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Preface.............................................................................................. vii

Summary of Contents................................................................

xvii

List of Abbreviations........................................................................... li

Principal Works Cited........................................................................ lix

Chapter 1 — OBLIGATIO

I. The Concept and its Historical Development................... 1

1. Obligare—obligatio — obligation.......................................... 1

2. Delictual liability: from revenge to compensation.... 1

3. The origin of contractual liability........................................... 4

4. Dare facere praestare oportere................................................ 6

5. Unenforceable obligations ("obligationes naturales") 7

IL Divisio Obligationum................................................................... 10

1. The contract—delict dichotomy............................................ 10

2. From twofold to tourtold subdivision.................................... 14

3. Quasi-contractual and quasi-delictual obligations.... 15

4. The reception of Justinian's scheme...................................... 18

(a) General observations.................................................... 18

(b) The distinction between delict and quasi-dehct.. 19

(cj The distinction between contract and quasicontract........................ 20

5. The attitude adopted by the BGB........................................ 21

6. "De facto" contracts and implied promises............................ 22

III. The Place of Obligations within the System of

Private Law................................................................................ 24

1. Gains: personae, res, actiones..............................................

2. Justinian's Itistitutioncs and the relation between actions

and obligations............................................................................ 26

3. From Justinian's scheme to the "Pandektensystew".... 29

IV. Plan of Treatment.................................................................... 32

CHAPTER 2 — STIPULATIO ALTERI, REPRESENTATION, CESSION

I. Stipulatio Alteri......................................................................... 34

1. Alteri stipulari nemo potest................................................. 34

(a) The rule....................................................................... 34

(b) The interest requirement............................................... 35

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2. Strategics to evade the restriction......................................... 38

3. Changes in post-classical law.............................................. 39

4. The evolution of the modern contract in favour of a

third party................................................................................... 41

(a) Alteri stipulari nemo potest: rule and exceptions 41

(b) The abandonment of the rule...................................... 42

II. Agency...................................................................................... 45

1. Direct representation: introduction....................................... 45

2. No general concept of agency in Roman law........................ 47

3. Acting for (and through) others in Roman law....................... 49

(a) Indirect representation and other substitute

devices............................................................................................. 49

(b) The paterfamilias acting through his dependants 51

4. The erosion of the rule against agency............................... 54

5. The evolution of the modern concept of agency................... 56

III. Cession.................................................................................... 58

1. Nomina ossibus inhaerent.................................................... 58

2. The use of novation and procuratio in rem suam.... 60

3. Post-classical developments, Corpus Juris and ius

commune.................................................................................... 62

4. The turning of the tide......................................................... 64

Chapter 3 — STIPULATE)

1. The classical stipulation...................................................... 68

2. Evaluation of the oral formality............................................ 69

3. Relaxation of the word formalism........................................ 72

(a) The words to be used................................................... 72

(b) Unitas actus................................................................. 73

4. Excursus: utile per inutile non vitiatur.................................. 75

(a) Partial invalidity in Roman law..................................... 75

(b) Generalization of Ulp. D. 45, 1,1,5............................... 76

5. The atrophy of the classical stipulation................................. 78

(a) The use of documents (with evidentiary func

tion)................................................................................................. 78

(b) Gradual conversion of the stipulation into a

written contract................................................................................. 80

6. The importance of form and formality.................................. 82

(a) Form as the oldest norm...............................................

(b) From "effective" form to "protective" form------------------ 84

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(d) Formalism or flexibility?.............................................. 87

7. The flexibility of the Roman stipulation: range of

application.................................................................................. 89

8. The framing of the stipulation.............................................. 91

(a) Abstract or causal?....................................................... 91

(b) The exceptio non numeratac pecuniae........................... 93

Chapter 4 — STIPULATIO POENAE

1. The functions of penalty clauses........................................... 95

(a) Assessment of damages............................................... 95

(b) "In terrorem" function.................................................. 96

2. Non-genuine conventional penalty clauses............................ 98

3. Genuine conventional penalty clauses................................ 100

4. Range of application.......................................................... 103

5. Forfeiture of the penalty..................................................... 104

(a) If no time has been set for performance....................... 104

(h) "Si per debitorem stetit...".................................................. 105

6. The problem of excessive penalty clauses........................ 106

(a) The dangers of conventional penalties......................... 106

(b) The approach of modern European legal systems 107

7. Semel commissa poena non evanescit................................ 110

(a) The Celsinian interpretation........................................ 110

(b) Praetorian intervention...............................................

112

Chapters — SURETYSHIP

I. Introduction............................................................................ 114

1. The contract of suretyship.................................................. 114

2. Real security and personal security..................................... 115

II. Sponsio, Fidepromissio and Fideiussio.................................... 117

1. Sponsio............................................................................. 117

2. The limitations of sponsio.................................................. 118

3. Fidepromissio and the transition to fideiussio............... 120

III. The Accessoriness of Suretyship in Roman Law............. 121

1. Limited accessoriness of fideiussio..................................... 121

(a) "...nee plus in accessione [est]"................................. 121

(b) The availability of the debtor's exceptions............. 123

2. Sponsio and fidepromissio................................................. 125

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IV. Idem Debitum........................................................................ 125

1. The classical principle of "Konsumptiouskonkurrefiz"· · 125

2. From "Konsumptiotiskonkurrenz" to "Solutioiiskonkur-

retiz"......................................................................................... 126

3. Correality and solidarity................................................. 128

V. The Triplet of Privileges available to the

Fideiussor................................................................................. 129

1. Beneficium excussionis vel ordinis.................................. 129

2. Beneficium divisionis..................................................... 131

3. Beneficium cedendarum actionum................................... 132

(a) The problem ot the surety's right of recourse

against the main debtor............................................

132

(b) The construction of the beneficium cedendarum

actionum......................................................................................... 134

VI. Special Types of Suretyship Transactions............................. 137

1. Promissio indemnitatis and hdeiussio fideiussoris.... 137

2. The use of emptio venditio for the purpose ot

suretyship.................................................................................. 138

3. The use ot mandatum, especially the mandatum

quahficatum............................................................................... 139

VII. The Impact of Fideiussio on Modern Legal

Systems.................................................................................... 142

1. Roman-Dutch law............................................................ 142

2. German law and the English common law......................... 144

VIII. Women as Sureties.............................................................. 145

1. The senatus consultum Vellaeanum................................... 145

2. The policy of the senatus consultum................................. 146

3. The interpretation of the senatus consultum by the

Roman lawyers.......................................................................... 148

(a) Protection of the woman............................................. 148

(b) Protection of the creditor............................................. 150

4. Justinian's contribution..................................................... 151

5. The position in modern law.............................................. 152

Chapter 6 — MUTUUM

I. The Roman Contract of Mutuum.......................................... 153

1. The nature of mutuum....................................................... 153

2. Mutuum and stipulatio..................................................... 154

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3. The consensual element of mutuum................................. 156

(a) Consensus and rei interventio.................................... 156

(b) Ex meo tuum facere.................................................. 158

(d) Contractus mohatrae................................................. 161

4. On the "reality" of real contracts....................................... 163

II. The History of the Interest Rates and Usury........................ 166

1. Policies of the Roman Republic........................................ 166

2. Maximum rates from the end of the Republic until

Justinian........................................................................... 168

3. The canonical prohibition on usury in the Middle

Ages........................................................................................ 170

4. A clash between theory and practice?................................ 172

5. Usura non est lucrum, sed merces..................................... 174

6. The flexible rule of the BGB............................................. 175

III. Special Types of Uoan........................................................... 177

1. Loans to sons in power..................................................... 177

(a) The senatus consultum Macedonianum and its

policy............................................................................................. 177

(b) The application of the senatus consultum by the

Roman jurists................................................................................. 179

2. Loans to merchants involved in overseas trade..................... 181

(a) Pecunia traiecticia as a form of marine insurance 181

(h) Greek custom and Roman practice.............................. 183

3. Loans to professional sportsmen....................................... 186

Chapter 7 — COMMODATUM, DEPOSITUM, PIGNUS

I. Commodatum........................................................................ 188

1. Commodatum and mutuum.............................................. 188

2. History and gratuitous nature of commodatum..................... 189

3. Gratis habitare................................................................. 191

4. The liability of the borrower........................................... 192

(a) The diligentissimus paterfamilias............................... 192

(b) The nature of custodia liability................................. 193

maior............................................................................................ 195

(d) The principle of utility............................................... 198

(e) The actio furti of the borrower................................... 200

5. The actio commodati contraria........................................ 200

(a) Commodatum as imperfectly bilateral contract 200

(b) Reimbursement of expenses...................................... 201

6. Loan for use today........................................................... 203

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IL Depositum................................................................................. 205

1. The nature of depositum; depositum miserabile............ 205

2. The liability of the depositary............................................. 208

(a} Dolus, culpa lata (and exceptions)......................................... 208

(b) Diligentia quam in suis............................................... 210

3. The gratuitous nature of depositum................................... 213

4. "Deposit" of immovables?.................................................. 214

5. The depositum irregulare................................................. 215

(a) The problem of the deposit of money........................... 215

(b) Depositum and mutuum.............................................. 216

6. Conventional sequestration................................................ 219

III. Pignus...................................................................................... 220

1. The nature of pignus.......................................................... 220

2. The actio pigneraticia......................................................... 221

(a} The formula in factum concepta............................................ 221

(b) The formula in ius concepta......................................... 222

3. The consequences of non-redemption of the pledge 223

4. The liability of the pledgee................................................. 225

5. The actio pigneraticia contraria........................................... 227

Chapter 8 — EMPTIO VENDITIO I

I. The Binding Nature of Consensual Sale.................................. 230

1. Consensus......................................................................... 230

2. The question of arrha......................................................... 230

(a} Arrha confirmatoria.............................................................. 230

(b) Greek arrha................................................................ 231

(d) Argumentum emptionis contractae or arrha

poenitentialis ?........................................................... 233

3. The essentialia negotii....................................................... 234

IL The Possible Objects of a Contract of Sale................................ 234

1. Demarcating the areas of emptio venditio and locatio

conductio................................................................................... 234

2. Generic sales..................................................................... 236

(a) The Roman rule and its origin................................... 236

(b) Generic sale and sale of specific goods........................ 238

3. The sale of non-existing objects....................................... 240

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4. The sale of res extra commercium or of a free man.. 241

(a) Res publicae, res divini iuris and the liber homo 241

(b) The availability of the actio empti............................... 241

5. Emptio rei speratae and emptio spei................................... 245

(a) Emptio rei speratae.................................................... 245

(b) Emptio spei and its viability....................................... 246

III. The Purchase Price.................................................................. 250

1. Did the purchase price have to consist in money?... 250

(a) The Sabinian view..................................................... 250

(b) The Proculian view.................................................... 251

2. Pretium verum.................................................................. 252

3. Pretium certum.................................................................. 253

(a) Borderline cases........................................................ 253

(b) Determination of the price at a later stage........... 254

4. Pretium iustum.................................................................. 255

(a) The Roman attitude.................................................... 255

(b) Invicem se circumscribere.......................................... 256

5. Laesio enormis and equality in exchange............................ 259

(a) C. 4, 44,2.................................................................. 259

(b) Extension of C 4, 44, 2............................................... 262

(d) The problem of establishing the iustum pretium 264

(e) The abolition of laesio enormis................................... 267

(f) Equality in exchange today......................................... 268

Chapter 9 — EMPTIO VENDITIO II

I. The Passing of Ownership....................................................... 271

1. The relationship between contract of sale and transfer

of ownership.............................................................................. 271

2. The payment of the purchase price..................................... 272

(a) hist. 11, 1,41.............................................................. 272

(b) Pre-classical, classical and post-classical law......... 274

II. The Duties of the Parties......................................................... 277

1. The duties of the purchaser................................................ 277

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2. The duties of the vendor.................................................... 278

(a) Uti frui habere possidereque licerc.............................. 278

(b) Transfer of ownership?............................................... 278

(d) The liability of the vendor.......................................... 280

III. The Passing of the Risk......................................................... 281

1. Periculum est emptoris...................................................... 281

2. The position in classical law.............................................. 282

3. The ambit of the rule......................................................... 283

4. Excursus: the sale of wine................................................. 284

5. The concept of periculum.................................................. 287

6. Afr. D. 19, 2, 33 et al.: evidence against periculum

emptoris?.................................................................................. 288

7. Evaluation of the Roman risk rule...................................... 290

8. Reception and rejection of periculum est emptoris... 291

Chapter 10 — EMPTIO VENDITIO III

I. Liability for Eviction.............................................................. 293

1. Warranty of peaceable possession...................................... 293

2. Liability under the actio auctontatis.................................... 294

3. Liability under a stipulatio duplae...................................... 295

4. Liability under the actio empti............................................ 296

(a) "Emptorem duplam promitti a venditore

oportet"..................................................................... 296

(b) Liability for the "positive interest"........................... 298

5. The position under Justinian.............................................. 300

6. The determination of quod interest..................................... 301

7. Roman-Dutch and modern German law.............................. 302

II. Liability for Latent Defects............................................... 305

1. Introduction...................................................................... 305

(a) The remedies: Roman tradition and natural law. 305

(b) The implied conditions of the Sale of Goods Act 306

2. Early remedies.................................................................. 308

3. Liability for dolus and dicta in venditione........................... 308

4. Liability arising from specific promissa.............................. 310

5. The aedilitian remedies...................................................... 311

(a) The sale of slaves......................................... 311

(h) Morbus and vitiurn....................................... 311

(d) Dicta promissave.......................................... 315

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(f) The actio redhibitoria.................................................. 317

(g) The actio quanti minoris; the sale "sub corona" 318

(h) The sale of iumenta.................................................... 318

6. Extended liability under the actio empti.............................. 319

(a) Pomp. D. 19, 1, 6, 4 and other texts............................ 320

(b) Reception of the aedilitian principles into the ius

civile............................................................................................... 321

7. Actio empti and aedilitian remedies in the ius

commune.................................................................................. 322

(a) "Miretur vero aliquis, cur Aediles introduxerunt

actiones.".................................................................................. 322

(b) Merging the remedies.............................................. 323

(d) Excursus: Special rules relating to the sale of

cattle............................................................................................... 326

(f) The system of remedies in Roman-Dutch law.. 328

(g) Phamc v. Paizes......................................................... 329

8. Mortuus redhibetur............................................................ 330

(a) The problem of the impossibility of restoration 330

(b) The fiction of "mortuus redhibetur" and prob

lems arising therefrom...................................................................... 331

9. Once again: "Si vas" (Pomp. D. 19, 1, 6, 4).................. 334

(a) The development of the "Pothier" rule......................... 334

(b) The English Sale o/Goods Act..................................... 336

Chapter 11 — LOCATIO CONDUCTIO I

I. Locatio Conductio in General................................................. 338

1. Locare and conducere........................................................ 338

2. Three in one...................................................................... 339

3. Historical development...................................................... 340

II. The Social and Economic Framework of Lease........................ 342

1. The quest for security of tenure.......................................... 342

2. Living conditions in Rome................................................. 344

3. Some typical problems...................................................... 347

4. The Roman lawyers and the law of lease............................ 348

5. Legal rules and extra-legal restrictions................................ 350

III. Locatio Conductio Rei............................................................ 351

1. The nature of lease............................................................ 351

2. The objects of lease........................................................... 351

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3. Merces locationis............................................................. 353

(a} Merces vera et certa............................................................. 353

(b) Pecunia numerata?.................................................... 354

4. Leases for a fixed term..................................................... 355

(a} Lustrum; ius repellendi and ius migrandi................................ 355

(b} Relocatio tacita.................................................................... 356

5. Leases for an indefinite period.......................................... 357

6. Leases in perpetuity.......................................................... 358

7. The duties of the locator................................................... 360

8. The range of the lessor's liability....................................... 360

(a} Prevention of frui licere........................................................ 360

(b) Choosing unsuitable slaves........................................ 361

(d) Publicatio................................................................. 363

(e) Leaky vats and toxic plants....................................... 365

(f) From Ulp. D. 19, 2, 19, 1 to § 583 BGB...................... 367

9. The problem of risk.......................................................... 369

(a) Periculum locatoris.................................................... 369

(b) Remissio mercedis.................................................... 371

10. The duties of the conductor............................................... 374

(a) Payment of rent, cultivation; the standard of care 374

(b) Vicarious liability?.................................................... 376

11. The position of the lessee................................................. 377

(a) His protection against the lessor................................. 377

(b) Alienation of the leased property by the lessor.. 378

(d) D. 43, 16, 12 in fine.................................................. 380

(e) Huur gaat voor koop.................................................. 381

12. Towards security of tenure................................................ 382

Chapter 12 — LOCATIO CONDUCTIO 11

I. Locatio Conductio Operarum................................................ 384

1. Essential elements of Roman "labour law"......................... 384

(a) Locare conducere...................................................... 384

(b) Essentialia negotii; periculum conductors.................... 384

2. The range of application of locatio conductio oper

arum........................................................................................ 387

(a) Status relationships................................................... 387

(b) Trie artes liberales..................................................... 388

(d) Common law (ius civile) and employment rela

tionships......................................................................................... 391

(e) The contribution of Roman law.................................. 392

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II. Locatio Conductio Operis....................................................... 393

1. Essential characteristics and range of application......... 393

2. Problems of classification................................................... 394

3. Range of liability of the conductor...................................... 397

(a) Impcntia and custodia................................................ 397

(h) Gai. D. 19, 2, 25, 7 and the problem of vicarious liability 399

4. The problem of risk allocation.......................................... 401

(a) Periculum conductoris................................................ 401

(b) Equitable distribution of the risks................................ 402

5. Adprobatio operis............................................................. 404

6. Lex Rhodia de iactu......................................................... 406

(a) The reception of the lex Rhodia into Roman law 406

(b) Subsequent history of the lex Rhodia........................... 409

Chapter 13 — MANDATUM

1. The essential characteristics of mandatum........................... 413

2. The gratuitousness of mandatum......................................... 415

(a) Officium et amicitia.................................................... 415

(b) Pay merit of an honorarium......................................... 415

(d) Receipt of a salarium.................................................. 416

(e) Mandatum nisi gratuitum nullum: the ius com

mune...................................................................... 418

3. The range of application of mandatum.............................. 420

(a) Factual and contractual activities of the manda-

tarius............................................................................................... 420

(b) Illegal and immoral mandates; the mandatum tua

tantum gratia.................................................................................... 421

involved........................................................................................... 422

4. Mandatum morte solvitur................................................... 424

5. The liability of the mandatarius........................................ 426

(a) Dolus or dolus and culpa?........................................... 426

(b) Terminological problems............................................ 427

(d) Mandatum: between suretyship and procuratio. 428

(e) Spondet diligentiam et industriam negotio ger

endo parem...................................................................................... 429

6. The liability of the mandator............................................ 430

(a) Utility considerations.................................................. 430

(b) Casus a nullo praestantur............................................ 430

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Chapter 14 — NEGOTIORUM GESTIO

1. Negotiorum gestio and mandatum..................................... 433

(a) Similarities................................................................ 433

(b) Difference................................................................. 433

2. The value basis of negotiorum gestio............................... 435

3. The history of negotiorum gestio in Roman law.... 436

4. The range of application of negotiorum gestio................... 438

5. Requirements of the actio negotiorum gestorum.... 440

(a) 'Taking care" of a "negotium" "for another".. 440

(b) Animus negotia aliena gerendi?.................................. 441

6. The actio negotiorum gestorum contraria............................ 443

(a) Its importance today.................................................. 443

(h) Remuneration of services rendered?........................... 444

7. The standard of liability of the gestor................................. 445

(a) The position ot the gestor........................................... 445

(b) Pomp. D. 3, 5, 10 and Ulp. D. 3, 5, 3, 9..................... 446

8. Negotiorum gestio in modern law...................................... 447

(a) Evaluation of negotiorum gestio in German law 447

(b) The individualistic approach of the common law 448

Chapter 15 — SOCIETAS

I. Roman Law........................................................................ 451

1. The nature of societas..................................................... 451

2. Evolution of the contract of societas.................................. 451

(a) Erctum non citum...................................................... 451

(b) Pre-classical consortium and classical societas... 452

3. Basic features of classical societas.................................... 454

4. Termination of the societas................................................ 455

(a) Renuntiatio, mors socii, insolvency............................ 455

(b) The bringing of an actio pro socio.............................. 457

5. Freedom of contract and its limitation................................ 457

(a) The allocation of shares in profits and losses.... 457

(b) The societas leonina.................................................. 459

6. The actio pro socio........................................................... 460

7. Liability between the partners............................................ 461

(a) The problem of contribution....................................... 461

(b) Dolus liability........................................................... 462

culpa........................................................................ 462

(d) Custodia and imperitia............................................... 464

8. Creation and partition of joint ownership........................... 465

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II. Justinian, Ins Commune and Modern

Developments........................................................................... 466

1. Liability between socii....................................................... 466

2. The societas and third parties............................................. 467

(a) Socii venaliciani, actiones adiecticiac qualitatis

and societates publicanorum............................................................. 467

(b) Societas and agency................................................... 468

3. The actio pro socio............................................................ 470

4. The "community of collective hand"................................... 471

5. South African law of partnership........................................ 472

(a) Sources...................................................................... 472

(b) General features......................................................... 474

Chapter 16 — DONATIO

1. Introduction....................................................................... 477

(a) Promises of gifts and executed gifts............................. 477

(b) Reasons for policing the transfer of gratuitous

benefits............................................................................................ 477

2. The concept of donation in classical Roman law.......... 479

(a) Donatio and the contractual scheme............................ 479

(b) The executed gift........................................................ 480

3. The lex Cincia de muneribus.............................................. 482

(a) Purpose and background of the enactment............ 482

(b) The application of the lex Cincia................................. 483

4. The prohibition of donationes inter virum et uxorem 484

(a) Origin and purpose of the prohibition.......................... 484

(b) Purity of marriage....................................................... 487

5. The law of donation under Constantine............................... 490

(a) Promotion of acts of generosity................................... 490

(b) Formalities................................................................. 492

6. Justinian and the law of donations...................................... 494

(a) Donation as a binding contract.................................... 494

(b) Enter the cheerful giver............................................... 496

7. Donation under the ius commune and in modern law 498

(a) The concept of donation; insinuatio actis.............. 498

(b) Restrictive policies in France...................................... 500

(d) Absence of agreed-upon recompense........................... 503

(e) English law: the doctrine o{ consideration............ 504

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Chapter 17 — PACTA AND INNOMINATE REAL CONTRACTS

I. Pacta in General..................................................................... 508

1. Nuda pactio obligationem non parit................................... 508

2. Pacta ex continent! adiecta................................................ 509

II. Pacta Praetoria....................................................................... 511

1. Constitutum debiti............................................................ 511

(a) The actio de pecunia constituta................................... 511

(b) Constitutum debiti alieni........................................ 512

2. Receptum arbitri............................................................ 513

3. Receptum argentarii....................................................... 514

4. Receptum nautarum cauponum stabulariorum........... 514

(a) Actio dc rcccpto; custodia liability........................... 514

(b) The reasons for the actio de recepto............................ 515

(d) Actio de recepto and actio locati.............................. 517

(e) From accidentale to naturale negotii......................... 519

(f) The receptum in modern law...................................... 520

(g) Range of application.................................................. 521

(h) The liability of common carriers................................ 523

(i) Range of liability under the ius commune............ 524

III. Pacta Legitima: Compromissum as Example.................. 526

1. Classical and post-classical compromissum....................... 526

2. The compromissum of the ius commune............................ 528

3. Arbiter, arbitrator and amicabilis compositor............... 528

IV. Combined Transactions: Hire-purchase in Roman

Law.......................................................................................... 530

V. Innominate Real Contracts.................................................... 532

1. Permutatio and the rise of actiones praescriptis verbis 532

2. Range of transactions........................................................ 534

3. Aestimatum...................................................................... 535

4. Innominate contracts and the contractual scheme-------- 536

VI. Towards a General Law of Contract Based on

Consent.................................................................................... 537

1. Contract and pacta in the Corpus Juris Civilis.............. 537

2. Pacta vestita and pacta nuda.............................................. 538

3. The contribution of (commercial) practice........................ 540

4. The contribution of the canon lawyers............................. 542

5. The position of the natural lawyers; summary............ 544

Chapter 18 — FORMATION OF CONTRACT

I. The Roman Contract of Stipulation under the lus

Commune................................................................................ S46

1. From contract verbis to contract litteris............................... 546

2. Ex nudo pacto oritur actio and the form of stipulation 547

IL The Doctrine of Causa............................................................ 549

1. Ex nudo pacto oritur actio and the notion of causa.. 549

2. Causa in Roman law......................................................... 549

3. The scholastic doctrine of causation................................... 551

4. Causa as an extra piece of "garment"................................. 551

5. The decline of causa.......................................................... 553

6. Causa and consideration in English law.............................. 554

7. Causa and consideration in South African law..................... 556

(a} The reception of the consideration doctrine............... 556

(b) lusta causa and Grotius' notion of "redcheke oorzaecke".............. 557

III. Consensus.............................................................................. 559

1. Consent as the basis of contract in modern law.................... 559

2. The Roman contribution.................................................... 561

(a} Conceptual analysis in general................................... 561

(b) Contractus................................................................. 562

(d) Conventio.................................................................. 563

(e) Consensus................................................................. 563

3. Conventio, pactum and contractus under the ius

commune.................................................................................. 565

4. Domat and Pothier............................................................. 566

5. Grotius, Pufendorf and Wolff............................................. 567

6. Formation of contract in English law.................................. 569

(a) England and continental legal science......................... 569

(b) The analysis of contract.............................................. 571

7. Contract and polhcitatio..................................................... 572

(a) From promise to contract............................................ 572

(b) The smoke ball case................................................... 573

(d) Pollicitatio and contractual liability............................. 575

IV. Pacta Sunt Servanda.............................................................. 576

1. Pacta sunt servanda and classical contract doctrine... 576

2. The right of unilateral withdrawal from a contract.. 578

3. Clausula rebus sic stantibus............................................... 579

(a) Origin and development of the clausula........................ 579

(b) The clausula from the 17th century to today_________ 581

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Chapter 19 — ERROR

1. Error and contractual theory............................................... 583

(a) Cotton ex Peerless..................................................... 583

(b) Discrepancy between intention and declaration.. 584

engendered................................................................ 584

(d) Will theory and declaration theory.......................... 585

2. Basic types of error in Roman law..................................... 587

(a) Verba and voluntas.................................................... 587

(b) Determination of the object of performance.... 588

(d) Error in pretio......................................................... 590

(e) Error in negotio....................................................... 591

(f) Error in persona...................................................... 592

3. The problem of error in substantia..................................... 592

(a) Ulp. D. 18, 1, 9, 2.......................................... 592

(b) Error relating to quality................................... 593

(d) Further borderline cases............................................. 595

4. Common mistake.............................................................. 596

5. Error in motive and error in nomine.................................... 597

6. Common error in nomine................................................... 598

7. Will-orientation, mistake and the formal transactions 598

(a) Testaments..................................................... 598

(b) Stipulations.................................................... 599

8. Error and the protection of the promisee............................. 600

(a) Modern approaches: English law and German law 600

(b) The position in Roman law............................. 602

9. luris ignorantia nocet, facti ignorantia non nocet.... 604

(a) Error iuris nocet: the position in Roman law... 604

(b) Error vincibilis and invincibilis (ius commune).. 606

10. The development of the modern error doctrine.................... 609

(a) Usus modernus pandectarum........................... 609

(b) Error in persona.............................................. 611

(d) Error in Savigny's System and under the BGB.. 614

(e) Error in substantia.......................................... 616

(f) Developments in French and English law..................... 618

Chapter 20 — INTERPRETATION OF CONTRACTS

I. French Francs and Belgian Francs (Introduction).... 621

II. Roman Law............................................................................ 622

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1. From verba to voluntas....................................................... 622

(a} Pre-classical Roman law............................................. 622

(b) Post-classical jurisprudence........................................ 624

2. The position in classical Roman law................................ 625

(a) Verba or voluntas?...................................................... 625

(b) Flexibility.................................................................. 626

(A) The causa Curiana: jurists and orators................................... 630

(e) The "individualizing" approach................................... 632

(f) Id quod actum est....................................................... 633

(g) Excursus: the animus novandi..................................... 634

III. Post-reception Developments.................................................. 635

1. The older ius commune...................................................... 635

2. True intention and justifiable reliance................................. 636

3. Rules of interpretation: in general....................................... 637

4. Rules of interpretation: the contra proferentem rule. 639

(a) Interpretatio contra eum qui clarius loqui

debuisset.......................................................................................... 639

(b) The contra proferentem rule in medieval and in

modern law...................................................................................... 640

IV. Special Problem Situations................................................... 643

1. §§ 116, 117, 118, 122 BGB....................................... 643

2. Lack of seriousness............................................................ 644

3. Reservatio mentalis............................................................ 644

(a) Roman law................................................................. 644

(b) Pandectists and canon lawyers................................... 644

4. Simulatio........................................................................... 646

(a) Roman law................................................................ 646

(b) Ius commune; simulatio and fraus legis........................ 648

Chapter 21 — METUS AND DOLUS

I. Metus...................................................................................... 651

1. Historical background........................................................ 651

2. Coactus volui, tamen volui................................................. 652

3. "Quod metus causa gestum erit, ratum non habeo" 653

4. The meaning of metus causa.............................................. 654

5. The remedies..................................................................... 654

(a) The actio quod metus causa........................................ 654

(b) In integrum restitutio?................................................. 656

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6. The position under the ins commune.................................. 658

(a} The relief for metus and its limits.......................................... 658

(b) Effect of metus on the contract................................... 660

II. Dolus...................................................................................... 662

1. The remedies for dolus and metus compared........................ 662

2. The concept of dolus......................................................... 664

(a) Aliud simulare, aliud agere......................................... 664

(b) Lab. D. 4, 3, 1, 2....................................................... 665

(d) Bona fides and dolus.................................................. 667

(e) Dolus and dolus malus............................................... 668

(f) Dolus and sollertia.................................................... 669

3. Dolus causam dans and dolus incidens............................... 670

(a) The medieval distinction............................................ 670

(b) Usus modernus and pandectists.................................. 671

CHAPTER 22 — INVALIDITY AND REASONS FOR INVALIDITY

I. Invalidity................................................................................ ?7g

1. Terminological and conceptual problems............................ 678

(a) The black cat which was not there......................... 678

(b) "Invalidity" according to the ius civile.................... 679

(d) Classical and justinianic law...................................... 680

(e) Pandectist doctrine..................................................... 681

2. Convalescence; partial invalidity........................................ 682

3. Conversion....................................................................... 683

(a) Traductio unius negotii in alterum (ius com

mune)...................................................................... 683

(b) Conversion in Roman law?........................................ 684

IL Initial Impossibility................................................................... 686

1. Impossibilium nulla obligatio est........................................ 686

2. The concept of impossibility.............................................. 687

3. Initial impossibility of stipulations...................................... 689

4. Initial impossibility and contracts of sale............................ 690

5. Impossibilium nulla obligatio est under the (earlier)

ius commune............................................................................. 691

6. The approach of the natural lawyers................................... 692

Page

1. Pandectist doctrine........................................................... 693

8. Recovery of damages....................................................... 694

9. §§ 306 sq. BGB: evaluation.............................................. 695

III. Illegality................................................................................ 697

1. The possible effects of illegality........................................ 697

(a) Subdivision of statutes according to their sanctio 697

(b) Leges minus quam perfectae..................................... 698

(d) Leges perfectae........................................................ 700

(e) The lex Non dubium and § 134 BGB......................... 701

2. Transactions in fraudem legis........................................... 702

(a) In fraudem legis agerc............................................... 702

(b) Republican jurisprudence.......................................... 703

IV. Immorality............................................................................ 706

1. Freedom of contract and extra-legal standards.............. 706

2. References to the boni mores in classical law.................... 707

3. Conditions contra bonos mores and late classical

jurisprudence............................................................................ 709

4. The effects of immorality.................................................. 710

5. The content of the boni mores........................................... 711

6. The boni mores and the ius commune............................... 712

7. Reference to the boni mores in modern law....................... 713

Chapter 23 — CONDICIO AND DIES

I. Introduction........................................................................... 716

1. The dynamic nature of Western contract law................ 716

2. Conditions in general....................................................... 717

II. Condicio Suspensiva.............................................................. 718

1. The nature of suspensive conditions.................................. 718

2. Impossible, illegal and immoral conditions........................ 719

3. Casus perplexus............................................................... 721

4. Condiciones casuales and potestativae.............................. 722

5. Positive and negative conditions....................................... 722

6. Condicio pendet............................................................... 723

(a) "Non est pro eo, quasi sit"........................................ 724

(b) The spes debituni in.................................................. 725

7. The effect of satisfaction of the condition.......................... 726

(a) Operation ex nunc.................................................... 726

(b) Retroactive effect..................................................... 726

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8. Interpretation of conditions............................................... 728

(a) General considerations.............................................. 728

(b) Interpretatio in favorem libertatis............................... 729

III. Resolutive Conditions........................................................... 731

1. The construction of resolutive conditions........................ 731

2. The admissibility of resolutive conditions....................... 732

3. The effects of resolutive conditions................................. 733

IV. Provisions for Calling Off a Sale........................................ 735

1. In diem addictio............................................................... 735

(a) Functions................................................................. 735

(b) Construction............................................................. 736

2. Lex commissoria........................................................... 737

3. Pactum displicentiae........................................................ 739

(a) Function................................................................... 739

(b) Construction............................................................. 740

V. Dies....................................................................................... 741

1. Dies certus and dies incertus quando................................. 741

2. Dies ad quern.................................................................. 741

3. Dies a quo....................................................................... 742

4. Navis ex Asia.................................................................. 742

VI. Usus Hodiernus.................................................................... 743

Chapter 24 — TERMINATION OF OBLIGATIONS

I. Solutio................................................................................... 748

1. Praestatio eius quod debetur.............................................. 748

2. Unum debitum ex pluribus causis..................................... 750

3. Time and place of performance........................................ 750

4. Performance rendered by third parties/to third parties 752

5. Datio in solutum.............................................................. 753

II. Release.................................................................................. 754

1. Solutio per aes et libram and acceptilatio as actus

contrarii................................................................................... 754

2. The rise of informal solutio............................................... 755

3. Formal release by way of solutio per aes et libram and

acceptilatio............................................................................... 756

4. Excursus: the stipulatio Aquiliana..................................... 757

5. Informal release............................................................... 757

III. Other Forms of "Solutio Impropria".................................... 753

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IV. Compensatio.......................................................................... 760

1. Set-off in modern law........................................................ 760

2. The procedural framework for set-off in Roman law 761

(a} Indicia bonae fidei................................................................ 761

(b) Actiones stricti iuris................................................... 762

emptor....................................................................... 764

3. Towards a generalized form of set-off................................ 765

(a) Assimilation.............................................................. 765

(b) Set-off in the Corpus Juris Civilis............................... 767

V. Extinctive Prescription........................................................... 767

VI. Excursus: The Problem of Specific Performance.... 770

1. Condemnation or absolution.............................................. 770

2. Omnis condemnatio pecuniaria.......................................... 771

3. Condemnatio pecuniaria and specific performance

under Justinian.......................................................................... 772

4. The distinctions of the ius commune.................................. 773

5. Roman-Dutch law; modern German law.......................... 774

6. Specific performance in English law................................... 776

(a) The concept of contract............................................. 776

(b) The rise of assumpsit................................................. 777

(d) The position today..................................................... 780

7. Specific performance in South African law......................... 781

Chapter 25 — BREACH OF CONTRACT

I. Breach of Contract in General............................................... 783

1. Introduction...................................................................... 783

2. Certam rem dare obligations.............................................. 783

(a) Supervening impossibility.......................................... 783

(b) Perpetuatio obligations............................................... 784

(d) Mora debitoris........................................................... 787

(e) Deterioration of the object promised............................ 787

3. Other types of obligations stricti iuris................................. 787

4. Actions with a formula incerta........................................... 788

II. Mora Debitoris....................................................................... 790

1. Consequences of mora debitoris in Roman law............ 790

2. Requirements of mora debitoris in Roman law............. 791

(a) In general.................................................................. 791

(b) Mora ex persona........................................................ 791

Page

3. Requirements of mora debitoris (ius commune)............ 793

(a} The role of culpa.................................................................. 793

(b) Impossibility and difficultas praestationis.............. 794

(d) Interpellatio and litis contestatio................................. 796

4. Consequences of mora debitoris (ius commune)........... 799

III. Rescission as a Remedy for Breach of Contract.............. 800

1. The "iron" rule of Roman law and the notion of an

implied lex commissoria............................................................ 800

2. The notion of an implied condition (natural law).... 803

3. Condition and warranty in English law............................... 803

4. Condition, lex commissoria and rescission in South

African law............................................................................... 804

IV. Impossibility of Performance and Breach of

Contract................................................................................. 806

1. Breach of contract in Roman law....................................... 806

2. Breach of contract under the ius commune......................... 807

3. The notion of impossibility under the ius commune 809

4. Friedrich Mommsen's impossibility doctrine................ 809

5. Supervening impossibility in modern German law... 810

6. Breach of contract in German law...................................... 813

7. Breach of contract in English law...................................... 814

V. Mora Creditoris.................................................................... 817

1. Mora creditoris, mora debitoris and breach of

contract..................................................................................... 817

2. Mora creditoris in modern German law.............................. 818

3. Requirements of mor a creditoris in Roman law........... 819

4. Consequences of mora creditoris in Roman law........... 820

(a) Alleviation of liability................................................ 820

(b) Obsignatio and depositio............................................ 821

(d) Purgatio morac.......................................................... 823

VI. Quod Interest, Damages and Breach of Contract.... 824

1. Restoration, damages and "Diffemiztheorie"...................... 824

2. Omnis condemnatio pecuniaria.......................................... 825

3. Id quod interest................................................................. 826

4. The Lex Sancimus (C. 7, 47, 1)....................................... 828

5. Foreseeability and contemplation test................................. 829

(a} Molinaeus, Pothier and the code civil.................................... 829

(b) Hadley v. Baxendale............................................................. 830

Page

6. Interessc circa rem and extra rem....................................... 830

7. "Mare amplissimum, in quo pauci sine penculo

navigarunt"............................................................................... 833

CHAPTER 26 — UNJUSTIFIED ENRICHMENT

I. Condictio................................................................................. 834

1. Indebitum solutum............................................................. 834

2. "Si paret... dare oportere"................................................ 835

3. Indebitum solutum and unjustified enrichment............. 837

IL The Condictiones in Roman Law............................................ 838

1. The typology of condictiones: classical or post-

classical?.................................................................................. 838

2. Condictio ex causa furtiva.................................................. 839

3. Enrichment by transfer....................................................... 841

(a} Transfer solvendi causa.............................................. 841

(b) Executed transactions................................................. 842

(d) Datio ob rem.............................................................. 842

4. Condictio causa data causa non secuta.............................. 843

5. Condictio ob turpem (vel iniustam) causam........................ 844

(a) Turpitudo accipientis dumtaxat.................................... 844

(b) Turpitudo utriusque..................................................... 846

6. Condictio indebiti.............................................................. 848

(a) Indebitum solutum...................................................... 848

(b) Solutio per errorem..................................................... 849

7. Miscellaneous cases.......................................................... 851

(a) Pomponius' enrichment principle................................. 851

(b) Retinere sine causa.................................................... 854

liberationis....................................................................................... 855

(d) Condictio sine causa................................................... 856

III. The Subsequent Fate of the Condictiones............................... 857

1. Condictio causa data causa non secuta............................... 857

(a) Ius poenitentiae.......................................................... 857

(b) Condictio ratione cessationis causae............................ 858

(d) "Hodie [haecl condictio rara est"................................. 860

2. Condictio ob turpem vel iniustam causam........................... 862

3. In pari turpitudine causa est melior possidentis............ 863

(a) Extension of the rule in modern German law... 863

(b) "Sinister" and "disastrous" results............................... 864

courts.............................................................................................. 865

Page

4. Condictio indebiti.............................................................. 866

(a} Function and range of application.......................................... 866

(b) The error requirement: sententia Papiniani..................... 868

(A) Ignorantia vincibilis and invincibilis...................................... 869

5. Condictio sine causa.......................................................... 871

(a) Condictio sine causa specialis..................................... 871

(b) Condictio sine causa generalis..................................... 872

IV. Enrichment Liability Outside the Condictiones....................... 873

1. Aequitas naturalis and the lex Si et me et Titium.... 873

2. The actio negotiorum gestorum (contraria) as enrich

ment action................................................................................ 875

(a) Mala fide administration of another's affairs.... 875

(b) Afr. D. 3, 5, 48.......................................................... 877

3. The actio de in rem verso................................................... 878

(a) The Roman actio de in rem verso................................ 878

(b) Actio utilis de in rem verso......................................... 879

(d) Versio in rem and two-party relationships..................... 881

(e) The actio de in rem verso in the natural-law

codifications............................................................... 883

4. The general enrichment action that was............................... 885

(a) Grotius and Huber...................................................... 885

(b) South African law....................................................... 886

V. Enrichment Remedies in Modern Law................................... 887

1. German law....................................................................... 887

(a) The general enrichment action of the BGB.................. 887

(b) The Wilburg/von Caemmerer typology......................... 889

2. English law........................................................................ 891

(a) The basic options for the legal system.......................... 891

(b) Rearing the backward child......................................... 892

VI. The Measure of Enrichment Liability.................................... 895

1. The "weakness" of enrichment claims in German

law............................................................................................ 895

2. Instances of "weak" enrichment liability in Rome... 896

3. Liability of the defendant under the condictio....................... 897

4. Condictio pretii.................................................................. 898

5. The regime of the ius commune: all or nothing..................... 899

6. The change of opinion in the 19th century........................... 900

Page

CHAPTER 27 — DELICT IN GENERAL

1. Delict and crime............................................................. 902

2. Delict and contract.......................................................... 902

(a) Death of contract, death of delict?............................... 902

(b) Exclusivity of alternativity of remedies?....................... 904

3. Delict and tort................................................................ 907

4. The development of the law of torts................................. 908

(a} Trespass and the rise of "case"................................... 908

(b) The distinction between trespass and "case".... 909

(d) The ghosts of the past................................................ 911

5. Roman law and English law............................................... 913

6. The origins of delict in Roman law..................................... 914

7. Characteristics of the Roman actiones poenales.................... 915

(a) Passive intransmissibility........................................... 915

(b) Noxal liability............................................................ 916

8. Private criminal law and public criminal law........................ 917

9. The nature of the remedies available.................................. 918

(a) Actiones poenales and reipersecutoriae........................ 918

(b) Actiones mixtae......................................................... 919

10. Plan of treatment.............................................................. 921

Chapter 28 — FURTUM

I. The Roman Concept of Furtum.............................................. 922

1. The definition of D. 47, 2, 1, 3........................................... 922

2. D. 47, 2, 1, 3 and the modern German concept

compared.................................................................................. 923

3. D. 47, 2, 1, 3 and the Roman case law............................... 924

(a) Of mule drivers, peacocks, weights and spread

out togas......................................................................................... 924

(b) The nature of Roman definitions................................. 925

(d) Developments in Republican and classical Roman

law.................................................................................................. 928

4. Complicity in theft............................................................ 930

IL The Actions Arising from Theft................................................ 932

1. Actio furti nee manifest!.................................................... 932

(a) "Quanti es res fuit, duplum"...................................... 932

(b) The right to sue: ex iure dominii and custodia

liability............................................................................................ 933

neous other cases............................................................................. 935

Page

2. Actio furti manifest!.......................................................... 936

(a} The discrimination of the manifest thief.................................. 936

(b) The concept of furtum manifestum.............................. 938

3. Other remedies available in case of theft............................. 940

4. Concurrence of actions...................................................... 942

III. Furtum in the lus Commune................................................... 943

1. The demise of the actio furti............................................... 943

2. The history of the modern concept of theft.......................... 945

3. The condictio ex causa furtiva............................................ 947

IV. South African Developments.................................................. 948

1. The concept of theft in criminal law................................... 948

2. The condictio ex causa furtiva............................................ 951

Chapter 29 — LEX AQUILIA I

I. Origin and Content of the Lex Aquilia.................................... 953

1. The essential data provided in the Digest............................ 953

2. The problem ot the second chapter..................................... 954

3. Dating the lex Aquilia........................................................ 955

4. The composition of the lex Aquilia..................................... 957

5. The text of the lex Aquilia................................................. 959

II. The Assessment of the Sum of Condemnation.......................... 961

1. Chapter one....................................................................... 961

2. Chapter three..................................................................... 962

(a) Chapters one and three compared................................ 962

(b) "Erit" or "fuit" ("fuerit")?............................................ 963

(d) The original scope of chapter three.............................. 965

(e) "Is anything... exempt from doubt?".......................... 966

III. The Nature of the Actio Legis Aquiliae.................................. 969

1. The reipersecutory character of the remedy......................... 969

(a) Chapter one............................................................... 969

(b) Chapter three............................................................. 972

2. The penal character of the remedy...................................... 973

IV. The Statutory Definition of the Delict: Harmful

Result...................................................................................... 975

1. Quadrupedes pecudes........................................................ 976

2. Occidere and mortis causam praebere................................. 976

3. The meaning of occidere.................................................... 978

4. Actio directa and actio in factum........................................ 981

5. Urere frangere rumpere—corrumpere................................. 983

6. The limits of the notion of corrumpere................................ 986

Page

V. Some Additional Reflections................................................... 988

1. Causation in the Roman law of delict................................. 988

(a) "Factual" and "legal" causation................................... 988

(b) The Roman approach................................................. 991

2. The actio legis Aquiliae and analogous remedies................. 993

(a) Actio directa and actiones in factum............................ 993

(b) Actiones utiles........................................................... 994

Chapter 30 — LEX AQUILIA II

I. The Statutory Definition of the Delict: Iniuria......................... 998

1. Damnum iniuria datum...................................................... 998

(a) The notion of "non iure facere"................................... 998

(b) Self-defence............................................................... 999

(d) Actions of a magistrate............................................. 1003

2. The relationship between iniuria and culpa..................... 1004

(a) The new interpretation: damnum culpa datum.. 1004

(b) "Occidere", "urere frangere rumpere" iniuria... 1005

(d) Wrongfulness and fault............................................. 1006

3 Aquilian culpa in classical Roman law.................................. 1007

4. "Contributory negligence" in Roman law.......................... 1010

(a) The Roman all-or-nothing approach.......................... 1010

(h) Of javelin-throwers and itinerant barbers...................... 1011

II. The Protection of a Freeman's Bodily Integrity..................... 1014

1. Damage to property......................................................... 1014

2. Liberum corpus nullam recipit aestimationem.................... 1015

3. Injury to sons in power.................................................... 1015

4. The liber homo bona fide serviens.................................... 1016

III. The Usus Modernus Legis Aquiliae...................................... \()\J

1. Introduction..................................................................... 1017

2. The assessment clauses and litiscrescence........................ 1019

3. The Jjenal nature of the remedy........................................ 1019

4. Cumulative liability......................................................... 1020

5. Passive in transmissibility................................................ 1020

(a) Canonist doctrine..................................................... 1020

(b) Forum civile............................................................. 1021

Page

6. Purely patrimonial loss.................................................... 1022

(a) Roman law and Inst. IV, 3, 16 i.f.............................. 1022

(b) Damnum datum, sed non in corpus........................... 1023

7. The protection of a freeman's life and bodily integrity 1024

8. Compensation for pain, suffering and disfigurement 1026

9. Culpa.............................................................................. 1027

(a) In general................................................................ 1027

(b) Culpa in omittendo.................................................. 1029

IV. Towards the Modern, Generalized Law of Delict... 1031

1. Legal theory and mores hodiernae.................................... 1031

2. The "natural" law of delict............................................... 1032

3. Fault as the basis of delictual liability............................... 1033

(a) Thomasius............................................................... 1033

(b) Grotius, Pufendorf and others................................... 1033

4. Purely patrimonial loss.................................................... 1035

(a) The natural lawyers.................................................. 1035

(b) Germany (19th century)........................................... 1036

(d) Germany (20th century)........................................... 1040

(e) Austria and South Africa.......................................... 1042

5. Liability for omissions..................................................... 1043

(a) The priest, the levite and the Good Samaritan.. 1043

(b) Modern approach..................................................... 1045

6. Contributory negligence................................................... 1047

(a} Developments in continental Europe......................... 1047

(Z?) South African law.................................................... 1048

Chapter 31 — ACTIO INIURIARUM

I. The Early History of Iniuria................................................. 1050

1. Iniuria in the XII Tables................................................... 1050

2. The rise of the actio iniuriarum........................................ 1052

IL Classical Foundations of the Actio Iniuriarum................... 1053

1. The different forms of iniuria........................................... 1053

(a} Convicium............................................................... 1053

(Z?) De adtemptata pudicitia........................................... 1054

(d) Servum alienum verberare........................................ 1058

(e) Residual cases......................................................... 1058

Page

2. The essential elements of iniuria..................................... 1059

(a} Contumelia; contra bonos mores........................................ 1059

(b) The problem of the animus iniuriandi...................... 1059

III. The Usus Modernus of the Actio Iniuriarum................... 1062

1. "Mine honour is my life........................................... 1062

2. The definition of iniuria.................................................. 1064

3. Of hunchbacks, cuckolds, clergymen and flouncy

skirts...................................................................................... 1065

4. Animus iniuriandi.......................................................... 1067

(a} Presumption of animus iniuriandi............................ 1067

(b) Rebuttal of the presumption.................................... 1068

5. Remedies...................................................................... 1070

(a} Actio iniuriarum aestimatoria.................................. 1070

(b) Criminal proceedings.............................................. 1071

(d) The relation between amende honorable and

amende profitable......................................................................... 1073

IV. Defamation in English Law................................................ 1074

1. Technicalities beyond belief........................................... 1074

2. Libel and slander........................................................... 1074

3. Common elements......................................................... 1076

4. "Animus iniuriandi" and Artemus Jones.......................... 1077

V. South African Usus Modernus of the Actio

Iniuriarum............................................................................ 1078

1. The battle about animus iniuriandi.................................. 1078

2. Compromise solutions.................................................... 1080

3. A hybrid law of defamation............................................ 1080

4. The concept of iniuria.................................................... 1081

5. Corpus, dignitas and fama.............................................. 1083

VI. The Fate of the Actio Iniuriarum in Germany................ 1085

1. Usus modernus and natural law...................................... 1085

2. De iniquitate et iniustitia actionum iniuriarum.............. 1087

3. The shift from private law to criminal law....................... 1088

4. Criticism of the actio ad palinodiam................................ 1090

5. The decline of the actio iniuriarum aestimatoria............ 1090

6. The renaissance of the actio iniuriarum.......................... 1092

Chapter 32 — STRICT LIABILITY

I. Liability for Damage done by Animals................................ 1095

1. A special compartment................................................... 1095

Page

2. The actio de pauperic in Roman law................................ 1096

(a) The meaning of pauperics........................................ 1096

(b) The principle of noxality.......................................... 1099

(d) The "contra naturam" test........................................ 1102

3. The edictuni de feris in Roman law................................. 1104

(a) Wild animals in Rome............................................. 1104

(b) The intervention of the praetor................................. 1106

4. The actio de pastu in Roman law.................................. 1107

5. The actio de pastu in South African law........................ 1108

6. The edictuni de feris in South African law.................... 1109

7. The actio de pauperie in South African law................... 1110

(a) The nature of the remedy......................................... 1110

(b) Range of animals.................................................... 1113

(d) Contra naturam sui generis...................................... 1114

(e) The "reasonable cow" test....................................... 1115

8. Liability for damage done by animals in modern

German law............................................................................ 1116

II. Vicarious Liability............................................................... 1118

1. The principle of noxality................................................. 1118

(a) Roman law............................................................. 1118

(b) " [Njoxalium actionuni nullus est usus"..................... 1118

2. Liability for others in Roman law (apart from noxal

liability)................................................................................. 1120

(a) Within a contractual context.................................... 1120

(b) Custodia................................................................. 1121

3. Vicarious liability in South African law........................... 1123

4. The position in modern French and German law.... 1124

III. Quasi-delictual Liability...................................................... 1126

1. The fate of the Roman quasi-delicts................................ 1126

2. Delictual and quasi-delictual liability.............................. 1128

IV. New Instances of No-fault Liability................................... 1130

1. Legislation in the 19th century........................................ ИЗО

2. Strict liability in disguise................................................ 1132

3. 20th-century ad hoc legislation....................................... 1133

V. Strict Liability in English Law............................................ 1135

1. Vicarious liability........................................................... 1135

2. Liability for damage done by animals.............................. 1136

3. Rylands v. Fletcher........................................................ 1138

4. The quest for strict liability in modern law....................... 1140

VI. Origin and Application of Art. 1384 Code Civil.................... 1141

Page Index of Main Sources

1. Roman Legal Sources....................................................... 1143

(a) Justinianic................................................................ 1143

(b) Non-Justinianic......................................................... 1179

2. Ancient Non-Legal Sources.............................................. 1184

3. Corpus Juris Canonici...................................................... 1187

4. Continental Codifications................................................. 1187

(a) Constitutio Criminalis Carolina.................................. 1187

(b) Preussisches Allgemeines Landrecht........................... 1188

(d) Allgemeines Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch........................ 1190

(e) Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch........................................... 1191

5. Table of Cases................................................................. 1196

(a) United Kingdom, United States and Common

wealth..................................................................... 1196

(b) South Africa............................................................. 1199

Subject Index.................................................................................. 1207

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Source: Zimmermann R.. The Law of Obligations. Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition. Juta & Co, Ltd,1992. — 1241 p.. 1992

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