Evaluation

The first half of the chapter is dominated by clementia and humanitas, with Gellius’ debate in a useful supporting role. Pliny’s Trajan is of interest as an essay in theoretical humanitas, though not entirely in touch with the real world. The second half opens up new aspects: (i) clementia as a prime virtue of the emperor; (ii) its systematisation by Seneca; (iii) its preoccupation with the integrity of the human form from Domitian to Pius; (iv) its redefinition by Ulpian and Alexander. In the third of these aspects Rome outdoes the modern world.⁹³ The fourth helps to explain the absence of humanitas from Alexander’s biography.