 11 and 12; Raber, Injurienanspriiche, pp. 27 sqq.

³ D. 47. 10. 15. 9. ³² Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 7.

^{^[5477]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 6. ³⁴ Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 5.

³⁵ On its wording, see Lenel. EP, p. 400: for a general discussion, see. in particular. Raber.

Injurienanspriiche, pp. 39 sqq.; Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 314 sqq.

On which sec, for instance, Berger, ED, p. 738.

^{^[5481]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 19.

" Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 23.

Cf. Raber, Injurienanspriiche, pp. 54 sq.

⁴¹ Cf. Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 23.

⁴ Mommsen/Krugcr. D. 47. 10. 15. 22. n. 5.

^{^[5486]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 22.

^{^[5487]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 20.

Raber, Injurienanspriiche, p. 26.

' Raber, Injurienanspriiche, p. 50. ⁴⁶ For

details, see Ulp. D. 34, 2, 23, 2. Raber,

Injurienanspriiche, p. 47.

^4M Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 15 ("... multo minus [peccare videtur], si meretricia veste feminae, non matrum familiarum vestitac fuissent"). Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 317 translates "minus" as "not" rather than "less" and therefore concludes that the edict did not apply in this case.

^{^[5493]} Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 15; but see Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 316 sq.

^J" Ulp. D. 47, 10, 9, 4; Raber, Itijurietmtispriiche. pp. 50 sq.

^s Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 15.

² But sec Wittmann. (1974) 91 ZSS 318 sqq.

" Cf., for example, Schulz, CRL, p. 597.

Cf. the humanist Heinrich Brenkmann (Hans Peters, "Brenkmanns Papiere zu Gqttingcn". (1911) 32 ZSS 375).

^7:5 Cornells van Bynkershoek, Observations Juris Romani (Lugduni Batavorum, 1710), Lib. IV, Cap. XXV.

^{^[5500]} Loc. cit.

^{^[5501]} Raber, Iniurieiianspriiche, pp. 51 sq. Contra: Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 319 sq.

^s” Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 25.

^{^[5503]} But see David Daube: "Ne quid infamandi causa fiat.' The Roman Law of Defamation", in: Atti del cotigresso internazwnale di diritta romatw e di sioria del diritto (Verona’), vol. Ill (1951), pp. 418 sqq. ("IT]he edict contemplated nothing but infamare in the full

sense, 'to make a man incur infamy', i.e. infamy before the censor or praetor"). Contra: Max Kaser, (1956) 73 ZSS 224; Raber, Injurienanspriiche, pp. 68 sqq.

® Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 27 ("... ut puta ad invidiam alicuius veste lugubri utitur aut squalida, aut si barbam demittat, vel capillos submittat").

^a Cf., for example, Suetonius. De vita Caesarum. Divus lulius, LXVII, 2 ("... audita clade Tituriana barbam capillumquc summiserit fsc: Caesar] nee ante dempserit quam vindicassct"); Divus Augustus, XXIII. 2 ("... per continuos menses barba capilloque summisso caput interdum foribus illideret").

⁽'² Cf. Raber. Injurienanspriiche, pp. 57 sq.

® Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 323 (referring to Ven. D. 47, 10, 39).

^{^[5505]} Cf. the case reported by Seneca. Contriversiae. Lib. X, I (30), on which sec Daube, Atti

Verona, vol. Ill, pp. 433 sqq.; Raber, Injurienanspriiche, pp. 58 sq.; Wittmann, (1974) Y1 ZSS

330 sqq.; Peter Birks, "hifamandi causa facta in disguise", 1976 Ada Juridica 83 sqq.

"⁵ Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 27; Manfredini, op. cit., note 25, pp. 196 sqq. ^m

Ulp. D. 47, 10. 15, 29.

⁶⁷ Ulp. D. 47, 10. 15, 30; Daube, Atti Verona, vol. Ill, pp. 423 sq.; Raber,

Injurienanspriiche, pp. 64 sq.

^{^[5512]} For details, see Raber, Injurienanspriiche, pp. 65 sqq.

® Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15. 31.

⁷¹¹ Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 32; Daube. Atti Verona, vol. Ill, pp. 426 sq.

^{^[5515]} Ulp. P. 47, 10, 15, 34. For details, see Raber, Injurienanspriiche, pp. 77 sqq.; Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 339 sqq.

² Ulp. D. 47, 10, 1, 3. Could a slave also be personally insulted? No, according to Gai. Ill, 222 ("Servo autem ipsi quidem nulla iniuria intcllegitur fieri..."); but cf. Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 35 ("ipsi servo facta iniuria").

^{^[5517]} As to the exact meaning of "verberare" cf. Ulp. D. 47, 10, 5, 1 (".., verbcrarc est eum dolore caedere. pulsarc sine dolore"); Ulp. D. 47, 10, 15, 40 (" 'Verbcrasse' dicitur abusive et qui pugnis cedderit").

⁷ "Iniuria... per alias personas" (Ulp. D. 47, 1(1, 1, 3). Insulting a married woman was another instance of an indirect iniuria ("... spectat enim ad nos iniuria, quae in his fit, qui... affectui (nostrae) subiecti sint" : Ulp. D. 47, 10, 1, 3). It gained great importance within the very honour-conscious upper echelons of 19th-century society—cf., as a typical example, the plot of Theodor Fontane's little masterpiece Cecile. For a judicial pronouncement on the matter, sec Jacobs V. Macdonald 1909 TS 442 at 443 (per Innes CJ). A rather peculiar case of an "indirect" iniuria is dealt with by Paul. D. 47, 10, 26: someone makes a mockery of another person's slave by taking him, "animfol iniuriae faciendae", into a popina ("cook-shop": J. A.C. Thomas, in Mommsen/Kriiger/Watson) or by playing dice with him; the slave is here used in order to insult his master. On this text, see Raber, Injurienanspriiclie, pp. 139 sqq. and Marek Kurylowicz, "Paul. D. 47.10.26 und die Tatbestände der romischen 'iniuria' ", (1987) 38 Labeo 298 sqq.

^{^[5519]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 38.

⁷¹¹ Cf. supra, p. 1016.

^{^[5521]} lul./Ulp. D. 9. 2. 5. 3.

^7H For details, see Ernst Landsberg. Iniuria und Beleidigung (1886"). pp. 42 sqq.: Wittmann. (1974) 91 ZSS 346 sqq. and also David McQuoid-Mason, The Law of Privacy in South Africa (1978), pp. 23 sqq., who attempts to subsume a variety of iniuriae under the heads of "intrusions" (as where somebody enters someone else's home; see immediately below in the text), "publication of private facts" (for instance: the premature disclosure of the contents of

another person's will, as discussed in Ulp. D. 9, 2, 41 pr.) and "putting a person in a false

light" (for example: falsely proclaiming a freeman to be one's slave; cf. Ulp. D. 47, 10, 11,

9; Gai. D. 47, 10, 12; Daube, Atti Verona, vol. Ill, pp. 428 sq.) and thus to relate them to the

modern concept of invasion of privacy, as developed in the United States.

^{^[5527]} Paul. D. 47, 2, 21, 7; cf. also Raber, Injurienansprikhe. pp. 152 sqq.

^H0 lav. D. 47, 10, 44 ("Si inferiorum dominus aedium superioris vicini fumigandi causa fumum faceret, aut si superior vicinus in inferiores aedes quid aut proiecerit aut infundent, negat Laheo iniuriarum agi posse: quod falsum puto, si tamen iniriae faciendae causa immittitur"). Cf. further Ulp. D. 47, 10, 24 ("Si quis proprium servum distrahere prohibetur a quolibet, iniuriarum experiri potest"); Ulp. D. 47, 10, 13, 7 (someone is prevented from fishing in the sea or from lowering his nets); and, on these two cases, Raber, Injurienansprüche. pp. 161 sqq.; on D. 47, 10, 13, 7 cf. also Daube, Atti Verona, vol. Ill, pp. 430 sqq.; Iui. D. 19, 1, 25 (a seller of grapes prevents the purchaser, after delivery, from treading the grapes or from taking away the unfermented wine), on which seeJ.E. Spruit, "Schikanen anlässlich eines Traubenkaufs", in: Satura Roberto Feenstra oblata (1985), pp. 157 sqq,

^s' Lab./Ulp. D. 47, 10. 15, 26; cf. supra, p. 1053.

^{^[5530]} Ulp. D. 47, 10, 1 pr. Cf. also Paul. Coll. II, V, 1 and 3; but. IV, 4 pr. ("Generaliter iniuria dicitur omne quod non iure fit: specialiter alias contumelia, quae a contemnendo dicta est, quam Gracci Vippiv appellant"); von Lubtow, (1969) 15 Labeo 162 sqq.; Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 290 sqq.; Buckland/Stein, p. 590 ("... in the law as we know it, the wrong consisted in outrage or insult or wanton interference with rights, any act, in short, which shewed contempt of the personality of the victim or was such as to lower him in the estimation of others").

*" Paul. Coll. II, V, 2: "Commune omnibus iniuriis est, quod semper adversus bonos mores fit..."; Raber, Injurienanspriiche. pp. 5 sq.; Wittmann, (1974) 91 ZSS 303 sqq.; Theo Mayer-Maly, "Contra bonos mores", in: luris Professio. Festgabe fur Max Kaser (1986), pp. 157 sqq.

⁸¹ Cf.. for example. Melius de Villiers. "The Roman Law of Defamation". (19181 34 LQR 412 sqq. and infra, notes 228. 229.

^{^[5533]} Ulp. D. 47. 10. 3. 1: interpolated according to Giannetto Longo. "La complicita nel diritto penale romano". (1958") 61 BIDR 120: Max Kaser. "Gaius und die Klassiker". (1953") 70 ZSS 174: but see Raber. Injurienanspriidie, pp. 108 sqq.

⁸⁵ Cf. the inscription (Ulpian 56 ad ed.") and Lenel. EP, p. 397.

^{^[5535]} Pauw. Persoonlikheidskrenking, p. 18.

⁸⁵ Ulp. D. 9. 2. 5. 3.

® Cf.. for instance. Ulp. D. 47. 10. 15. 23.

® Cf.. in particular, the detailed analysis by Raber. Injurienanspriiche, pp. 107 sqq.; further Bhadra Ranchod, Foundations of the South African Law of Defamation (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Leiden, 1972), pp. 12 sqq.; Pauw, Persoontikheidskrenking, pp. 17 sqq.; N.j.J. Olivier, Die aksie weens die nalatiqe veroorsaking van pyn en lyding (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Leiden, 1978), pp. 12 sqq.

⁹ Op. cit., note 90, p. 15.

^{^[5540]}Gai. IV. 112.

^{^[5541]}Gai. IV. 112.

⁹¹ Gai. IV. 112. For details. seeVTobias Johannes Scott. Die Geskiedenis van die Oorerfiikheid van Aksies op grand van Onregmatige Daad in die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Leiden, 1976). pp. 13 sqq.; 31 sqq.

^{^[5543]} Furthermore, the actio iniuriarum had to be brought within a year (while the resentment was still (reasonably) fresh): cf. C. 9, 35, 5; Kaser, RPr\, p. 625; but cf. Pugliese, op. cit., note 7, pp. 109 sqq.

⁹⁵ Ulp. D. 47. 10. 28.

Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (trans. F. Hopman, Penguin reprint, 1982), p. 67; cf. also p. 68, where he points out that "[t]he thirst for honour and glory proper to the men of the Renaissance is essentially the same as the chivalrous ambition of earlier times".

^B Richard II. Act I, sc. i, 1. 177 sqq. (also quoted by Jonathan Burchell, The Law of Defamation in South Africa (19851. p. 18 and Leon J. in Payne v. Republican Press (Pty.) Ltd. 1980(2) PHJ44(D) at 111).

^{^[5546]} Cf. the magnificent first chapter of Huizinga's famous book (op. cit., note 104, pp. 9

Cf. generally K. Demeter, Duell, in: HRG. vol. I, col. 789 sq. More specifically on the medieval trial by combat, on the chivalrous tradition of jousting and on the "duel of honour" of the late Middle Ages, see V.G. Kiernan, The Duel in European History (1988), pp. 31 sqq. They were the direct ancestors of the modem duel which emerged in Italy amidst the chronic warfare of the 16th century. From there it spread to France and all other parts of Europe (including England which, in turn, exported it to her colonies); for details, see Kiernan, pp. 46 sqq., 68 sqq. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the historical origin of duelling became the subject of lively controversies among supporters and opponents of this

social institution; the one side argued that it was historically and psychologically intimately linked to a specifically Germanic concept of honour, the other claimed that it was entirely alien to the German character and constituted a fateful and objectionable import from the frivolous Mediterranean countries (cf., in particular, the spirited comments by the historian Georg von Below. Das Duell und der germanische Ehrbegriff (1896); for a balanced evaluation of these disputes, see Johannes Slawig. Der Kampf gegen das Duellwesen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert in Deutschland unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Preussens (unpublished Dr. phil. thesis, Minister, 1986), pp. 7 sqq.). For a discussion of the complex and ambivalent relationship between the social institution of duelling and the formal legal system, c(. Slawig, pp. 49 sqq. and, in particular, Warren F. Schwartz, Keith Baxter, David Ryan, "The Duel: Can These Gentlemen Be Acting Efficiently?", (1984) 13 Journal of Legal Studies 320 sqq. Schwartz, Baxter and Ryan base their observations on 19th-century American duelling conventions.

^{^[5549]} Hence the anti-duelling laws, the first of which were already enacted in the latter part of the 16th century. Among the German principalities, Saxony appears to have led the way. For details, see Slawig, op. cit., note 107, pp. 49 sqq.; Kiernan, op. cit., note 107, pp. 185 sqq., 191 sqq.

If one and the same act constituted contumely iniuria and satisfied the requirements of the lex Aquilia, and if therefore both immaterial and patrimonial loss was caused, the actio iniuriarum and the actio legis Aquiliae could be cumulated: cf. Voet, Conttnentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XVIII.

^{^[5551]} Ekkehard Kaufmann, "Das spatmittelalterliche deutsche Schadensersatzrecht und die

Rezeption der 'actio iniuriarum aestimatoria' ", (1961) 78 ZSS (GA) 93 sqq.

^ш Kaufmann, (1961) 78 ZSS (GA) 97 sqq.; cf. also Mainzer, op. cit., note 103, pp. 47 sqq.

^{^[5554]} Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, I. For further definitions of the concept of iniuria, see Karlheinz Bartels, Die Dogmatik der Ehrverletzung in der Wissenschaft des gemeinen Rechts bis гит Ausgang des W.Jahrhunderts (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, Gottingen, 1959), PP· 72 sqq.; Herrmann, op. cit., note 99, p. 51.

^u' Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, I (trans by Melius de Villiers, The Roman and Roman-Dutch Law of Injuries (1899), p. 17). The triad of corpus, dignitas and fama is taken from Ulp. D. 47, 10, 1, 2. As in Roman law, the iniuria could be either "vel immediate per semetipsum, nulla alia persona interveniente" or "vel mediate per consequentiam" (Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, X; for details cf. Bartels, op. cit., note 112, pp. 150 sqq.j. According to Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, § 9, a man could be (indirectly) insulted by an insult inflicted upon his wife, but not vice versa ("Ita quoque uxori injuria illata marito illata esse censetur,... sed non vice versa"). Reason: "defendi uxores a vires, non viros ab uxoribus aequum est." On iniuria per consequentias in modern South African law, see J. Neethling, Persoonlikheidsreg (2nd ed., 1985), pp. 70 sqq.

^{^[5555]}Lab./Ulp. D. 47, 10, 1, 1.

^{^[5556]} Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, П.

¹⁶ Cf., for example, Azo, Summa Codicis. Lib. IX, De iniuriis (p. 338, right column).

^{^[5558]} Cf. Vinnius, Institutiones. Lib. IV, Tit. IV, 1.

"^s But see, for instance, Voet. Commentarius ad Pattdectas. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, X.

¹¹⁴ Cf. Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-practkum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, LXVI sqq. (emphasizing, however, that famosus libellus "ab aliis injuriis nee Causa Efficiente, nee Subjecto differt"). Perezius, Praelectiones. Lib. IX, Tit. XXXVI, appears to regard famosus libellus and iniuria literis as synonymous ("Gravioris injuriae species est, quae scripto ht").

¹⁷¹¹ De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, p. 77.

^{^[5562]} Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLVII. Tit. X, XI ("Consulto demque injunam quis facit, si alteri injuriam fieri mandet, am generaliter procuret, ut alteri contumelia inferatur"), Joost van Damhouder, Praxis return criminal him. Cap. CXXXV also had four classes, but they were verbis, facto, scriptis and gestibus.

Angelus Arctinus, as quoted by Ranchod, op. cit., note 90, p. 32. On injuriae, quae in non faciendo consistunt (for instance: debitos alicui honoris titulos non tribuere, dominum aliquem non nominare), see Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas. Spec. DXLIX.

Cf., in particular, Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas. Spec. DXLVIII.

^{^[5565]} For a detailed exposition cf., for instance, Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, VII sqq. and De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 73 sqq.; Landsberg, op. cit., note 78, pp. 69 sqq.; cf. also Bartels, op. cit., note 112. pp. 128 sqq.

¹²¹ All these examples from Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X XVI, and Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, VIII. Cf. further the casuistry compiled by Bartels, op. cit., note 112, pp. 93 sqq.

¹²¹' Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XVII; Stryk, Usus modermtspandeciarmn. Lib. XLVII, Tic. X, § 7; cf. also the examples provided by Bartels, op. cit., note 112, pp. 108 sqq. Generally on iniuriae reales, see A. Ranjit B. Amerasinghe, "The law relating to Iniuriae reales", 1967 Actajuridica 159 sqq.; more specifically on ignominious gestures ("sannae"): Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. DXLV.

^{^[5568]} Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practkum, Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, LXV1.

Cf. Going, pp. 513 sq.; Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectus, Spec. DXLVI. ХП (dealing with "alterum, cui dignior locus debetur, antegredi").

¹²⁴ Cf., for the Middle Ages, Joachim Bumke, Hofische Kultur (1986), for example pp. 248 sqq. (seating order), 276 sqq. (court ceremonies); on the hierarchical conception of society, see Huizinga, op. cit., note 104, pp. 54 sqq.; Bumke, pp. 43 sqq.

^13e Cf. the example discussed already by Pierre de Belleperche and Faber (Ranchod. op. cit.. note 90. p. 51").

^b7 Cf. Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-ptmtimm. Lib XLVII, Tit. X, XX.

^b8 Lauterbach, loc. cit. Cf. also Stryk, Usiis modernus pandectarum. Lib. XLVII. Tit. X, § 6: "[p]rotestatio facto contraria cst." On this legal proverb in general, see Arndt Teichmann, "Die protestatio facto contraria", in: Festschrift fur Karl Michaelis (1972), pp. 294 sqq.; Helmut Kohler, "Kritik der Regel 'protestatio facto contraria non vaiet'", 1981 Juristcnzcimig 464 sqq.

¹³" Lauterbach. Collegium thcorctico-practicitm. Lib. XLVII. Tit. X. XXII.

^If'° Cf.. for example. Stryk. Usus tnodermtspandectamm. Lib. XLVII. Tit. X. § 14: cf. also the discussion by De Villiers, op. cit.. note 113. pp. Ill sqq.: Bartels, op. cit.. note 112. pp. 188 sqq.

^11,1 As Robert Feenstra (quoted by Ranchod. op. cit.. note 90. pp. 66 sq.") believes.

^1IL Collegium theoreiico-practiann. Lib. XLVII. Tit. X. XXVI.

^{^[5598]} For details., see Scott, op. cit., note 94, pp. 125 sq., 161 sqq.

ifi⁴ "|_n|'_;lmj_{a cn}j_rn yitae amissioni aequalis est, ct oculorum privatione major habetur")!): Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum, Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XXXII.

^{^[5600]} "... si modica vel levis injuria illata sit." Reason: "Praetor minima non curat, ct propter rem minimam non detur actio famosa": Lauterbach, loc. cit. Generally on the distinction Lcween iniuria atrox on the one hand and iniuria modica and levis on the other during the time of the usus modernus, see Herrmann, op. cit., note 99, pp. 59 sqq.; De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 153 sqq.; c(. also the case discussed by L. Roeleveld, 1981 Ada Juridica 157 sqq. South African criminal law still requires "seriousness" of the offence with regard to both the crimen iniuriae and the crime of defamation: J.R.L. Milton, South African Criminal Law and Procedure, vol. II (2nd cd., 1982), pp. 528 sqq., 561 sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 325 sqq., but see, most recently, John van den Berg, "Is gravity really an element of crimen iniuria and criminal defamation in our law?", (1988) 51 THRHR 54 sqq.

^{^[5601]} Prescription effectively terminated the possibility of bringing the actio iniuriarum ("Tollitur praescriptione": Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-praclicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XXXVII; "fC]essat... injuriarum persecutio": Voct, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLVII, Tic. X, XIX). Dissimulatio was another, very interesting way of putting an end to the right to sue. It dates back to Roman law (Ulp. D. 47, 10, 11, t: "Ininriarum actio ex bono et aequo est et dissimulatione aboletur, si quis enim iniuriam dereliquerit, hoc est statim passus ad animum suum non revocaverit, postea ex paenitentia remissam iniuriam non poterit recolere"; if someone at first ignores the affront, he cannot later change his mind and seek to recover) and was much discussed by the writers of the ius commune (often sub voce tacita remissio). On account of which circumstances could it be inferred that someone had not taken the insult to heart and therefore waived the matter? "fE]x. gr. cum injuriante pristina familiaritate sponte utendo, amice salutando, osculo amplectando, conversando"; likewise the drinking out of one cup (which the Germans of old considered to be the most effectual token of friendship: Grotius, Inleiding, III, XXXV, 3). Merely keeping up the normal proprieties ("ut communis salutatio in publico, propinatio in convivio") did not imply a remissio tacita. Nor, incidentally, did the act of going to confession to the pastor by whom one had been insulted, "quia hie tan turn consideratur ut Vicarius Dei, et principaliter agitur inter Deum et peccatorem" (all quotations from Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico- practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X. XXXVI). Cf. also Ranchod, op. cit., note 90', pp. 55 sq. 89; De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 187 sqq.

¹⁽¹⁷ For detak cf, for example, Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XIII; Stryk, Usus L.odernus pandectamm. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, §§ 17 sqq. (distinguishing between Saxony and other territories).

^M* Kaufmann, (1 % 1) 78 ZSS (GA) 98 sq.

¹⁶⁴ Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practiatm, Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XXX.

¹⁷⁽¹ Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XVII.

ⁿ Cf., for example, Verhandelin% der lyfstraffelyke misdaaden (trans, van Hogendorp) (Amsterdam, 1772), 87. Hoofstuk, XV sqq.

^{^[5607]} Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, XXIV; cf. also De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 248 sqq.

^{^[5608]} Cf., for example, Stryk, lisas moderttus pandectamm. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, § 21;

Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X. LV.

^w An "extraordinarium remedium", in the terminology of Lauterbach. The challenge to a duel was another "extraordinary" remedy recognized at least by some {"Aliud extraordinarium remedium re vincendae injuriae quidam ponunt in provocatione ad duellum ex proverb. Auf eine Luge gehort eine Maultasche oder Dolch"). Lauterbachs comment {Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLV1I, Tit. X, LXV): "Verum abominandum hoc et omni jure prohibitum esse nemo Christianorum inftcias ibis, cum provocantes gravissime peccent in Deum Magistratum, cui ultionis munus demandandum est, et proximum, cujus corpori et animae struere conantur, et dum putativam temporalem ignominiam evitare satagunt, periculum aeternae infamiae atque exitii incurrunt, sive vincant, sive vincantur."

For details, see C. von Wallenrodt, "Die Injurienklage auf Abbitte, Widerruf und Ehrenerklärung in ihrer Entstehung, Fortbildung und ihrem Verfall", (1864) 3 Zeitschrift für Rechtsgeschkhte 243 sqq.

¹⁷¹ For details, see Wallenrodt, (1864) 3 Zeitschrift fur Rechtsgeschkhte 255 sqq.; Udo Wolter, Das Prinzip der Naturalrestitution in § 249 BGB (1985), pp. 72 sq. Interesting historical examples of recantationes are provided by Leyser, Meditatioties ad Pandectas. Spec. DXLIII. I.

^{^[5612]} Cf. supra, pp. 824 sq., note 283.

Cf. Wallenrodt. (1864) 3 Zeitschrift Jur Rechtsgeschkhte 261.

^ra Cf. supra, p. 824, note 283.

[5615] Por a detailed list of the ways in which reparatio iniuriarum could be effected, see Van Damhouder, Praxis rerum criminalium. Cap. CXXXVI, 11.

^IH>1 Cf. Wailenrodt, (1864) 3 Zeitschrift für Rechtsgeschkhte 297; cf. also the discussion by Stryk, Usus modemus pandectarutn. Lib. XLVR Tit. X, § 28; Van Damhouder, Praxis rerum criminatium. Cap. CXXXVI, 11, who, when referring to r^Aparatio iniuriarum, remarks "qua iniuriantes puniendos esse diximus".

^{^[5617]} Wailenrodt, (1864) 3 Zeitschrift fur Rechtsgeschichte 296; De Villiers, op. cit.. note 113, p. 178.

^1KK R. Licbcrwirth, in: HRG, vol. I, col. 358.

^IHy Cf., for instance, Martens v. Short (1919) 40 NLR 193 at 194: "There is no branch of the law so uncertain, and therefore so unscientific, as that of defamation" (per Tatham J).

^ro Cf. the chapter title in Lord Denning. What Next in the Law (1982"). p. 179.

® Zweigert/Kotz. p. 454.

^{^[5619]} ^,H The Court of the Star Chamber was a concihar court, namely the Privy Council sitting in [he Star Chamber (camera stellata. so called from the gilded stars on the roof); on its jurisdiction in general, see Holdsworth, History, vol. V, pp. 155 sqq.

Lord Coke, as quoted by Denning, op. cit., note 190, p. 163.

²¹¹¹¹ Holdsworth, History, vol. VIII, pp. 363 sq.

²¹⁾¹ A.K.R. Kiralfy. A Source Book of English Law (1957). p. 163. For a different interpretation of this case, see Kaye, (1975) 91 LQR 53! sqq. In any event, the matter was finally settled in Thorley v. Lord Kerrs, in: Fifoot, op. cit., note 196, pp. 149 sqq.

^{214 Cape LJ 184 sqq; T.W. Price, "Animus Injuriandi in Defamation", (19491 66 SAL] 6; Die Spoorbond v. South African Railways, Van Heerden k. South African Railways 1946 AD 999 at 1010; African Life Assurance Society Ltd. v. Robinson & Co. Lid. and Central News Agency Ltd. 1938 NPD 277 at 295 sqq.; cf. also Voet. Cornmentarius ad Pandeclas, Lib. XLVII, fit. X. I ("vcl dignitas") and De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 90, 132; Grotius, Inhiding. Ill, XXXV, 2 ("... in't heimehek ofte in't openbacr"). The reason for this difference between common law and civil law lies in the fact that in England the emphasis is on reputation (which can be impaired only by publication of defamatory matter),}

³² On the defence of truth, see Gatley. op. cit.. note 193. nn. 351 sqq.

³³ For all details, see Gatley. op. cit.. note 193. nn. 691 sqq.

³⁴ Generally on absolute privilege, cf. Gatley. op. cit.. note 193. nn. 381 sqq.

³ “ For a detailed analysis, see Gatley. op. cit.. note 193. nn. 441 sqq.

The same applies in the case of "fair comment"; the plea is defeated if the plaintiff can show that the comment was actuated by malice.

^{^[5625]} For an overview, cf. Price. (19491 66 SALJ 4 sqq; idem. "The Basis of the South African Law of Defamation". 1960 Atta Juridica 254 sqq.; Ranchod. op. cit.. note 90. pp. 133 ^sqq-

Cf.. for example. Ranchod. op. cit.. note 90. pp. 135 sqq. On the interaction of English and Roman-Dutch law in Ceylon, see Lalith W. Athulathmudali. "The Law of Defamation in Ceylon". (19641 13 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 1368 sqq.

^{^[5627]} Sirjohn Wessels, "The Future of Roman-Dutch Law in South Africa", (1920) 37 SALJ T16.

™ Cf. the eleganter dictum by Holmes J, in: Ex parte Winnaar 1959 (1) SA 837 (N) 839 ("The original sources of the Roman-Dutch law are important; but exclusive preoccupation with them is like trying to return an oak tree to its acorn"); cf. also P.Q.R. Boberg, "Oak Tree or Acorn?—Conflicting Approaches to Our Law of Delict", (1966) 83 SALJ 150 sqq.

^{^[5629]} Cf. supra, p. 557, note 73; p. 805.

^{^[5630]} (1830) 1 Mcnz 455.

^{^[5631]} Chiefjustice of the Cape of Good Hope (and later of the Union of South Africa) from 1877 to 1914. The standard biography is Eric A. Walker, Lord de Villiers and His Times (1925).

^{^[5632]} Cf., inter alia, Botha v. Brink (1878) 8 Buch 118 at 123, 128 and 130.

^{^[5633]} Price, (1949) 66 SALJ 17.

^22hJooste v. Chassens 1916 TPD 723 at 732; Laloe Janoe v. Bronkiwrst 1918 TPD 165 at 168; Tothill v. Foster 1925 TPD 857 at 862 sq.; Kieinhans v. Vsmar 1929 AD 121 at 126.

^{^[5635]} McKerron, "Fact and Fiction in the Law of Defamation", (1931) 48 SALJ 154 (172).

^{^[5636]} 1960 (4) SA 836 (C) at 840C-D.

See especially Jordaan v. Van Biljon 1962 (1) SA 286 (A); Crai% v. Voortrekkerpers Bpk.

1963 (1) SA 149 (A); Nydoo v. Vengtas 1965 (1) SA 1 (A).

²³³ For an analysis and critical evaluation of the position today, see Burchell, op. at., note

105, pp. 149 sqq.

^{^[5641]} Hassen v. Post Newspapers (Pry.) Ltd. 1965 (3) SA 562 (W); Suttonmere (Ply.) Ltd. v. Hills 1982 (2) SA 74 (N) at 79A-B; P.J. Visser, "Nalatige krenking van die reg op farm", (1982) 45 THRHR 168 sqq; Burchell, op. cit.. note 105, p. 168.

²² Cf., in particular, Suid-Afrikaanse IJitsaaikorporasie v. O'Malley 1977 (3) SA 394 (A) at 407A-D.

^{^[5643]} Suid-Afrikaanse Uitsaaikorporaste v. O'Malley, 1977 (3) SA 394 (A) at 404 sq. (obiter); Pakendorfv. De Fiamingh 1982 (3) SA 146 (A) at 156C. For further discussion, see Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 181 sqq.

²³¹ Cf. the phrase used by Schreiner JA in Basner v. Trigger 1946 AD 83 at 94.

Cf., for instance. Mantred Nathan, The South African Law of Torts, 1921, pp. 98 sqq. On the distinction between verbal and literal injuries by Voet, see De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 105 sqq.

^{^[5646]} For the details, see Chittharanjan Felix Amerasinghe, Defamation and other aspects of the actio iniuriarum in Roman-Dutch Law (1968), pp. 82 sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 206 sqq.

^1,7 Cf., for instance, Ben Beinart, "The English Legal Contribution in South Africa: The Interaction of Civil and Common Law", 1981 Actajuridica 58.

See Amerasinghe, op. cit., note 236, pp. 9 sqq., 19 sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp 95 sqq.

²³¹ Cf. Crawford V. Albu 1917 AD 102 at 113 sq.; Marais v. Richard 1981 (11 SA 1157 (Al at 1166E-F; for details, see Amerasinghe, op. cit., note 236, pp. 144 sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 219 sqq.

²⁰ Amerasinghe, op. cit., note 236, pp. 55 sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 67 sqq.

^{^[5651]} For example: the notion of malice as a means to defeat the defence of privilege; cf. Basnet v. Trigger 1946 AD 83 at 94 sq.; May v. Udwin 1981 (1) SA 1 (A) at 14H sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 249 sq.

^{^[5652]} Cf., for example, Maisel v. Van Naemi 1960 (4) SA 836 (C) at 841B.

-⁴ For details, see Amerasinghe, op. cit., note 236, pp. 93 sqq.; P.R. MacMillan, "Animus iniuriandi and privilege", (1975) 92 SAL] 144 sqq.; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 237 sqq.

Cf., for example, Burchell, op. cit., note 105, p. 205; as far as judicial privilege is concerned, cf. the detailed analysis of Roman and Roman-Dutch authorities by Joubert JA in May v. Udwin 1981 (1) SA 1 (A).

The Roman-Dutch writers did not yet draw a clear-cut distinction between unlawfulness and fault; cf., for example, supra, p. 1028, note 199.

^{^[5656]} For Roman law cf, for example, Neethling, op. cit., note 113, pp. 51 sqq., who attempts to analyse the provisions of the praetorian edict in terms of the individual interest protected.

*⁴⁷ In the later German usus modemus there appears to have been a tendency to restrict the scope of protection of the actio iniuriarum; for details, see Mainzer. op. at., note 103. pp. 81 sqq.; Bartels, op. cit.. note 112. pp. 52 sqq.; Herrmann, op. cit.. note 99. pp. 51 sqq.

“ Cf. supra, p. 1064. note 113.

Cf.. for instance, the analyses by Bartels, op. cit.. note 112. pp. 52 sqq.; Herrmann, op. cit.. note 99. pp. 51 sqq. and Neethling. op. cit.. note 113. pp. 58 sqq.

³¹ The most enigmatic of them is "dignitas". According to De Villiers, op. cit.. note 113. p. 24. it meant "that valued and serene condition in [a person'sl social or individual life which is violated when he is. either publicly or privately, subjected by another to abusive and degrading treatment, or when he is exposed to ill-will, ridicule, disesteem or contempt". De Villiers appends a footnote in which he declares that the word "dignity" must be understood in a wide sense. "Injuries against dignity evidently comprise all those injuries which are not aggressions upon either the person or the reputation." Cf. also Neethling. op. cit.. note 113. p. 58.

^{^[5658]} As had been the position in Roman law: cf. supra, p. 1059 (note 82).

Traditionally, therefore, intrusions into a person’s privacy have to be squeezed into one of the established torts, particularly defamation. For an overview, see Zwcigert/Kotz, pp. 459 sqq.; but see now David J. Seipp, "English Judicial Recognition of a Right to Privacy", (1982) 3 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 325 sqq. A similar approach appears to have been on its way in South African law; attention was focused very largely on defamation which was usually dealt with as a specific wrong in its own right, Iniuria at large remained, for a long time, in its shade and constituted a somewhat awkward collection of individual cases that did not fit into any of the normal "pigeon-holes". Cf. still, for example, the discussion by R.G. McKerron, The Law of Delict (6th ed., 1965), pp. 51 sqq., 160 sqq.

²⁵³ "The Right to Privacy", (1890) 4 Harvard LR 193; according to a book entitled Landmarks of Law (referred to by Zweigert/Kotz, p. 457), "certainly the most influential law review article ever written".

"*⁹ South African criminal law, too, still avails itself of this distinction. The various forms of assault arc concerned with bodily integrity, crimen iniuriae serves to protect dignitas, and the crime of defamation takes care of fama.

~^s For all details, see Neethling, op. cit., note 113, pp. 83 sqq.

[5660]⁶¹ The leading case is O'Keeffe v. Argus Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd. 1954 (3) SA 244 (C) at 247G (referring to De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, p. 24; cf. supra, note 250); cf. further Amerasinghe, 1967 Actajuridica 192 sqq.; McQuoid-Mason, op. cit., note 78, pp. 124 sqq.; Neethling, op. cit., note 113, pp. 63 sqq. Contra: Walker v. Van Wezel 1940 WLD 66 at 70. From the point of view of criminal law (crimen iniuriae), see Milton, op. cit., note 165, pp. 535 sqq.; De Wet en Swanepoel, op. cit., note 257, pp. 245 sqq.

^2f'² For all details, see Neethling, op. cit., note 113, pp. 36 sqq., 83 sqq. On the right of privacy, see McQuoid-Mason, op. cit., note 78, pp. 86 sqq., 100 sqq. and passim.

O'Keeffe v. Argus Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd. 1954 (3) SA 244 (Cl at 249D-E ("The unauthorised publication of a person's photograph and name for advertising purposes is... capable of constituting an aggression of that person's dignitas"); S v. A 1971 (2) SA 293 (T) at 297 ("I have no doubt that the right to privacy is included in the concept of dignitas, and that there is no dearth of authority for this proposition"); S v. 1 1976 (1) SA 781 (RAD) at 784 ("Looking through (complainant's) window was clearly an invasion of her privacy. Put another way her dignitas was injured by the invasion of her privacy").

^M What is the position of a plaintiff who has suffered patrimonial loss too? Generally speaking, the actio iniuriarum lies for sentimental damages, the actio legis Aquiliae for patrimonial loss. A plaintiff wishing to recover for both forms of harm must, therefore, bring (and prove the requirements of) two different claims, which can, however, be combined in a single action. This is unproblematic in cases where the patrimonial loss flows from physical injury (cases of assault): it can be recovered under Aquilian principles (i.e. in cases of dolus and culpa). If the same injury also constituted contumelia iniuria (in the form of infringement of the plaintiffs right to corpus), sentimental loss can be claimed, provided the defendant had acted animo iniuriandi. Defamation presents a more difficult problem, since the wrong is of a non-physical nature. Again, however, if animus iniuriandi can be established, both kinds of damages may be recovered (whether on the basis of an actio legis Aquiliae and an actio iniuriarum "rolled into one"—pure economic loss, after all, has, once again, become recoverable under the actio legis Aquiliae (cf. supra, pp. 1042 sq.)—or merely of the actio iniuriarum — which would thus, by way of exception, also cover patrimonial loss (possibly only if it is not "too remote")—is not quite clear). A defamation action based on negligence can, in any event, be brought only for patrimonial loss and must satisfy the

requirements of the actio legis Aquiliae. For details, see Boberg, Delict, pp. 19 sq.; Neethling, op. cit., note 113, pp. 75 sqq.; also already De Villiers, op. cit., note 113, pp. 182 sqq.; specifically on defamation: Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 305 sq.; specifically on intrusions into the right of privacy: McQuoid-Mason, op. cit., note 78, pp. 252 sqq. There is one further point that must be remembered with regard to physical injury. We have said that the plaintiff may recover patrimonial loss under Aquilian principles (in cases of dolus and negligence) and sentimental loss on account of the actio iniuriarum (only in cases of dolus). Yet, even if the defendant acted negligently, there is an action available to the plaintiff for pain and suffering. The historical origin of this action has been briefly discussed in a previous chapter (pp. 1026 sq.). It is widely thought today that we are dealing here with an actio sui generis (cf., in particular, Hoffa v. S.A. Mutual Fire & General Insurance Co. Ltd. 1965 (2) SA 944 (C)). Yet there are also those who regard the remedy for pain and suffering as an exceptional form of Aquilian liability (exceptional, because it violates its patrimonial- loss principle) or of an extension of the actio iniuriarum (into the field of negligence). For a comprehensive discussion, see Olivier, op. cit., note 90, pp. 233 sqq.; Boberg, Delict, pp. 516 sqq. For a codified version of the action for pain and suffering, cf. § 847 BGB.

For the exceptions (all under the influence of English law), see Neethling, op. cit., note

[5662] pp. 116 sq. (false imprisonment), p. 185 (wrongful execution against property) and supra, p. 1080 (liability of mass media for defamation).

** Cf. Lee, Introduction, p. 334.

"⁶\Collegium theoretico-practicum. Lib. XLVII. Tit. X. I.

^2SK Cf., for instance, the edicta contra duella in Brandenburg and Saxonia, as quoted by Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. X, §§ 23 sq.

~⁶⁹ Generally on anti-duelling legislation (starting in the late 16th century) and on the motives inspiring it, cf. Slawig, op. cit., note 107, pp. 49 sqq; on the attitudes of the churches cf. pp. 92 sqq. Slawig proceeds to give a detailed account of the fight against duelling in Germany (more particularly: Prussia) during the 19th and 20th centuries. For an analysis of the opposition to duelling on a European level during the Age of Enlightenment and in the 19th century, see Kiernan, op. cit., note 107, pp. 165 sqq., 185 sqq. As far as England is concerned, cf. Blackstone, Commentaries. Book IV, Ch. 14, III (quoted by

Kiernan, p. 165): "Express malice... takes in the case of deliberate duelling, where both parties meet avowedly with an intent to murder: thinking it their duty as gentlemen, and claiming it as their right... and therefore the law has justly fixed the crime and punishment of murder on them, and on their seconds also."

On the Continent, too, punishment could be hefty; for an account of a particularly spectacular incident, in which a duellist was ultimately decapitated, cf. Adolph Kohut, Das Buck berühmter Dueile (1888), pp. 57 sqq. Yet the self-defined elite that embraced the social convention of duelling as a means of defending their honour failed, for a long time, to respect anti-duelling laws and refused to resort to the alternative of instituting a defamation action. Duelling remained "a feature of the 'noble' life.... One point was its being normally illegal, especially for civilians. The duellist put himself above the law, and demonstrated that his self-respect, or, what came to the same thing, his respect for his class, mattered more to him than any external fact.... In what he deemed questions of honour the gentleman stood outside any social contract binding on the common man; he belonged to a superior social order which made its own rules" (Kiernan, op. cit, note 107, p. 153). Indicative of the 19th-century attitude towards duelling is also a statement made by Albrecht von Roon, Prussian Minister of War, during a parliamentary debate: " Die personliche Ehre des Mannes ist sein Eigenstes, und es giebt keine Madit der Erde, attch nicht die hochste, welche darüber Richter sein kann" (The personal honour of a gentleman is his most cherished attribute, and there is no power in the world, not even the Supreme one, which could set itself up to judge about it); cf. Slawig, op. cit., note 107, p. 170. While duelling declined in 19th-century Britain, it remained an influencial social institution in Germany until the First World War. For details of the development, see Kiernan, op. cit., note 107, pp. 204 sqq. (Britain), pp.

[5664] sqq. (the "Old Monarchies"). Generally on the relationship of duelling and the legal system, see Schwartz/Baxter/Ryan, (1984) 13 Journal of Legal Studies 325 sqq.; Slawig, op. cit., note 107, pp. 49 sqq.

²⁰ Cf., however, Donellus, who is the true father of this line of thought. He used the three famous precepts of Ulp. D. 1, 1, 10, 1 ("honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cuique tribuere") as a starting point and argued: "Alterum non laedere est non laedere alterius personam aut vitam ejus petendo aut violando incolumitatem, libertatem, existimationem" (Commentarii, Lib. II, Cap. I, X). For a general discussion of Donellus¹ views, see Herrmann, op. cit., note 99, pp. 19 sqq. "Alterum non laedere" as the foundation of the law of delict was later also emphasized by Pufendorf (supra, p. 1032); for him, too, the protection of fama, honor and other constituent elements of the personality (conceived by him, as previously by Donellus and Grotius, as "personality rights") was an integral part of it. On Pufendorf's views, see Herrmann, op. cit., note 99, pp. 37 sqq.

²⁷¹ Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XVII, 1; cf. supra, p. 1032 (note 221).

^{^[5665]} "Damnum forte a demendo dictum... cum quis minus habet suo."

^{^[5666]} "... sive illud suum ipsi competit ex mera natura...."

^{^[5667]} Cf. also Inleiding, II, I, 42 and, already, Donellus, Commetitarii, Lib. II, Cap. I, XI:

"Siquidem jus cujusque, id est quod jure cujusque est, non est tantum in rebus externis, sed et in persona cujusque. Quod genus vita, incolumitas, fama, libertas" (cf. also supra, note 270).

^Z7r> For further details, as far as the positive (Roman-Dutch) law was concerned, cf Inleiding, HI, XXXV (Van hoon) and III, XXXVI (Van lasteringh). On the difference between hoon (translated by Lee as "injury") and lasteringh ("defamation"), cf. Ranchod, op. cit., note 90, p. 68.

²⁶ De jure belli ac pads, Lib. 11, Cap. XVII, XXII.

^{^[5670]} Dejure belli ac pads, Lib. II, Cap. XVII, XXII. In this regard Grotius follows Domingo de Soto ("... cum pecunia pretium sit omnium rerum, ilia aestimatur et honor et fama"). This view was, however, not uncontested; thus. Leonardus Lessius in his work De iustitia et iurc stated: "Pecunia secundum communem usum hominum non est mensura nisi rerum venalium, quas homines solent pecunia commutarc; fama autem aeque natura sua neque gentium consuetudinc pecunia solet aestimari." Cf. Ranchod, op. cit., note 90, pp. 67 sq.

²™ budding, HL XXXII, 7.

^27,1 Both the concepts of subjective rights as such and of the protection of the personality in terms of (a system of) subjective (personality) rights find their origin in the Commentarii dejure Civili of Donellus. On Donellus' revolutionary ideas, on their reception by the natural lawyers and on the specific contributions of Althusius, Grotius. Pufendorf, Thomasius and Wolff to the development of a comprehensive protection of personality rights, cf. Herrmann, op. cit., note 99, pp. 19 sqq. 29 sqq.; Scheyhing, (1959-60) 158 Archiv fur die dvilistische Praxis 508 sqq.; Lcuze, op. cit., note 256, pp. 12 sqq.; H.J. Becker, "Personlichkcitsrccht", in: НДС, vol. II, col. 1626 sqq.; Klingenberg, (1979) 96 ZSS (GA) 195. Cf. also the programmatic statement of § 83 Einl. PrALR. Nineteenth-century legal science was predominantly hostile to the idea of a right of personality; cf., in particular, Savigny, System, vol. I. pp. 335 sqq. and, for a discussion, Scheyhing, (1959-60) 158 Archiv fur die dvilistische Praxis 503 sqq.; Leuzc, op. cit.. note 256, pp. 46 sqq. Towards the end of the century, however, we find a revival ot the idea in the writings of Gareis, Gierke and Kohler: cf. supra, note 256.

^2H" Epitomized in the work of Christian Wolff, who recognized, apart from the right of honour and reputation (for details, see Institutiones §§ 142 sqq.), innate human rights (inter alia!) to the use of one's organs, to food, drink and medication, to sensual enjoyment and to the pursuit of happiness (Jus naturae. Pars I, Cap. II, § 376 ("jus... utendi organis suis"), § 383 ("jus... ad eas res, quae cibo ac potui inserviunt seu corpus alere possunt"), § 416 ("I i |us ad medicaments"), § 410 ("jus... fruendi voluptate transitoria, si fuerir innocua"), § 284 ("jus ad ea, quae ad felicitatem consequendam, conservandam et augendam requiruntur"). This is not the kind of doctrine likely to appeal to either legal practice or a legislator.

⁸¹ The main (if not exclusive) function of the delict of iniuria at the time of the late usus modernus. The contraction of the actio iniuriarum was partly offset by the extension of Aquilian protection, which occurred at about the same time. As has been discussed above, the actio iegis Aquiliae became available to claim compensation for pain, suffering and disfigurement (but only in cases of infliction of bodily harm, not as far as other forms of iniunac were concerned).

²⁸² For what follows, see Mainzer, op. cit.. note 103, pp. 90 sqq.

^{^[5674]} The quotation is taken from Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas. Spec. DXLII, I.

Cf. supra, p. 1069 (retorsio), pp. 1063, 1085 (duel).

^2Hj Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas. Spec. DXLII. VII. Leyser's work contains a very

interesting and fair ("[e]xsequitur haec... eleganter et docte, ut semper solet") discussion of Boehmer's view and a comprehensive attempt to justify the existence of the actio iniuriarum.

^{^[5678]} Cf., for example, supra, pp. 1019 sq. and infra, p. 1111.

²⁸⁷ Dejure belli ac pads. Lib. II, Cap. XVII, XXII. Cf. also Inieiding, Ill, XXXII, 7.

²⁸ Cf. e.g. Bartels, op. cit., note 112, pp. 46 sqq.; also Irmscher, op. cit., note 256,

pp™¹²³ ^sqq·

Eines christlichen Jurisconsulti Bedencken von Injurienprocessen, in: Supplementum dissertationum etoperum, vol. XIII (Florentiae, 1840), pp. 1022 sqq. (§7)—a beautifully written piece that is still well worth reading today.

²²⁰ Cf. supra, pp. 1018, 1031.

^{^[5684]} Cf. Mainzer, op. cit., note 103, p. 91.

^{^[5685]} Mainzer, op. cit., note 103, pp. 96 sqq.

® Cf. Rudolf von jhering, "Rechtsschutz gegen injuriose Rechtsverletzungen", in: Gesammelte Aufsatze, vol. Ill (1886), pp. 233 sqq.; Landsberg, op. cit., note 78, pp. 83 sqq.; Dernburg, Pandekten. § 137 in fine, and others; for a discussion, see Mainzer, op. cit., note 103, pp. 14 sqq.; Ekkehard Kaufmann, "Dogmatische und rechtspolitische Grundlagen des § 253 BGB". (19631 162 Archivjur die civilistische Praxis 425 sqq.

²⁹¹ Windscheid/Kipp. § 472; Mainzer, op. cit.. note 103. pp. 101 sqq.

Supra, p. 1074.

^24fl For details c(„ for example, Lauterbach, Collegium theorctico-practicum. Lib. XL VH Tit. X, LIH; Leyser, Meditationes ad Patidectas, Spec. DXLIII, IV.

^{^[5688]} For details, sec Kaufmann, (1963) 162 Archil' fur die civilistische Praxis 430 sqq. (with regard to the Prussian General Land Law).

In South African law, the Roman-Dutch amende honorable has fallen into desuetude: cf. Lumley v. Owen. as quoted by De Villiers, op. at., note 113. p. 178 ("an archaism"); Hare v. White (1865) 1 Roscoe 246 at 247; Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 315 sq. For a more favourable opinion on the amende honorable cf. recently Kritzinyer v. Perskorporasie van Suid-Afrika (Edms.) Bpk. 1981 (2) SA 373 (O). Burchell (p. 316) reports that the actio ad palinodiam has been received, and still lives on, in the Code of Zulu Law (Natal).

²⁹⁴ § 188 StGB, on which cf., for instance, Baron, Pandektett. § 321, 3; Freiesieben, in: von Ohhausen's Kommentar гит Strafgesetzbuch (11th ed., 1927), § 188. The role was abolished in 1974.

'neo-feudalism' and strident militarism", the duelling conventions retained their hold until the First World War;. so long disunited and timidly subservient to princelings and prelates, [the German nation was] well fitted for a double life of reality and fantasy" (Kiernan, op. cit., note 107, pp. 271, 272). The prevailing views among the upper classes are encapsulated in the remark by Minister von Roon (cf supra, p. 1086, note 269). Highly significant, too, the case of Reinhold von Thadden (who refused to accept a challenge and was, as a result, subjected to severe social and professional discrimination) and of the three Counts Schmising-Kerssenbrock (who were dismissed from the army as a result of having rejected, for religious reasons, the institution of duelling); they are related and analysed by Slawig, op. cit., note 107, pp. 175 sqq., 188 sqq. Slawig (p. 76) also draws attention to the fact that the persons involved in duelling tended to receive milder forms of punishment in 19th-century Prussia and Germany than under 18th century anti-duelling laws. Why was the opposition to duelling so much more successful in Britain (for details, see Kiernan, op. cit., note 107, pp. 204 sqq.) than in Germany? Kiernan's suggestion (p. 131) that "the availability of pecuniary satisfaction must be one reason for the early demise of the duel in England" is hardly satisfactory; for in Germany a pecuniary alternative (in the form of the private poena iniuriarum) could, after all, easily have been available, too.

¹⁰⁵ Supra, p. 1036. The first draft (which was based on a general clause (supra, p. 1036, note 251)) had, however, specifically included a reference to the protection of honour: § 704 II El.

³⁵ § 847 I BGB. On the history and background of this provision, see Olivier, op. cit., note 90, pp. 173 sqq., 179 sqq.

^{^[5691]} § 253 BGB; on which see, particularly, Kaufmann, (1963) 162 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 421 sqq. For a comparative discussion and evaluation, and tor proposals de lege ferenda, see Gerhard Hohloch, "Allgemeines Schadensrecht", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung des Schuldrechts, vol. I (1981), pp. 426 sqq.; cf. also Lange, Schadensersatz, PP- 256 sqq.

Generally on the general right of personality in German law, see Peter Schwerdtner, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. I (2nded., 1984), § 12, nn. 163 sqq.; Emst von Caemmerer, "Der privatrechtliche Personlichkeitsschutz nach deutschem Recht", in: Festschrift fiir Fritz von Hippel (1967), pp. 27 sqq.; Hans-Erich Brandner, "Das allgemeine Personlichheitsrecht in

der Entwicklung der Rechtsprechung", 1983 Juristenzeitung 689 sqq.; in English: Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, pp. 342 sqq.; B.S. Markesinis, JJ Comparative Introduction to the German Law of Tort (1986), pp. 37 sqq., 191 sqq., 542 sq., and P.R. Handford, "Moral Damage in Germany", (1978) 27 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 849 sqq. ¹⁰⁹ Cf. supra, p. 343, note 18.

^{^[5694]} Cf. supra, p. 1036 (note 253").

³¹ BGHZ 13. 334 sqq. Ironically, this breakthrough decision concerned a letter written on behalf of a former Nazi minister of economic affairs, who felt insulted by a newspaper article dealing with his activities in pre- and post-war Germany. For a translation of the main parts of ihejudgment, see Markesinis, op. cit., note 308, pp. 191 sqq. For further cases, cf., for example, BGHZ 39, 124 sqq. (a television announcer was described in a newspaper article as a "milked out nanny-goat" who really belonged in a "second-class honky-tonk" on the Reeperbahn) and BGH, 1965 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 685 sq. (fictitious interview with Princess Soraya about her life with the Shah of Persia).

^{^[5696]} Which does not only protect a person's honour and reputation but his privacy at large.

^{^[5697]} BGHZ 26, 349 sqq.; BGHZ 35, 363 sqq. (both cases, in translation, in Markesinis, op. cit., note 308, pp. 195 sqq.)

^{^[5698]} For all details, see Schwerdtncr, op. cit., note 308, nn. 291 sqq.

^{^[5699]} Iniuria atrox rediviva!

^{^[5700]} Are German courts allowed (and if so, under which circumstances} to decide contra legem? After all, they are bound by the law: cf. art. 20 III GG. Art. 97 I GG makes it clear that this subjection of thejudge to the law is inextricably linked with, and has to be regarded as a necessary prerequisite for, judicial independence. I have tried to deal with the intricate implications of judge-made law within a codified system in general, and with the constitutional parameters set by the German Basic Law in Moderatiomrecht, pp. 97 sqq., 177 sqq. Cf. also Jorn Ipsen, Richterrecht und Verfassung (1975); Otto Rudolf Kissel, "Grenzen der rechtsprechenden Gewalt", 1982 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift Mil sqq.; Eduard Picker, "Richterrecht oder Rechtsdogmatik — Altermtiven der Rechtsgewinnung", \988Juristenzei- tung 1 sqq., 62 sqq.; Fritz Ossenbiihl, "Gesetz und Recht—Die Rechtsquellen im demokratischen Rechtstaat", in: Josef Isensee, Paul Kirchhof (eds.), Handbuch des Staatsrechts, vol. Ill (1988), § 61, nn. 35 sqq. The Federal Constitutional Court has, however, condoned the judicial derogation of § 253 BGB: BVerfGE 34, 269 sqq. ("Soraya"). Contra: Wolfgang Grunsky, in: Münchener Kommentar, vol. II (2nd ed., 1985), § 253, n. 6.

^{^[5701]} For the factors to be taken into consideration, see Schwerdtner, op. cit., note 308, nn. 294 sqq. For South Africa cf. Burchell, op. cit., note 105, pp. 289 sqq. English law has had considerable influence in this regard. In the main, it is accepted that the award of damages should compensate the plaintiff for his sentimental loss. Whether, in addition, punitive or exemplary damages may be awarded is very controversial. But in any event, as has been pointed out repeatedly, it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate the punitive and the compensatory elements in sentimental damages: cf., for instance, S.A. Associated Newspaper Ltd. v. Samuels 1980 (1) SA 24 (A) at 48E-H; also (for England) Cassell & Co. Ltd. v. Broome [1972] AC 1027 (HL) at 1072 ("the whole process of assessing damages where they are 'at large' is essentially a matter of impression and not addition", per Lord Hailsham). For a comprehensive comparative analysis of the elements of compensation and satisfaction in the modern remedies for sentimental loss (pain and suffering), see Petrus Johannes Visser, Kompensasie en genoegdoening volgens die aksie weens pyn en teed (unpublished LLD thesis, Pretoria, 1980);'cf. now also idem, "Genoegdoening in die deliktereg", (1988) 51 THRHR 468 sqq,

^{^[5702]} French courts and legal writers have always been able to grant adequate protection to personality interests on the basis of the general clause of art. 1382 code civil ("Every act whatever of man which causes damage to another obliges him by whose fault the damage occurred to repair it"). Neither are honour, reputation, privacy or any other personality rights excluded from the scope of this provision nor does the code draw a distinction between pecuniary damages and sentimental loss (dommage moral). For a comparative analysis, see Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 448 sqq.; Leontin-Jean Constantinesco, "Die Person- lichkeitsrechte und ihr Schutz im franzosischen Recht", (1960-61) 159 Archiv fur die civilistische Praxis 320 sqq.

‘ Readv.J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. 11,9471 AC 156 (HL) at 185.

^{^[5704]} Cf. Servius/Ulp. D. 9, 1, 1, 4. Generally on the theme of "the goring ox" ("a popular one in the legal thought of the civilizations of the ancient Near East"), seeJ.J. Finkelstcm, The Ox That Gored (1981), pp. 5 sqq. On the biblical laws concerning goring oxen, cf. also, apart from Firskelstein, Bernard S. Jackson, Essays in Jewish and Comparative Legal Thought (1975), pp. 108 sqq.

Cf. Searle v. Walibank 11947] AC 341, where it was held that an occupier of land adjoining a highway owes no duty of care to maintain fencing or otherwise prevent his animals from escaping onto the highway; a rule which has been described, with judicial moderation, as "difficult, archaic and ill-adapted to urban communities" {Gomberg v. Smith [1963) 1 QB 25 at 31) and, in the bolder spirit of academic analysis, as "an outrageous subsidy shamelessly exacted by the farming lobby at the expense of public safety" (John G. Fleming, An Introduction to the Law of Tons (1967), p. 170); cf. today § 8 of the Animals Act 1971 and Fleming, Torts, pp. 337 sq.; see also Ellis v. Johnstons 119631 2 QB 8; OLG Celle, 1980 Versicherungsrecht 430 sq. (dealing with a dead animal lying on a road).

^{^[5706]} Cooper v. Railway Executive J1953] 1 All ER 477.

^{^[5707]}Cf. RGZ 80, 237 (239 sq.).

¹¹ Boyce v. Robertson 1912 TPD 381 at 383.

^{^[5709]} Maree v. Diedericks 1962 (1) SA 231 (T) at 237C ("baldadigc slagtmg"). ^K Cf. BGHZ 67, 129 sqq. (concerning loss of earnings that would have resulted from the sale of purebred puppies).

1095

^ls Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary (1979; 1966 impression), p. 1318.

¹¹¹ Which was used in the lex Aquilia; cf. Ulp. D. 9, 2, Tl, 5 and supra, pp. 953, 986.

^{^[5713]} Kaser, Alttb'misches ins, pp. 224 sqq.; cf. also Detlef Liebs, "Damnum, damnare und damnas", (1968) 85 ZSS 195 sq.

^1H Alan Watson, "The Original Meaning of Pauperies", (1970) 17ДЮЛ361 sqq. Watson, pp. 363 sqq., also refutes Kerr Wylie's view, according to which the XII Tables did not in fact use the term "pauperies" (J. Kerr Wylie, '"Actio de pauperie' Dig. Lib. IX, Tit. I", in: Studi in onore di Salvatore Rkcobono, vol. IV (19361. pp. 465. 482").

^{^[5715]} Watson, (1970) 17 RIDA 362; cf. also Jackson, (1978) 37 Cambridge LJ 123 sq. This would put the beginnings of the actio de pauperie in line with the lex Aquilia where, too, slaves and grazing animals were the principal objects of legal protection.

²⁽¹ D. 9, 1, L 3.

² D. 9, 1, L 3.

“ "... [f]or a dog cannot reason like a human being, and there is something bizarre in seeking the mens rea [guilty mind] of a pony": Salmond and Houston on the Law of Torts (18th ed.. 1981). p. 318.

³ Cf. generally. Karl von Amira. "Thierstrafen und Thierprocesse". in: (1891) 12 Mittheilungen des Instituts fur oesterreichische Gesdnchtsforschung 545 sqq.. 574 sqq.. 587 sqq.; Wolfgang Sellert, "Das Tier in der abendländischen Rcchtsauffassung", in: Stadium generate. Vortrage гит Thenta Tier und Mensch (1984), pp. 66 sqq.; cf. also (for Anglo-Saxon and English law) Glanville Williams, Liability for Animals (1939), pp. 7 sqq., 265 sqq.

" Thus, for instance, Plutarch relates the case of a dog who was awarded a lifelong pension since he had chased a criminal from Athens almost to Corinth. For details, see Rudolf Dull, "Archaische Sachprozesse und Losvcrfahren", (1941) 61 ZSS 1 sqq.; idem, "Zum Anthropomorphismus im antiken Recht", (1944) 64 ZSS 346 sqq.; but cf. also Finkelstein, op. cit., note 2, pp. 58 sqq. A streak of anthropomorphism is also clearly perceptible in the attitude adopted by contemporary lovers of animals towards their pets. The German philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, incidentally, did not regard the intellect, but rather the will to live, as the essential characteristic of every creature. Since, however, in that respect there is no difference between animals and human beings (cf. E. Grisebach (ed.) Die Welt ah Wille und Vorste!lun$>, vol. II (2nd ed.), pp. 235 sqq.), animals were, to him, not merely legal objects but had to be respected as the subjects of (moral) rights. Schopenhauer thus became the intellectual ancestor of the modern "ethical" approach towards animal protection (animals have to be protected for their own sake). The contrary view (human beings owe no duties towards animals since animals lack reason) was adopted by Kant and the other Enlightenment philosophers. They consequently argued in favour of animal protection, only in so far as k benefits man (the anthropocentric view of animal protection): cf. Sellert, op. cit., note 23, pp. 80 sqq.

^{^[5721]} Cf. infra, p. 1114.

²⁵ Cf. still Coweli v. Friedman & Co. (1888) 5 HCG 22 at 44: "[B]ut when an ox gores, the act may be regarded as a breach of the good behaviour which is its second nature."

^{^[5723]} For all details, see von Amira, (1891) 12 MUtheihtngen des Instituts fur oesterreichiscbe Geschhhtsforschung 545 sqq. Williams, op. cit., note 23, p. 266 refers to a '’curious recrudescence of earlier notions”.

^2K Sellert, op. cit., note 23, pp. 73 sqq.

² As far as legal literature is concerned, the practice of killing animals that killed a human being was still defended by an author like Stryk, Usus modemus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. I, §2°.

^{^[5726]} On the nature of that trial cf., however, von Amira, loc. cit. and Finkelstein, op. cit., note 2, pp. 64 sqq.

³ Cf. the vivid description of a case in the 16th-century Netherlands by C.G. van der Merwe, "Dicre voor die Gereg", Mei 1972 Codiciltus 35.

^{^[5728]} Cf. also Finkelstein, op. cit., note 2, pp. 7 sqq., 48 sqq., 64 sqq., who emphasizes that "[t]he notion that trials and punishments of irrational creatures and of inanimate things are a valid legal procedure occurs uniquely in Western society"; it was unknown to any society, past or present, which falls outside "the Western cosmological tradition" (pp. 64, 5).

^{^[5729]} Cf. Hans Fehr, "Gottesurteil und Folter. Eine Studie zur Dämonologie des Mittelalters und der neuen Zeit", in: Festgabe für RudolfStammier (1926), pp. 231 sqq., 252. But cf. also Finketstein, op. cit., note 2, pp. 64 sqq., according to whom the animal had to be executed, because the very act of killing a human being "... had rendered it an object of public horror. This horror is engendered by the implications of such a killing: the animal was seen as a living rebuttal of the divinely ordained hierarchy of creation; by an action that itself could not be judged on a moral standard the ox turned into an instrument that undermined the moral foundations of the universe" (p. 70). In the phenomenon of real animal trials in early Christian Europe, Finkelstein argues, "a uniquely biblical conception of sovereignly" manifested itself; cf. pp. 25 sqq.

³¹ Sellert, op. cit., note 23, pp. 74 sq.

² Kaser, RPr I, p. 165.

^{^[5732]} Cf. Dull, (1941) 61 ZSS 1 sqq.; but see Franz Haymann, "Textkritische Studien zum romischen Obligaiionenrecht", (1921) 42 ZSS 361 sqq. On the question of a historical connection between Greek law and the Roman actio de pauperie, cf. also Jackson, (1978) 37 Cambridge LJ 122 sq.

^{^[5733]} On the origin of delict in private vengeance, cf. supra, pp. 2 sq., 914. For parallels between the Roman and the Anglo-Saxon development, sec Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 265 sqq. (272); cf. also p. 7 sqq.

^3H Supra, pp. 916 sq.

^{^[5735]} Cf., in particular, Otto Lend, "Die Formula der actiones noxales", (1927) 47 ZSS 2 sqq.;

Cornelius Gerhardus van der Merwe, Skuldlose aanspreeklikheid vir shade veroavsaak deur diere (unpublished LLD thesis, Pretoria, 1970), pp. 5 sqq., 12 sqq.; Kaser, RPr I, pp. 165, 633. Contra: Kerr Wylie, Studi Riccobono, vol. IV, pp. 461 sqq.; Ubaldo Robbe, "L'actio de pauperie", (1932) 7 RISG 359 sqq. On the differences between the actiones legis Aquiliae and de pauperie noxalis, see Hans Ankum, "L'actio de pauperie et l'actio legis Aquiliae dans le droit remain classique", in: Studi in onore di Cesare Sanfilippo, vol. II (1982), pp. 14 sq.

⁴¹¹ Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1. 1; on this text, see Van der Merwc. op. cit.. note 39. pp. 15 sq.

⁴ Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1. 12; and see. in general, supra, p. 917.

^{^[5738]} Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1. 13. If the animal that had caused che damage was killed by a third party after the victim had instituted proceedings against the owner of the animal, the owner's liability under the actio de pauperie had to be taken into account when it came to determining the sum that had to be awarded to the owner in his lawsuit against the third party under the lex Aquilia; cf. lav. D. 9. 2. 37. 1; Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1. 16; and. for a detailed analysis. Ankum. Studi Sanfilippo, vol. II. pp. 13 sqq.

“B On the approach adopted by the Romans towards animals along these lines, see Haymann (19211 42 ZSS 368 sqq.; Slavomir Condanari-Michler. "Vis extrinsecus admota. Ein Beitrag zum Einfluss dcr griechischen Philosophic auf Roms juristen". in: Festschrift fur Leopold "Wenger, vol. I (19441. pp. 236 sqq.; Sellert. op. cit.. note 23. p. 71.

⁴¹ Cf. supra, pp. 3. 914 sq.

^{^[5741]} Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1. 11; cf. also Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1 pr. On the formula, see Lenel. EP, p. 195.

^{^[5742]} Gai. D. 9. 4. 1.

^{^[5743]} Cf.. for example. Condanari-Michler. Festschrift Wenger, vol. I. pp. 237 sqq.; Buckland/Stein. p. 603; Van der Merwe. op. cit.. note 39. pp. 2 sq.; Kaser. RPr I. p. 633; Sellert. op. cit.. note 23. p. 72. But cf Paul. D. 9. 1. 2. 1. where a distinction is drawn that is most easily explainable on the basis that in the one case the owner was ac fault and in the other he was not: "Si quis aliquem evitans. magistratum forte, in taberna proxima se immisisset ibique a cane feroce laesus esset. non posse agi canis nomine quidam putant: at si

^{^[5744]} Fritz Litren, "Beitrage zur Lchrc von dcr Schadenszurechnung nach romischem und bfirgcriichem Rechte", (1907) 49 Jhjb 425 sqq.; Haymann, (1921) 42 ZSS 373 sqq.; Barry Nicholas, "Liability for Animals in Roman Law", 1958 Acta juridica 187 sq.; Kerr Wylie, Studi Riccobono, vol. IV, p. 477; Thomas, TRL. p. 383; Jackson, (1978) 37 Cambridge LJ 135 sq.; but cf. Robbe, (1932) 7 RISC. 348 sqq.; D.I.C Ashton-Cross. "Liability in Roman Law tor Damage Caused by Animals", (1953) 11 Cambridge LJ 395 sqq.; idem, "Liability for Animals in Roman Law", 1959 Cambridge LJ 189 sqq.; Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp 59 sqq.

Ulp. D. 9, 1, 1, 10. Cf. also lust. IV, 9 pr.

⁵³ Servius/Ulp. D. 9, 1, 1, 4; Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 69 sqq.

⁵⁽⁴ Ulp. D. 9, 1, 1,7.

^{^[5748]} Quintus Mucius/UIp. D. 9. 1. 1. 11.

³⁷ Ulp. D. 9. 1. 1.4. Cf. also the case involving the two loaded carts pulling up the Capitolme hill (Alf. D. 9. 2. 52. 2: on which cf. supra p. 982. note 200: c{. further Kerr Wylie. Studi Riccobono. vol. IV. pp. 511 sqq.). If the first cart had rolled back (crashed into the second one and. as a result, knocked down a slave), because the mules had shied at something, the actio de pauperie could be brought against their owner ("sed si mulae, quia aliquid reformidassent ct mulioncs timore permoti, ne opprimerentur, plostrum reliquissent

... eum domino mularum [actionem] esse"). But the action did not lie if the drivers had been at fault (if, for example, they had tried to lift the back of the first cart in order to make it easier for the mules to pull it up the hill, but had then suddenly, "sua sponte", let go), or if the mulesjust could not take the weight, or if in trying to do so, they had slipped and fallen and the (first) cart had then started to roll down the hill.

^5y Alf. D. 9, 1, 5.

Ulp. D. 9, 1, I, 7 in fine.

^{^[5752]} Ulp. D. 9, t, 1, 7.

^f'~ Cf., in particular, Van der Mcrwc, op. dt., note 39, pp. 72 sqq. Many authors take the contra naturam requirement to be of post-classical origin; cf. Haymann, (1921) 42 ZSS 373 sqq.; Robbe, (1932) 7 RISC 343 sqq.; Kerr Wylie, Studi Riccobono, vol. IV, pp. 461 sqq.; Nicholas, 1958 Acta Juridica 187 sqq. But see, apart from Van der Merwe, Kaser, RPr I, p. 634; idem, RPr II, p. 433.

^{^[5754]} This is how Colin Kolbcrt (Mommsen/Kriigcr/Watson, vol. I (1985) wrongly translates the phrase. Cf. also, for example, Windschcid/Kipp, § 457, 3 and other pandectists; Ashton-Cross, (1953) 11 Cambridge LJ400.

But, for example, goring would be a behaviour contra naturam sui generis for horses, kicking contra naturam sui generis for oxen; cf. Fr. Eisele, "Civilistische Kleinigkeiten", (1886) 24JhJb4S2.

^w Cf. Servius/Ulp. D. 9, 1, 1, 4 ("cum commota fcritate nocuit quadrupes").

^M' The case of the dog biting a man who, when fleeing from a magistrate, rushes into a tabema also fits in here (Paul. D. 9, 1, 2, 1, first alternative: ",.. non posse agi canis nomine quidam putant"; cf. supra, note 47). Cf. also Proc./Ulp. D. 9, 2, 11,5 (someone irritates a dog and thus causes it to bite another person); Ofilius/Ulp. D. 9, 2, 9, 3 (someone scares a horse which, as a result, throws its rider into [he river).

If it was due to the fault of a third party that the animal had inflicted the injury (as in the two last-mentioned cases) the injured person could bring an actio legis Aquiliae in factum against that third party. Cf. also Ulp. D. 9. I. 1,5, where it is held that a person who takes a dog out on a lead will be liable if the dog breaks loose "aspentate sua" and does some harm to someone else, provided it could have been better restrained or it should never have been taken to that particular place. According to Ulpian, this action excludes the victim's right to bring the actio de pauperie against the owner of the dog. This can, however, hardly have been a general rule; cf. also Glück, vol. 10, p. 274; Haymann, (1921) 42 ZSS 386 sq.; but see Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 96 sq.

^{^[5756]} On the types of animals used in the Roman games cf. George Jennison, Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome (1937"). pp. 42 sqq.

^flH On the "training of man-eaters", seejenmson, op. cit., note 67, pp. 194 sq. The schools were for the training of the bestiarii (who had to fight the animals) as well as of the beasts themselves (to turn them, where that was still necessary, into eager and ferocious fighters).

⁶⁴ These were the animal contests or hunts with which the day in the circus usually started. "They finished before midday, the afternoons were always devoted to the far more important gladiatorial combats—the amusement of the cultured classes" Qennison, op. cit., note 67, p. 176). Carcopino, pp. 26(1 sq., summarizes as follows: "There were some relatively innocent [animal shows] to break the monotony of the massacre:... teams of panthers obediently drawing chariots; lions releasing from their jaws a live hare they had caught; tigers coming to lick the hand of the tamer who had just been lashing them; elephants gravely kneeling before the imperial box or tracing Latin phrases in the sand with their trunks. There were terrible spectacles, in which ferocious beasts fought duels to the death: bear against buffalo, buffalo against elephant, elephant against rhinoceros. There were disgusting ones in which the men, from the safe shelter of iron bars or from the height of the imperial box — like Commodus later—let fly their arrows at animals roaring with baffled rage, and flooded the arena with the blood of butchery...." For a description of the venationes given at the dedication of the Colosseum, see the Liber Spectaculorum of Martialis.

^{7v. Umw 1951 (4) SA 143 (C) at 148B; Vemiaak v. Du Plessis 1974 (4) SA 353 (O); Van Zyl v. Van Biljon 1987 (2) SA 372 (O) at 381 sqq. The main point to be decided in the latter case was whether or not vis maior constitutes a defence against the actio de pastu. The court held that it docs, provided "the animal [was] directly motivated to act by vis maior". If, on the other hand, the vis maior merely made available to the animals an access to the other person's land (in casu defendant's cattle had gained access to plaintiffs maize field due to the fact that the boundary fence had been struck down by lightning), "and the animals then made use of that access from their own volition to graze on the damaged land, the damage would have been caused by their own independent conduct... and the owner of the animals would be strictly liable for the damage done". It is hardly convincing, however, to derive this distinction (as M.T. Steyn J does) from "the decisive effect of the principle of causality" (all quotations from the translation of the hcadnote on pp. 373 sq.).}

The "licentia pignorandi" derives trom Germanic customary law; for details, cf. Leyser. Meditationes ad Pandectas, Spec. CXI; Stryk. Usus mademus pandectarum. Lib. IX. Tit. I, §§ 15sqq.;Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 302 sqq.; Van der Merwe, (1973)76 THRHR 112 sqq. The custom was recognized in Anglo-Saxon law, too, and has become part of the English common law ("distress damage feasant", defined by Williams, op. cit., note 23, p. XLVII, as "a process of self-help whereby chattels that are doing damage to or (perhaps) encumbering land or depasturing chattels may be taken and retained by way of security until compensation is paid". On its history ("... for many centuries... a history of attenuation — almost of decay") and all details of its application, see Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 7 sqq.; cf. also Fleming, Tons, pp. 80 sq. A person who distrains animals has to impound them as soon as reasonably possible (see Williams, pp. 90 sqq.).

"⁵ Le Roux v. Pick (1879) 9 Buch 29 (cf. O'CaL[a(j)an v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 325 and 3671.

^i,f> Cowell v. Friedman & Co. (18881 5 HCG 22 at 38; Chandler v. The Middetburg Municipality 1924 TPD 450 at 465 and 467; O'CaPIarjtan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 (passim); Bristow v. Lycetl 1971 (4) SA 223 (RAD) at 229.

^{^[5803]} O'CaHatpan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 371.

^11H Commentarius in Pandectas. Lib. XXI, Tit. f ad L. Hi cuim. 40.

^{^[5805]} O'Callaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 346.

Van Damhouder, Praxis rerum criminalium. Cap. CXLII, 9; cf. also O'Callaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 342 (per Kotze JA).

^M 1927 AD 310 at 330 (per Innes CJ).

¹²² Le Roux v. Pick (1879) 9 Buch 29 at 41; O'Callaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 377 (per Wessels JA). But see also Robertson v. Boyce 1912 AD 367 at 382; O'Cailaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 314 (per Innes CJ). For further details of the application of the edictum de feris in South African law, see Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 153 sqq.; but cf. also N.J. van der Mcrwc/PJ J. Olivier, Die onregmatige daad in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg (5th ed., 1985), p. 495.

^{^[5807]} In Germany the edictum de feris was abrogated by § 367, n. 11 StGB

(Windscheid/Kipp, § 457, 3); cf. also already Glück, vol. 10, p. 272 (arguing that it had been replaced by art. 136 Constitutio Criminalis Carolina). The continued existence of the actio de pastu was in dispute (Windscheid/Kipp, loc. cit.; Rudolf Bienenfeld, Die Haftungeti ohne

Verschulden (1933), p. 45); it was not taken over into the BOB (cf. "Motive", in: Muydan. vol., II, p. 452).

x-A art _coc[_{e c}j_vj| i₍₎u _which see Watson, Failures, pp. 4 sqq., 17 sq.), § 1320 ABGB, art. 356 OR, § 833 BGB.

¹²¹ In some of the earlier South African decisions liability of the owner was based on the English sdenter doctrine (on which see infra, p. 1136 sq.); cf., in particular, Botha v. Raubetiheimer 1918 EDL 200 ("... however vicious a stallion may be by common knowledge, as there was no evidence to show that it is in the habit of kicking mares or is likely to do so, and as it was not shown that the defendant had knowledge of such vicious propensity on the part of his stallion, absolution from the instance should have been granted"); cf. further the cases referred to in Bealty v. Donelly (1876) 6 Buch 51. Contra: Storey v. Stanner (1882) 1 HCG 40 at 41; Cowell \>. Friedman & Co. (1888) 5 HCG 22 at 50; O'Callaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 378. For some time, however, the notion has lingered on that the owner had to have been at fault: Spires v. Scheepers 3 EDC 173 at 176; Parkerv. Reed(1904) 21 SC496; Sephton v. Benson 1911 CPD502; Chandlery. TheMiddetbuTg Municipality 1924 TPD 450; cf. also still O'Callaqkati v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 375 sqq. (per Wessels JA). Contra: O'Callaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 (with a very comprehensive discussion of the question by Innes CJ at pp. 313 sqq., and Kotze JA at pp. 334 sqq.). This decision has authoritively settled the matter in favour of strict liability. Two very recent judicial utterances on the matter are Van Zyl p. Van Biljon 1987 (2) SA 372 (O) at 375 sqq. and Lawrence i'. Kondotet Inns (Ply.) Ltd.

1989 (1) SA 44(D) at 50 sqq.

In Scottish legal history, too, paupcrian liability and the scienter principle have vied for recognition; today, the position in Scottish law appears to correspond to that in modern English law (i.e.: liability for damage done by "harmless" animals based on foreknowledge— scienter); cf. D.L. Carey-Miller, "The Scottish Institutional Writers on Animal Liability; Civilian or Scienter?", 197^Juridical Review 5 sqq.; Bernard S. Jackson, "Liability for Animals in Scottish Legal Literature: From the Auld Lawes to the Sixteenth Century", (1975) 10 The Irish Jurist 334 sqq.; idem, "Liability for Animals in Scottish Legal Literature: From Stair to the Modern Law", 1977 Juridical Review 139 sqq.

^{nsee also Wesenbeck, Cowmentarius, loc. cit.; Vinnius, Iristitutiones, Lib. IV, Tit. IX, 1, n. 1.}

^1V| Conmientaritts ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. I, VIII; cf. further Grotius, Inhiding, HI, XXXVIII, 10; Groenewegen, De legibus abrogatis, Inst. Lib. IV, Tit. IX, Prine, 5. But see Grotius, Inteiding, III, XXXVIII, 13 recognizing an exception in cases where a dog has killed somebody's swans or other birds ("Den eigenaar van ecn hond die iemands zwaenen ofte andere vogelen heeft dood ghebeten, is ghehouden zulcks te beteren, zonder te moghen volstaen met overgewing van de hond").

ⁿ⁷ Zimmermann, RHR, pp. 4 sqq.

^{^[5824]} O'Caltaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 360; d. also Le Roux v. Fkk (1879) 9 Buch 29 at 40 ("I am afraid a suitor would scarcely think that, moribus hujus scculi, a judge was acting in accordance with the highest principles of equity in deciding that a Kafir dog was all the compensation he could obtain for the loss of a valuable breeding bird that had been bitten to death by that dog").

^1W O'Callavhan v, Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 322.

^{^[5826]} Ibid. ¹

^{^[5827]} Haymann, (1921) 42 ZSS366; Kerr Wylie. Studi Riccobono. vol. IV, pp. 464, 477; Nicholas,

1958 Actajuridica 187; Van der Merwe, op. cit.. note 39, pp. 81 sq.

^w Syntagma, Excrc. XIV. Lib. IX. Tit. I. IX. It is also the main reason why in modern South African law application of the actio de pauperie is, as a rule, restricted to domestic animals: Van der Mcrwe, op. cit., note 39, p. 65. Other authors, who were in fact prepared to apply pauperian principles to damage done by wild animals tended to do this on the basis of an actio utilis; the contra naturam requirement, however, according to them, was confined to die actio de pauperie directa. Cf., for example, Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practiatm, Lib, IX, Tit. I, VII, X.

^№ Boyce v. Robertson 1912 TPD 381 at 383.

¹⁵¹¹ Cf. further F. Litten, "Uber das 'contra naturam "sui generis......., (1905) 28 ZSS 494

sqq._; idem, (1907) 49 Jhjb 422 sqq.

^{^[5832]} Van der Merwe. (19791 42 THRHR 17.

^E Voet. Commentarius ad Pandectcts, Lib. IX. Tit. I. IV.

¹³ For details, see Van der Merwe. op. cit.. note 39. pp. 84 sqq.

“ Gl. Putant ad D. 9. 1. 2.

^ll,ls In quatuor Institutionum Libros Commentaria (Venctiis. 15821. Rub. Si quadrupes pauperiem fecisse dicatur (ad lust. IV, 9), 3. The example discussed is the following: "... si habebam pratum clausum, cuius clausuram bos tuus, vel taums rupit per lasciviam, vel ferocitate, et herbam, vel bladum depastus est. hoc casu non esset deneganda haec actio de pauperie." Absente lascivia and ferocitaic, however, the actio de pauperie did not lie: "Quid ergo si animalia tua... depasta fuerunt glandem meam, vel prata, vel blada mea, quaeritur an agere possim...? glossa dicit, quod potest agi actione de pauperie.... Sed hoc non videtur verum... quia haec actio non datur, nisi quando animal delinquit contra naturam sui generis."

'* 1962 (1) SA 231 (T) at 237: "As die landdros se bevinding dat die twee honde gesamentlik al die hoenders doodgebyt het, korrek is, dan was bcide honde nie besig om op 'n natuurlike wyse honger te stil nie—hulle was besig met 'n baldadige slagting wat as contra naturam aangemerk moet word."

^{^[5838]} For a detailed analysis, see Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 89 sqq., 91 sqq.; cf. also idem, (1979) 42 THRHR 17 sqq.

^bH Le Raux v. Pick (1879) 9 Buch 29 at 33; Cowelt v. Friedman & Co. (1888) 5 HCG 22 at 40;Boycev. Robertson 1912 TPD 381 at 384; Solomon v. De Waal 1972 (1) SA 575 (A) at 582E.

^15v O'Calla^han v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 314; South African Railways & Harbours v, Edwards 1930 AD 3 at 6, 10 and 12; Solomon v. De Waal 1972 (1) SA 575 (A) at 582E; Lawrence v. Kondotel Inns (Ply.) Lid. 1989 (1) SA 44 (D) at 51 sq.

^{^[5840]} On the defences available against the actio de pauperie (vis maior, culpable conduct on the part of the injured or of a third party, provocation by another animal, unlawful presence of the injured person at the place of injury) cf. Van dcr Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 100 sqq., 105 sqq.

So, too, as far as South Africa is concerned, Van der Merwe, (1979) 42 THRHR 26.

^Iffi Cf. the discussion in "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 452.

^IS Cf, in particular, art. 1385 code civil; and see §§ 1560 sq. Saxonian Civil Code (which, however, retained the alternative of noxae deditio).

^If'⁴ Cf., in particular, § 1320 ABGB, art. 65 OR (both operating, however, with a reversal of the burden of proof: it is up to the keeper of the animal to show that he exercised the necessary care in supervising the animal); § 73 I 6 PrALR, but see also §§ 70—72 (detailing instances of strict liability).

^{^[5845]} Cf. § 734 E I (read with "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 452 sqq.: liability based on fault); § 756 E II (read with "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 1123 sqq.: reversal of onus of proof of fault, as far as domestic animals are concerned; strict liability with regard to all other animals); § 817 Reichstagsvorlage (read with "Bericht der XII. Kommission des Reichstagcs", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 1301, 1403 sqq.).

“ § 833. 2 BGB.

^и For details as to who may avail himself of the benefit of exculpation and as to which animals may be classified as domestic, see Hans-Joachim Mertens, in: Münchener Komtnentar, vol. Ill, 2 (2nd cd., 1986). § 833, nn. 28 sqq.

^{^[5847]} RGZ 141, 406 (407) ("сон keinem vernünftigen Wollen geleitetejsj willkürliche[s]

Verhalten”); BGH, 1971 Nette Juristische Wochenschrift 509.

^lfl,; BGHZ 67, 129 sqq. (dealing with the case of a roaming dog covering the plaintiff's

purebred chow bitch).

^ro OLG München, 1976 Versicherungsrecht 334.

^{^[5852]} OLG Schleswig, 1983 Versicherungsrecht 470.

^{^[5853]} For a critical evaluation cf. Mertens, op. cit., note 167, § 833, nn. 13 sqq.; Erwin

Deutsch, "Die Haftung des Tierhalters", 1987 juristische Schulung 675 sq.

Cf.. for example. OLG Düsseldorf. 1976 Neue Juristische 'Wochenschrift 2137; Kammergericht, 1986 Versicherungsrecht 820; but see BGH, 1986 Versicherungsrecht 1206.

^m OLG Frankfurt, 1983 Vershhenmgsredit 1040.

^{^[5856]} Cf. further Rolf KnCitel, "Ticrhalterhaftung gegenüber dem Vertragspartner?", 1978 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 297 sqq. (dealing with the liability of the keeper of the animal towards his contractual partner); Elke Herrmann, "Die Einschränkung der Tierhalterhaftung nach § 833 S. 1 BGB in der modernen Judikatur und Literatur", 1980 Juristische Rundschau 489 sqq.; Deutsch, 1987 juristische Schulung LIL sqq.

Erwin Deutsch, "Gefahrdungshaftung für laborgezuchtete Mikroorganismen", 1976 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 1137 sqq.; Mertens, op. cit., note 167, § 833, n. 10. But cf. also Bienenfcld, op. cit., note 123. p. 210.

^{^[5858]} For details, see Kaser, RPr I, pp. 161 sqq., 630 sqq.; von Lubtow, Lex Aquitia, pp. 41 sqq.; Gian Luigi Falchi, Ricerche sulla legittimazionepassiva delle azioni nossali (1976); Hans-Peter Benobr, "Zur Haftung für Sklavendelikte", (1980) 97 ZSS 273 sqq.; Hans Ankum, (1981) 32 Iura 233 sqq.; Honsell/Mayer-Maly/Selb, pp. 381 sqq. Cf. also Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 160 sqq. and supra, pp. 916 sq.

^{^[5859]} Cf., as far as the development in France is concerned, Watson, Failures, pp. 6 sq.

^,7" Kaser. RPr ?, p. 430.

¹¹¹⁰ Inst. IV, 8, 7: "... quis enim patitur filium suum et maxime filiam in noxam alii dare, ut paene per corpus pater magis quam filius periclitetur, cum in filiabus etiam pudicitiae favor hoc bene excludit?"

^{^[5862]} On the decline (or "humanization") of patria potesras in post-classical Roman law in general, see Kaser, RPr II, pp. 202 sqq.; cf. also (humanity) Schulz. Principles, pp. 189 sqq., 198sqq.

" Cf. Groenewegen, De legihus abrogatis. Inst. Lib. f Tit. VIII, 3: "... servitus paulatim ab usu recessit, ejusque tiomen hodie apud nos exolevit" (he also points out, however, that "servos habere Christianis nefas non [estj, si niodo herili in servos potestate non abutantur, sed eos secundum Christianam levitatem mansuetudinem tractent..."). Cf also Going, PP- 205 sq.

Lauterbach, Collegium theoretko-praetkum. Lib. IX, Tit. IV, IX. But cf. also, in the present context, Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. IV, § 2: "Cum tamen hue usque post Budam in Ungaria occupatam frequentissima fuennt turearum mancipia servitiis Christianorum adhibita, nullus dubito, si aliquis horum delictum privatum commisisset, actioni noxali adhuc locum fore, ut hujus mancipi dominus, vel damnum resareiat, vel tuream noxae dedat, nam nee hie ultra corpus ipsorum nequitia dominis darnnosa esse debet."

^{^[5865]} Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. IV, § 2.

¹⁸¹ Stryk, Usus modernus pandectarum. Lib. IX, Tit. IV, § 5; cf. also, particularly clearly,

Leyser, Meditationes ad Pandectas. Spec. CXIII, I; Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 417 sq.

III, XXXVIII, 8.

^1M7 Cf. П, 32 Sachsenspiegel; Stryk, Usus modemus pandectarum, Lib. IX, Tit. IV, § 4. On the liability of the master in early German law in general cf. T.B. Barlow, The South African Law of Vicarious Liability in Delict and a Comparison of the Principles of Other Legal Systems (1939), pp. 25 sqq.

Cf., for instance, Voct, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. IV, X; Groenewegen, De leqibus abrogates. Digest. Lib. XV, Tit. I. 1; Van Lecuwen, Ccnsura Forensis. Pars I, Lib. II, Cap. XII, 1

^ln" For a detailed analysis, sec now the authoritative study by Rolf Knutel, "Die Haftung fur Hilfspersonen itn romischen Recht", (1983) 100 ZSS 340 sqq.

On which, in general, cf. Geoffrey MacCormack, (1971) 18 RIDA 525 sqq.

¹⁹* lul. D. 13. 6. 20: "Argentum commodatum si tam idoneo servo meo tradidissem ad te perferendum, ut non debuerit quis aestimare futurum, ut a quibusdam malis hominibus deciperetur, tuum, non meum detrimentum erit, si id mali homines intercepissent." Cf. MacCormack, (1971) 18 RIDA 531 sq.; Knutel, (1983) 100 ZSS 381 sqq.

^mD, 19, 2, 11 pr.;cf. Mayer-Maly, Locatio condmtio, pp. 200 sq.; MacCormack, (1971) 18 RIDA 540 sq.; Frier, (1978) 95 ZSS 258 sqq.; Knutel, (1983) 100 ZSS 401 sqq.

^{^[5871]} Cf., in general, Fritz Schulz, "Die Haitung fur das Verschulden der Angestellcen im

klassischen romtschen Recht", (1911) 38 GrimhZ 9 sqq.

^K D. 19, 2, 41; cf. Knutel, (1983) 100 ZSS 411 sqq. Generally on custodia cf. supra,

pp. 193 sqq. The prevailing opinion, according to which custodia was an objective (strict)

liability, has repeatedly been challenged, most recently by Rene Robaye, L' obligation de garde. Essai sur la responsablite contraauclie en droit remain (1988).

^№ Cf. supra, pp. 514 sqq.; also Schulz, (1911) 38 GrtinhZ 41 sqq.

¹⁴⁷ Gai. D. 19, 2, 25, 7; on which sec supra, pp. 399 sqq.

^{^[5878]} Substantially genuine; cf. MacCormack, (1971) 18 RIDA 536 sqq.; Knutel, (1983) 100 ZSS 392 sqq., 396 sqq. But see also Frier, (1978) 95 ZSS 261 sq. and also Ulp. Coll. XII,

¹⁴⁴ Cf. supra, pp. 16 sq.

³""Ulp. D. 9, 3, 1, 4. ¹

The praetor merely said "Undo in eum locum, quo vulgo iter fict vel in quo consistctur, deiectum vel effusum quid erit.. Ulp. D. 9, 3, 1 pr.; and see Paul. D. 9, 3, 6, 2: "Habitator suam suorumque culpam praestare debet."

²⁽¹² MacCormack, (1971) 18 RIDA 547 sq. "Thejustification made by thejurists is related to the fact that the habitator not the dominus is the person made liable. The habitator is liable because he is the person in charge of the household and is therefore in a position to take the measures necessary to... organizfe] his household in such a way as to prevent things being thrown or poured out"; Kaser, RPr II, p. 428.

²⁸ Cf., for example, Wittmann, Korperverletzung, p. 64.

^{^[5881]} Supra, pp. 16 sq.

²² Gai. D. 44, 7, 5, 6.

²¹⁾⁶ Cf. further the liability of publicani for the acts of slaves which they had used in order to

collect taxes: Ulp. D. 39, 4, 1, 6; Gai. D. 39, 4, 2; Ulp. D. 39, 4, 3 pr.; MacCormack,

(1971) 18 RIDA 551; Barlow, op. cit., note 187, pp. 21 sq.

^{^[5886]} Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. IV, X.

Barlow, op. cit., note 187, pp. 73 sqq.

²¹¹ Van der Keessel, Praeleaiones iuris hodierni, ad Gr. 3, 1, 34 (vol. IV, p. 25); cf. also Van der Linden in his notes on Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, in: Gane, The Selective Voet, vol. II, p. 607; for further details, see Barlow, op. cit., note 187, pp. 61 sqq.

² ° For an analysis, cf. Barlow, op. cit., note 187, pp. 84 sqq. ("A study of the cases on the subject before the hearing ofMkize v. Martens in May 1914, indicates that the courts have failed to make any deep study of a very complex question, yet in Mkize v. Martens, the Appellate Division regarded the matter as definitely settled by precedent, and held that there was no need to go into the old authorities”: p. 91). The decision of Mkize v. Martens is reported in 1914 AD 382.

*ⁿ But cf. Estate Van derByl v. Swanepoel 1927 AD 141 at 153 sq. (per Kotze JA).

^{^[5891]} (1874) 4 Buch 96 at 114/

Ulp. D. 19. 2. 25. 7.

^{^[5893]} Cf. Van den Heever. Aquilian Damages, pp. IV sqq. ("[I]n a highly industrialised country [such as England]... it may be expedient that the employer's responsibility for damage caused by his workmen or machinery should be co-extensive with these artificial extensions of his own activities and personality.... (But] in a young and undeveloped country such as South Africa was at the time, application of the principle of unlimited liability was calculated to stifle initiative and entrench monopoly"). Paul Boberg comments: "This is no doubt very true, but it can have no application today, when we pride ourselves on being the most highly developed and industrialized state in Africa. Certainly we are now as industrialized as was nineteenth-century England. The adoption of this doctrine has thus enabled our law to move with the times and to reflect the social requirements of the age in which we live": "Oak Tree or Acorn? Conflicting Approaches to Our Law of Delict", (1966) 83 SALJ 170.

^21r> For details, see Barlow, op. cit., note 187, pp. 95 sqq., 120 sqq.

^{^[5895]} Lewis v. Salisbury Gold Mining Co. (1894) 1 OR 1 sqq. {"the best [judgment] ever delivered in this country on the question of vicarious liability": Barlow, op. cit., note 187, p. 907).

^{^[5896]} Traite des obligations, nn. 121,456.

^{^[5897]} On the origin of this provision (Domat and Pothier), cf, most recently, Watson, Failures, pp. 6 sq., 15 sqq.; on its application cf. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 380 sqq.; Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 167 sqq. The (strict) vicarious liability of the employer is based, traditionally, on the principle of "Ex qua persona quis lucrum capit, cius factum praestare debet" (Ulp. D. 50. 17. 1491; of. Knutel (19831 100 ZSS 441 sqq. On the justification of vicarious liability in English law cf P.S. Atiyah, Vicarious Liability in the Law of Torts (1967), pp. 15 sqq., 22 sqq.

^{^[5898]} Cf, for example, Windscheid/Kipp, § 401, n. 5.

²²¹¹ Cf supra, pp. 1034 sq.

^{^[5900]} For details of the development cf. Hans Hermann Seiler, "Die deliktische Gehilfenhaftung in historischer Sicht", 1967 juristmzeitung 525 sqq.; Gunther Niethammer, Entwicklung der Haftung fur Gehitfenhandein unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der dogmengeschicht- Hchen Grundlagen der deliktischett Gehilfenhaftung in der neueren Privatrechtsgeschichte thesis (unpublished Dr. iur. thesis, München, 1973), pp. 7 sqq., 78 sqq.; Ogorek, Gejcihrdungshaf- tung, pp. 68 sqq. Cf. also "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 16 ("one of the most disputed questions of modern German common law").

^{^[5901]} This was justified (and thus reconciled with the general culpa principle) on the basis that a person concluding a contract undertakes that, whatever he has promised, shall be carried out diligently, no matter by whom; thus, if he chooses to employ another person in performing his obligation, he is liable for that person's fault. Cf Enneccerus, Verhandlungen des 17. deutschen Jumtentages, vol. II (1885), pp. 102 sqq., and also "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 16.

^{^[5902]} Seiler, 1967 Juristenzeitutig 527 sqq.

^{^[5903]} "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 1094.

^{^[5904]} Seiler, 1967 Juristemeitung 528.

²³⁵ § 831 BGB thus reads: "A person who employs another to do any work, is bound to compensate for any damage which the other unlawfully causes to a third party in the performance of this work. The duty to compensate does not arise if the employer has exercised the necessary care in the selection of the employee, and, where he has to supply

apparatus or equipment or to supervise the work, has also exercised ordinary care as regards such supply or supervision, or if the damage would have arisen notwithstanding the exercise of such care."

^{^[5906]} For an overview, from a comparative point of view, cf. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 374 sqq.; B.S. Markesinis, A CompflraHve Introduction to the German Law of Tort (1986), pp. 349 sqq. (for the most important cases—in translation see—pp. 391 sqq.).

^{^[5907]} Cf. also the observation in Zweigert/Kotz/Weir, p. 299: "The English jurist Pollock stated that the strict liability of a master for the torts of his servants, such as exists at Common Law, was justified by the consideration that if it did not exist a 'huge expansion of implied, i.e. fictitious contracts, to no great advantage of either law or conscience, would ensue'; the development of German law has vindicated this prediction to the hilt"; cf. also the speculation by Sir Frederick Pollock in (1916) 32 LQR 227 ("Denial of the 'superior's' responsibility in tort would surely have led to a luxuriant and perplexed growth of contracts implied in law, for which the substance of justice would have been no better from any point of view, and the science of law much the worse").

^{^[5908]} Cf. supra, pp. 16 sqq. For a list of further instances of liability without fault, see Bienenfeld, op. cit., note 123, pp. 13 sqq., 45 sqq,

²³⁹ De legibus abrogatis, Inst. Lib. IV, Tit. V, Prine; cf. also, for example, Vinnius, Itistitutiones, Lib. IV, Tit. V, pr., 2 sq.; Lauterbach, Collegium theoretico-practimm, Lib. L, Tit. XIII, III. Writers in earlier centuries tended to be puzzled as to why a medical doctor, who operated badly or gave his patient the wrong medicine, was liable under the lex Aquilia ("Imperitia quoque culpae adnumeratur, veluti si medicus ideo servum tuum occiderit, quod eum male secuerit aut perperam ei medicamentum dederit": Inst. IV, III, 7) whereas ajudge was held responsible, for his lack of skill, merely quasi ex delicto. Donellus, Cotnmentarii, Lib. XV, Cap. XLIII, XIII, proposed to resolve the discrepancy by classifying the liability

one hand, Bowden v, Rudman 1964 (4) SA 686 (N) at 692D-E ("The situation is analogous to that of the thing thrown out or poured out upon a passer-by") on the other. In Bowden v. Rudman, incidentally, the actio de posito vel suspenso was held not to be applicable to the case of a gate opened outwards across the pavement. In the headnote (p. 686) this action is confused with the actio de effusis vel deiectis.

³¹ Ulp. D. 4. 9. 7. I; Ulp. D. 47. 5. 1. 2.

^{^[5911]} Groenewegcn. De legibus abrogatis. Digest. Lib. IV, Tit. IX, 1. ult. § 1; Voet, Commentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IV, Tit. IX, X.

^{^[5912]} Thus, for example, the actio quasi ex delicto was limited to theft or damage caused by employees. Liability under the receptum was much wider; it also covered, for example, theft committed or damage caused by other guests or passengers; cf. Ulp. D. 4, 9, 1, 8; Gai. D. 4, 9, 2; Pomp./Ulp. D. 4, 9, 3 pr. For further details, see Glück, vol. 6, pp. 140 sqq.; T.E. Donges, The Liability for Safe Carriage of Goods in Roman-Dutch Law (1928), pp. 24 sqq.

^{^[5913]} § 1318 ABGB, On the survival of the actio de deiectis vel effusis in a generalized form (art. 1384 code civil, last alternative) cf. infra, p. 1142.

^{^[5914]} Gane, The Selective Voet, vol. II, p. 595 (who remarks with classic understatement that the Digest title 9, 3 "cannot be said to have been of leading importance in South African law"); N.J. van der Merwe, P.J.J. Olivier, Die onreqmatiqe daad in die Suid-Aftikaanse reg (5th ed., 1985), p. 496.

^{^[5915]} It does, of course, no longer lie for duplum (as it did in Roman law: Inst. IV, 5, 1).

^{^[5916]} Stryk, Usus modernuspandectarum, Lib. IX, Tit. Ill, §§ 1 sqq.; Gluck, vol. 10, pp. 409 sqq.

²¹¹ Windscheid/Kipp, § 457, 1; Bienenfeld, op. cit, note 123, pp. 45 sq.

²⁴~ §§ 229 sqq. E 1; cf. "Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 448 sq. and the discussion by Joseph Unger, "Die actio de dejectis et effusis im deutschen Entwürfe", (1891) 30 Jhjb 226 sqq.

^M "Protokolle", in: Mugdan, vol. II, p. 1123.

^{^[5920]} For a detailed discussion, sec Hochstein, Obligationes, pp. 35 sqq., 48 sqq., 71 sqq., 94 sgq., 129 sqq.; cf. also Going, pp. 395 sq.

²⁴³ Uirich Zasius, as quoted and analysed by Hochstein, Obligationes, pp. 50 sqq., cf. also pp. 73 sq.

²⁴"Grotius, luleiding, HI. XXXVIII, 1.

^{^[5923]} Donellus, Commetttarii, Lib. XV, Cap. XLHI, V.

^24K Vinnius, Instiiutiones, Lib. IV, Tit. V.

²⁹ Cf. supra, p. 19, note 107.

²³³ Cf. supra, p. 19, note 108; Lautcrbacb, Collegium tkeoretica-practicum. Lib. XLVII, Tit. I, VIII; Coing, p. 395. But what was the position of the actio legis Aquiliae in this scheme of things? According to Lauterbach, loc. dt., it had to be classified as an obligatio ex delicto fvero) despite the fact that it was available in cases of dolus and culpa.

²¹ Cf. Grotius, Melding, III. XXXVIII, 10; Van Leeuwen, Censura Forensis, Pars I, Lib. V, Cap. XXXI, 2; for a detailed analysis cf. Hochstein, Obligationes, pp. 86 sqq.; cf. also Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 27 sq.

²³² Cf. supra, pp. 1034 sq.

^{^[5929]} Cf. supra, p. 20.

^{^[5930]} Or were not brought in line with the principle of "no liability without fault" too; cf., for example, as far as the actio de pauperie is concerned, Van der Linden in his annotations on Voet, as translated by Gane, The Selective Voet, vol. II (1955), pp. 533 sq.; Parker v. Reed

(1904) 21 SC 496 at 501 sq.; O'Catlaghan v. Chaplin 1927 AD 310 at 375 sqq. (per Wessels JA); cf. also Van der Merwe, op. cit., note 39, pp. 29 sqq.; on the actio de deicctis vel effusis cf., tor example, Voet, Contmentarius ad Pandectas, Lib. IX, Tit. Ill, I ("... cum culpa ipsius non in dejectione consistat, sed in eo poties, quod aut malignos, aut negligentes intra domus suae vel coenaculi septa receperit, quosjure suo repellere poterat, quorumque ideo culpam tenetur praescare"). Cf. further Justus Wilhelm Hedemann, Die Fortschritle des

Zivilrechts im XIX. Jahrhundert vol. I (1910), pp. 86 sq.; Biencnfeld, op. cit., note 123, pp. 100 sqq.; Hans-Peter Benohr, "Zur ausservertraglichcn Haftung im gemeinen Recht", in: Festschrift fur Max Kaser (1976), p. 705.

"Motive", in: Mugdan, vol. II, pp. 449; cf. also p. 453.

²³⁵ SecBienenfeld, op. cit., note 123, pp. 23 sqq.; Ogorek, Gefi'hrdungshaftung, pp. 48 sqq. and, as a particularly blatant example, the cursory reference to obligationes ex variis causarum figuris by Savigny, Obliqationenrecht, vol. II, pp. 330 sq.

^{^[5933]} § 833, 1 BGB.

²³³ Cf. supra, pp. 1034 sq.

²³³ Cf. the criticism by Lorenz von Stein, Zur Eisenbahnrechts-Bildung (1872), p. 15.

²³³ For some modern figures, see Andre Tune, "Introduction", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, vol. XI, 1 (1983), nn. 1, 72 ("The accident age"). According to him, in the United States alone 115 000 persons die every year as a result of accidents, more than 11 million suffer temporary disablement, and more than 5 million others suffer some kind of injury. During the Second World War, the toll of industrial accidents was nearly as heavy as the toll of war itself in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States. For more facts and figures, see P.S. Atiyah, Accidents, Compensation and the Law (3rd ed., 1980), pp. 18 sqq.; on motor accidents, see also Andre Tune, "Traffic Accident Compensation: Law and Proposals", in: International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law vol. XI, 14 (1983), n. 1.

²⁵¹ For a notorious definition of a railway enterprise (in no fewer than 111 words, all crammed into a single sentence) cf. RGZ 1, 247 (252). On the eve of the opening of the first Prussian railway line a pastor in Berlin implored his congregation to keep away, for the sake of their eternal salvation, from these "infernal dragons". On the hostility and opposition which railways and motorcars at first aroused in England, see JR. Spencer, "Motor-Cars and the Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher: A Chapter of Accidents in the History of Law and Motoring", (1983) 42 Cambridge LJ 69 sqq. Some (from a modern perspective) rather amusing highlights of the campaign against the use of these dangerous machines: in 1932 the proprietor of the Stockton and Darlington Railway was prosecuted for the crime of public nuisance because the locomotives scared horses; when the first traction engines appeared on the roads. Parliament reacted by requiring a man with a red flag to walk in front (Locomotive Act of 1865); and cars at first were occasionally pelted with stones; enraged farmers even fired shotguns at them.

^{^[5938]} For an account of some 19th-century railway accidents, see Gustav Lehmann, Korperverletzungen und Todtungen aufdeutschen Eisenbahnen (18691. 7th December 1835 (from Nürnberg to Furth).

^2M 30th October 1838 (from Berlin to Potsdam; the length of this railway line was a mere 3,5 miles).

~^H Strict liability for damage to property was introduced only in 1940 by means of the Sachschadenhajtpjlich Igesetz-

^{2\9S9 Juristenzeitung 517 sqq.}

^2H1 Cf. also Lawson/Markesinis, p. 144 (”... the confusion of the two concepts is not

only intellectually untidy; it has other disadvantages as well....”). But cf. Hans G. Leser,

”Zu den Instrumenten des Rechtsguterschutzes im Delikts- und Gefahrdungshaftungs-

recht”, (1983) Archivfur die civilistische Praxis 601 (no-fault liability represents the bottom

line on a sliding scale of liability law); cf. also Heinz Hübner, ’’Noch einmal:

Gefahrdungshaftung und Verantwortung”, in: Festschrift jiir Wolfram Miiiler-Freienfels (1986), pp. 329 sqq.

^2H2 § 7 Kraftfahrzeitygesetz, 3 May 1909 (today: Strassetiverkehrsgesetz,—Road Traffic Act). ^2,0 § 19 (today: § 33) Luftverkehrs ge setz—-Air Traffic Act—1 August 1922.

§ 1 a Reichs-Haftpjiichlgesetz (today: § 2 Haftpflichtgesetz)·

^{^[5964]} Atomgesetz—Atomic Energy Act—-23 December 1959; cf. today §§ 25 sqq. Atomgesetz, as promulgated on 15 July 1985.

²⁸⁵ § 22 Wasserhaushahsgesetz—Water Maintenance Act—-27 July 1957.

^{^[5966]} § 84 Arzneimittelgesetz—Pharmaceutical Products Act—24 August 1976.

^2HH For an overview of the development, cf. Will, op. cit., note 266, pp. 2 sqq., 20 sqq., 27 sqq.; Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 399 sqq.

Will, op. cit., note 266, pp. 70 sqq. Cf., for example, RGZ 78, 171 sqq., a case involving one of Count Zeppelin's famous airships. The court refused to extend the provisions of the Imperial Law of Liability and the Road Traffic Act to cover this case even though the operation of an airship involves, at least, the same degree of risk than that of motorcars or railways.

²⁴³ For these and further examples, cf. Hein Kotz, "Gefahrdungshaftung", in: Gutachten und Vorschläge zur (jberarbeittmg des Schuldrechts, vol. II (1981), pp. 1786 sq.

²⁴¹ For details, see, again, Kotz, op. cit., note 290, pp. 1803 sq., 1825 sqq.

²"² On the concept oC'Haiter" (custodian; normally, but not necessarily, the owner of the car), cf. Adalbert Kunschert, in: Gcigel, Der Haftpjiichtprozess (19th ed., 1986), pp. 599 sqq.

w § 7 u Strassenverkehrsgesetz·

⁷⁹⁴ § 1 H Haftpflichtgesetz. On the concept of vis maior, see Adolf Exner, "Der Begnff der hoheren Gewalt (vis major), im romischen und heutigen Verkchrsrecht", (1883) 10 GriinhZ 497 sqq.; Adamkiewiecz, "Die hohere Gewalt" im Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch", (1915) 59 Beitrage zur Erläuterung des Deutschen Rechts 577 sqq.; Ulrike Stadtlcr, Schadensersatz im Falle hoherer Gewalt (1986), pp. 13 sqq.

²⁴⁵ § 8 a, 1 Strassenverkehrsgesetz·

³³ "... one of the most firmly established legal principles throughout the common law world": P.S. Atiyah, op. cit., note 218, p. 12.

[5976] ??· gosafi,, Sandford 2 Sal k eld 440; Turherville v. Stampe 1 Ld Raym 264; Anonymous

1 Ld Raym 739, and others; for details of the development cf. Barlow, op. cit., note 187, pp. 36 sqq.; Holdsworth, vol. VIII, pp. 472 sqq.; John H. Wigmore, "Responsibility for Tortious Acts: Its History" (1893-94) 7 HarvardLR 315 sqq., 383 sqq.; Oliver Wendell Holmes, "The History of Agency", in: Select Essays in Anqlo-American Le%al History, vol. Ill (1909), pp. 387 sqq.

³⁽¹³ Which came into England via the courts of Admiralty and as part of the lex Mercatoria; cf. Holdsworth, vol. VIII, pp. 250 sqq. The first case in which the modern doctrine of vicarious liability made its appearance in a common-law court (Boson v. Sandford; cf. supra, note 302) involved an action by a shipper of goods against the captain of the ship.

³¹¹⁴ Holdsworth, vol. VIII, p. 476.

³⁵ Cf. Barlow, op. cit., note 187, p. 44.

^{^[5979]} For details, see P.S. Atiyah, op. cit., note 218, pp. 31 sqq., 171 sqq.; Fleming, Torts, pp. 339 sqq.; cf. also Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 383 sqq.On the doctrine of common employment

("[tlhc most nefarious judicial ploy for reducing the charges on industry"; employers are relieved of vicarious liability if the injury was caused by the negligence of a fellow servant), cf. Fleming, Torts, p. 491; Atiyah, op. cit.. note 218, p. 415.

³¹¹⁷ But the owner was allowed to buy oflf the right of vengeance. Unlike in Roman law, he had to pay the value of the animal and not the amount of damages suffered by the injured person. Generally on the historical development of liability for damage done by animals in English law, cf. Holmes, Common Law, pp. 17 sqq.; Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 7 sqq., 265 sqq. For Scotland cf Carey-Miller, 197'4 Juridical Review 1 sqq.

³²⁶ From "scienter retinuit" in the old form of the writ: see Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 273 sqq., for details, see pp. 278 sqq.

³²⁹ "... the courts were not prepared to hold that all the acts of animals involved their owners; there had to be some culpability in the owner himself, and of this culpability knowledge of the animal's past mischief was a rough practical test." On the history of the scienter principle, see Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 273 sqq. (the quotation is taken from p. 282).

^{^[5984]} Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 292 sqq. Cf. today s. 2 I of the Animals Act 1971 (strict liability in respect of any damage caused by an animal which belongs to a dangerous species); for details, see North, op. cit., note 51, pp. 21 sqq.

Fleming, Torts, p. 332. On the meaning of "dangerous species" in terms of the new Act, see North, op. cit., note 51, pp. 34 sqq.

^{^[5986]} But under which circumstances can an animal be said to be of a "harmless species"? Traditionally, the relevant test for classifying a species was whether the animals belonging to it were "harmless to mankind"; whether or not it was in their nature to cause damage to property did not matter. For details cf. Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 286 sqq. The rigid division of all animals into dangerous and harmless species has often been criticized; "[sluch a division", as the New South Wales Law Reform Commission (cf. supra, p. 10%, note 12, quoted here according to North, op. cit., note 51, p. 4) commented, "is not to be found in nature. The different species of animals in fact present different degrees of danger to mankind and within each species the danger presented is not constant but varies according to age, sex, time of the year and many other matters; and individual animals within the one species differ". In spite of these criticisms, the Animals Act 1971 still classes animals by species (cf. ss. 2, 6 II), although the line is now drawn differently. For details, cf. North, op. cit., note 51, pp. 34 sq., 48 sqq.

^{^[5987]} As to details of the proof of scienter, see Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 299 sqq.; cf. also North, op. cit., note 51, pp. 48 sqq. According to Salmond/Heuston, op. cit., note 22, p. 317, it was uncertain, at common law, whether the animal's vicious tendency had to have been contrary to the nature of animals of that class; contra naturam sui generis!

^{^[5988]} Cf. today s. 2 II Animals Act 1971.

^{^[5989]} North, op. cit., note 51, p. 92; for further details, see Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 136 sqq.

^{^[5990]} For a detailed historical analysis, see Williams, op. cit., note 23, pp. 127 sqq. Today s. 4 of the Animals Act 1971 applies {referring to "livestock"); on which, see North, op. cit., note 51, pp. 91 sqq.

^{^[5991]} Tenant v. Goldwin 2 Ld Raym 1089 at 1092. The maxim "sic utere tuo ut neminem laedas", incidentally, was referred to in a variety of different contexts. In 19th-century decisions it was sometimes used to establish strict liability (cf. Rylands v. Fletcher [1861-73] All ER 1 at 8), while at other times it was, interestingly, taken to entail liability for fault (cf. Vaughan v. Menlove (1873) 3 Bing (NC) 468 at 476).

^3IH For a historical analysis, see A.I. Ogus, "Vagaries in Liability For the Escape of Fire", (1969) 27 Cambridge LJ 104 sqq.

^{^[5993]} Tenant v. Goldwin 2 Ld Raym 1089 at 1092; cf. also Turberuille v. Stamps 1 Ld Raym 264 ("if my servant throws dirt into the highway, I am indictable").

^{^[5994]} Cf. supra, pp. 910 sq.

³³ Cf. supra, pp. 1034 sq.; but cf. also Sir Frederick Pollock, (1923) 39 LQR 167; on which, in turn, see P.S. Atiyah, Pragmatism and Theory in English Law (1987), p. 179.

^{^[5996]} Fleming, Torts, p. 300.

^{^[5997]} On the antecedents of Ryiands v. Fletcher, cf. also Benning v. Wong (1969) 122 CLR 249 at 294 sqq. (High Court of Australia; per Windeyer J).

^{^[5998]} It was, as is often the case, not regarded by thejudges concerned as either very bold or novel; cf. for example, Lord Cairns in [1861-73] All ER 1 at 12 sq.: "The principles on which this case must be determined appear to me to be extremely simple"; "[t]hcse simple principles". Cf also the rather vivid description of what happened by John H. Wigmore, "Responsibility for Tortious Acts: Its History — III", (1894) 7 Harvard LR 454 ("Briefly, [those scattered classes of cases] wandered about, unhoused and unshepherded, except for a casual attention, in the pathless fields of jurisprudence, until they were met, some thirty years ago, by the master-mind of Mr. Justice Blackburn, who guided them to the safe fold where they have since rested." But then he goes on to describe the principle enunciated by Mr. Justice Blackburn as "epochal in its consequences").

³²* [1861-73] All ER 1 at 7. On its historical context cf. the study by A.W.B. Simpson, "Legal Liability for Bursting Reservoirs: The Historical Context of Ryiands v. Fletcher", (1984) 13 Journal of Legal Studies 209 sqq.

According to Simpson, (1984) 13 Journal of Legal Studies 216 sqq., the decision in Rylands v. Fletcher has to be seen in the context of two contemporary, major dam disasters; "the case was about bursting reservoirs and about what, if anything, the law ought to do about them....[lit is not improbable that the f...] unique features fof dams or reservoirs]... received special examinational common law (in Rylands v. Fletcher]" (p. 216). Ironically, as Simpson points out on pp. 251 sqq., Rylands v. Fletcher had hardly any impact on this specific problem area, for it did not apply to public water reservoirs (that is, the vast majority of large reservoirs).

^{^[6001]} Jones v. The Festinog Railway Company (1868) LR 3 QB 733.

³⁷⁸ National Telephone Co. v. Baker [1893] 2 Ch 186.

¹²⁹ Batcheller v. Tunbridge Wells Gas Co. (19011 84 LT 765.

^{^[6004]} Miles v. Forest Rock Granite Co. (1918) 35 TLR 500.

³³ West p. Bristol Tramways Company [1908] 2 KB 14.

³³² Shijfman v. The Grand Priory in the British Realm of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. BIm’[19361 1 All ER 557.

³³³ Crowhurst v. The Burial Board of the Parish of Amer sham (1878) 4 Ex D 5.

^{^[6005]} Hoare and Company v, McAlpine 11923] 1 Ch 167. Cf. further, for example, Attorney-General v. Corke [1933] Ch 89, where the owner of a disused brickfield had allowed

gypsies to camp on his land and was held liable to his neighbours for harm caused by their unhygienic habits.

^{^[6007]} Fleming, Torts, p. 309.

³³⁶ Cf. Rylands v. Fletcher [1861-73] All ER 1 at 12 sq., per Lord Cairns (otherwise

confirming the principle enunciated by Blackburn J); but cf. also already Blackburn j

[1861-731 Jill ER 1 at 7.

^{^[6011]} Read v.J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. [19471 AC 156 (HL).

^33H Take, for example, the case of Read v.J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. ([1947] AC (HL) 156), itself, where the plaintiff was injured by an explosion occurring in the defendant's ammunition factory in which she was working. Why should it make a difference whether she was injured within the confines of the factory or after she had just left its gates (Zweigert/Kotz, p. 421)?

of Byrne v. Boadle (1863) 2 H & C 722..., that Latin phrase—'res ipsa loquitur'—has been beguiling, bewitching and bewildering the Anglo-American bench and bar": Stuart M. Speiser. Res ipsa loquitur (\A72) (a two-volume work of more than 1 000 pages), vol. I. p. III. Cf. als-., most recently, in a special context and from a comparative point of view, Giescn, op. cit., note 277, pp. 511 sqq., 515 sqq.

^{^[6014]} Fleming, Tons. p. 307.

¹⁴⁶ Cf, for example, J.A. Jolowicz, "Liability for Accidents", (1968) 26 Cambridge LJ 50 sqq.; the report of the "Pearson Commission" on Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injury (1978), Cmnd. 7054; J.A. Jolowicz, "Compensation for Personal Injury and Fault", in: D.V. Allen, C.J. Bourn, J.H. Holyoak, Accident Compensation after Pearson (1979), pp. 33 sqq.; Atiyah, op. cit., note 260, pp. 323 sqq., 443 sqq.; idem, "No Fault Compensation: A Question That Will Not Go Away", (1980) 54 Tulane LR 2H sqq.

^{^[6016]} A comparative analysis of other legal systems that have left the numcrus clausus model behind can be found in Will, op. cit., note 266, pp. 150 sqq.; a general theory of the inner nature of strict liability based on the experiences of common law and civil law has recently been presented by Vernon Palmer, (1988) 62 Tulane LR 1303 sqq. For an even more radical departure from the fault principle, cf. the accident compensation scheme operating in New Zealand; for a comparative discussion of which, see, for example, D.B. Hutchison, "Accident Compensation: New Zealand Shows the Way", (1985) 48 THRHR 24 sqq.; Giesen, op. cit., note TH, pp. 529 sqq., 532 sqq.; John G. Fleming. Jan Hcllner, Eike von Hippel, Haftmiysersetzunq durch Versicherunqsschvtz (1980), pp. 11 sqq., 51 sqq.

¹⁴ On which c(. supra, pp. 906, 1034, 1036.

^{^[6018]} Court de Cassation. Ch. reun., 13.2.1930, Recueil Dalloz (1930), Premiere Partie,

pp. 57 sqq.

^{^[6020]} For an analysis of the development cf. Ulrich Μ. Hübner. Die Haftung des Gardien im franzosischen Zivilrecht (1972); Will, op. cit., note 266, pp. 131 sqq.; Lawson/Markesinis, pp. 146 sqq. Zweigert/Kotz, pp. 407 sqq.; Andre Tune, '"It is not wise to take the Civil Codes too seriously'. Traffic accident compensation in France", in: Essays in Memory of Professor F.H. Lawson (1986), pp. 71 sqq. On custodial liability in Louisiana (based on art. 2317 Louisiana Civil Code), see Palmer, (1988) 62 Tulane LR 1334 sqq.

²¹ According to Tune, Essays Lawson, p. 72, art. 1384 is "by far the most frequently applied of all the Civil Code provisions".

Jean Boulanger, "Notations sur le pouvoir createur de la jurisprudence civile", (1961) 59 Revue Irimestrielle de droit civil 431.

³³ Cf, for example Tune, Essays Lawson, p. 72: "This sentence... was a transition, a mere elegance de style. It did not express any rule of law; it was not meant to be applied and had no place in a code." This was, in fact, the view that prevailed in 19th-century French legal science. So obscure was the true origin of the final clause of art. 1384 I code civil (and so irresistible—in France as well—the ascendancy of the fault principle!) that reference to liability for things under one's guard was denied any independent significance; in the course of the 19th century the clause was taken to refer merely to the liabilities imposed by artt. 1385 and 1386 on the guardians of an animal and the owner of a building. Only towards the end of the century did one begin to realize the true potential of the rule as a catalyst for a broadly based risk liability.

^{^[6023]} Liv. II, Tit. VIII, Sect. II; cf. also Yosiyuki Noda, "Jean Domat et le Code civil francais", (1956) 3 Comparative Law Review (Japan Institute of Comparative Law) 31 sq.

Cf, also the analysis by Watson, Failures, pp. 4. sq., 14 sq., 27, who, however, suggests an even more direct link between the actiones de deiectis vel effusis and de posito vel suspenso, and art. 1384 code civil.

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Source: Zimmermann R.. The Law of Obligations. Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition. Juta & Co, Ltd,1992. — 1241 p.. 1992

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