Notes

1 Acknowledgements: The work on this paper was supported by the National Science Centre in Poland (Narodowe Centrum Nauki; 2014/13/B/HS2/00644) and the eROThA project. On diglossia see, for example, T.W.

2 For example, M.T. Clanchy notices that people in England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had a choice between English, French and Latin, but �[no] one language could serve all the diverse purposes required because their struggle for dominance was still undecided’, in From Memory to Written Record. England 1066–1307, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979, p. 154.

3 The inclusion of the Polish material in a volume on northern European legal cultures is justified – Polish towns were typically founded on Magdeburg law, which had resonance across Northern and Central Europe, while the towns along the Baltic coast, including Polish towns, were often granted Lübeck law (I am grateful to Edda Frankot for this observation).

4 Linguistic Atlas of Older Scots (LAOS) 2008. Phase 1: 1380–1500, ed. K. Williamson, University of Edinburgh, (accessed 25 April 2019).

5 See the project’s website: Electronic Repository of Greater Poland Oaths (accessed 26 April 2019) and J. Kopaczyk, M. Włodarczyk and E. Adamczyk, â€?Medieval multilingualism in Poland: Creating a corpus of Greater Poland Court Oaths (Rotha)’, Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 51(3), 2016, pp. 9–35. The project’s short title, eROThA, is based on rota, the Polish word for â€?an oath’, which in the Latin parts of the record and in the transitions between Latin and Polish often appears as rot(h)a (or in various abbreviated forms, see M. Włodarczyk and E. Adamczyk, â€?Metalinguistic and visual cues to the co-occurrence of Latin and Old Polish in the Electronic Repository of Greater Poland Oaths, 1386–1446 (eROThA)’, in preparation).

6 For the most comprehensive treatments of the history of Scots to date, see C. Macafee and A.J. Aitken, �A history of Scots to 1700’, in A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue, vol. XII, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. xxix–clvii. Online, as well as C. Jones (ed.) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997.

7 To my knowledge, there is no single-volume history of Polish available in English. There are several publications in German; see W. Kuraszkiewicz, Historische Grammatik der Polnischen Sprache, Munich: Otto Sagner, 1972, and J. Mazur, Geschichte der Polnischen Sprache, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1993. For a detailed account of the history of the language and linguistic developments in Polish, see K. Długosz-Kurczabowa and S. Dubisz, Gramatyka historyczna jÄ™zyka polskiego [A Historical Grammar of Polish], 2nd edn, Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2001.

8 R. Jakobson, �Linguistics in relation to other sciences’, in R. Jakobson, On Language (eds. Linda R. Waugh and Monique Monville-Burston), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, [1970] 1990, pp. 451–88, at p. 455.

9 E. Haugen, �Bilingualism, language contact and immigrant languages in the United States: A research report. 1956–70’, in T. Sebeok (ed.) Current Trends in Linguistics, vol. 10, The Hague: Mouton, 1973, pp. 505–91, at p. 521.

10 A similar idea for spoken code-switching as an �alloy of two or more speech varieties’ was put forward by C. Alvarez-Cáccamo in �From “switching code” to “code-switching”: Towards a reconceptualisation of communicative codes’, in P. Auer (ed.) Code-Switching in Conversation. Language, Interaction and Identity, London/New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 29–48, at p. 39, emphasis original. He noticed that in a communicative situation which draws on multiple linguistic resources �[e]ach utterance, turn or entire discourse [...] produces a compound communicative effect and it may be effectively interpreted by participants as a coherent whole on the basis of a coherent code’ (ibid., pp. 39–40). More recently, the concept of translanguaging has emerged as a way to capture the �trans-semiotic system with many meaning-making signs, primarily linguistic ones that combine to make up a person’s semiotic repertoire’, in response to the �complex interactions of the 21st century’; O. García and Li Wei, Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. pp. 42–3.

11 Early approaches to the modern study of language saw linguistic signs predominantly as an arbitrary relationship between the concept and the sound and were very dismissive of writing; see F. de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics (trans. R. Harris), London: Bloomsbury, [1916/1967] 2013, p. 140. Jakobson, even though he was a structuralist, understood the importance of writing as a vehicle for language and meaning, �Linguistics in relation to other sciences’, pp.

12 The medium of communication is �charged with cultural signification’; U. Eco, A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976, p. 267.

13 For the pragmaphilological turn in historical linguistics, see A.H. Jucker (ed.) Historical Pragmatics, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995; I. Taavitsainen and S. Fitzmaurice, �Historical pragmatics: What it is and how to do it’, in S. Fitzmaurice and I. Taavitsainen (eds) Methods in Historical Pragmatics, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2007, pp. 11–36; M. Sebba, �Sociolinguistic approaches to writing systems research’, Writing Systems Research 1(1), 2009, pp. 35–49; for multilingualism in written texts, see chapters in M. Sebba, S. Mahootian and C. Jonsson (eds) Language Mixing and Code-Switching in Writing. Approaches to Mixed-Language Written Discourse, London: Routledge, 2012.

14 G. Kress and T. van Leeuwen, Reading Images. The Grammar of Visual Design, London: Routledge, 1996, p. 231.

15 �Every text is a system of signs organised according to codes and subcodes which reflect certain values, attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and practices. Codes transcend single texts, linking them together in an interpretive framework which is used by their producers and interpreters. In creating texts we select and combine signs in relation to the codes with which we are familiar’, D. Chandler, Semiotics. The basics, 2nd edn, London/New York: Routledge, 2007, p. 157.

16 B. Bedos-Rezak, �Secular administration’, in F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg (eds) Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1996, pp. 195–229.

17 For the standardisation of administrative discourse in medieval Lowland Scotland, see J. Kopaczyk, The Legal Language of Scottish Burghs. Standardisation and Lexical Bundles, 1380–1560, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

18 See, for example, L. Milroy and P. Muysken (eds) One Speaker, Two Languages: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, and P. Garnder-Chloros, Code-Switching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. A recent handbook of linguistic code-switching concentrates solely on processes and forms of code-switching in speech, with some attention paid to internet communication; see B.E. Bullock and A.J. Toribio (eds) The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-Switching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

19 L. Wright, �Macaronic writing in a London archive, 1380–1480’, in M. Rissanen et al. (eds) History of Englishes. New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992, pp. 762–70; L. Wright, �Early Modern London business English’, in D. Kastovsky (ed.) Studies in Early Modern English, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994, pp. 449–65; Machan, �Language contact in Piers Plowman’; L. Wright, �A hypothesis on the structure of macaronic business writing’, in J. Fisiak (ed.) Medieval Dialectology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995, pp. 309–21; H. Schendl, �Text types and code-switching in medieval and Early Modern English’, Vienna English Working Papers 5, 1996, pp. 50–62; H.-J. Diller, �Code-switching in medieval English drama’, Comparative Drama 31, 1997/98, pp. 500–37; H. Schendl, �“To London fro Kent/Sunt predia depopulantes”: Code-switching and medieval English macaronic poems’, Vienna English Working Papers 6(1), 1997, pp. 52–66; H. Schendl, �Linguistic aspects of code-switching in medieval English texts’, in D.A. Trotter (ed.) Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain, Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2000, pp. 77–92; H. Schendl, �Code-choice and code-switching in some early fifteenth-century letters’, in P.J. Lucas and A. Lucas (eds) Middle English from Tongue to Text, Bern: Peter Lang, 2002, pp. 247–62; and L. Wright, �Models of language mixing: Code-switching versus semicommunication in medieval Latin and Middle English accounts’, in D.

20 H. Schendl and L. Wright, �Code switching in early English: Historical background and methodological and theoretical issues’, in H. Schendl and L. Wright (eds) Code-Switching in Early English, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011, pp. 15–45. For further general overviews of the field, see H. Schendl, �Multilingualism, code-switching, and language contact in historical sociolinguistics’, in J.M. Hernandez-Campoy and J.C. Conde-Silvestre (eds) The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics, Oxford: Blackwell, 2010, pp. 520–33, and P. Pahta, �Code-switching in English of the middle ages’, in T. Nevalainen and E.C. Traugott (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the History of English, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 528–37. New is M. Keller, Code-switching. Unifying Contemporary and Historical Perspectives, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.

21 L. Wright, �On variation in medieval mixed-language business writing’, in Schendl and Wright (eds) Code-Switching in Early English, pp. 191–218.

22 P. Pahta, �Code-switching in medieval medical writing’, in I. Taavitsainen and P. Pahta (eds) Medical and Scientific Writing in Late Medieval English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 73–99, and P. Pahta, �Code-switching in Early Modern English medical writing’, in I. Taavitsainen and P. Pahta (eds) Medical Writing in Early Modern English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 115–32.

23 H Johnson, The Grammar of Good Friday: Macaronic Sermons of Late Medieval England, Turnhout: Brepols, 2012; H. Schendl, �Code-switching in late medieval macaronic sermons’, in J.A. Jefferson and A. Putter (eds) Multilingualism in Medieval Britain (c.1066–1520): Sources and Analyses, Turnhout: Brepols, 2013, pp. 153–69; and H. Halmari, �Language switching and alliteration in Oxford, MS Bodley 649’, in A. Classen (ed.) Multilingualism in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Age: Communication and Miscommunication in the Premodern World, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2016, pp. 313–28.

24 N. McLelland, â€?A historical study of codeswitching in writing: German and Latin in Schottelius’ Ausführliche Arbeit von der Teutschen Haubtsprache (1663)’, International Journal of Bilingualism 8, 2004, pp. 499–523; J. Kopaczyk, â€?Code-switching in the records of a Scottish brotherhood in early modern Poland-Lithuania’, Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics 49(3), 2013, pp. 281–319; and Kopaczyk, Włodarczyk and Adamczyk, â€?Medieval multilingualism in Poland’.

25 A. Nurmi, T. Rütten and P. Pahta, Challenging the Myth of Monolongual Corpora, Leiden: Brill/Rodopi, 2017.

26 P. Pahta, J. Skaffari and L. Wright (eds) Multilingual Practices in Language History, Boston/Berlin: Mouton, 2018.

27 For an overview of the administrative system, record-keeping and the roles and forms of Latin in medieval European administration, see Bedos-Rezak, �Secular administration’.

28 C.A. Fergusson, �Diglossia’, Word 15, 1959, pp. 325–40.

29 For a comprehensive database of Scottish personal names found in over 8,600 documents, see A. Beam, J. Bradley, D. Broun, J.R. Davies, M. Hammond, M. Pasin (with others), The People of Medieval Scotland, 1093–1314, online, Glasgow and London, 2012, (accessed 27 April 2019).

30 Dictionary of the Scots Language: kirseth n. Temporary exemption from payment of dues granted to a new settler in a burgh.

31 For more examples, see J. Kopaczyk, �Latin and Scots versions of Scottish medieval burgh laws (Leges Burgorum)’, Scottish Language 30, 2011, pp. 1–17.

32 indexical – of

“an expression whose extension [applicability] is relative to a specific context, in which a specific person speaks to a specific other or others, in a specific place, and so on. E.g. here is an indexical expression, whose application, as in Mary lives here, varies from one use to another,” in P.H. Matthews (ed.) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, 3rd edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

33 The topic of genre vernacularisation is explored by Anna Havinga in this volume.

34 Scots documents drew on Latin models, as visible in the vernacular styles outlining the authoritative formulation of particular legal documents. See for example P. Gouldesbrough, Formulary of Old Scots Legal Documents, Edinburgh: Stair Society, 1985. However, they also contained their own linguistic strategies and phraseology. A systematic comparison of the two traditions has not been undertaken yet (to the best of my knowledge).

35 Kopaczyk, The Legal Language of Scottish burghs.

36 G. Declercq, M. Mostert, W. Ysebaert and A. Adamska (eds) New Approaches to Medieval Urban Literacy, Brussels: Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten, 2013; M. Mostert and A. Adamska (eds) Writing and the Administration of Medieval Towns: Medieval Urban Literacy, vol. I, Turnhout: Brepols, 2014; M. Mostert and A. Adamska (eds) Uses of the Written Word in Medieval Towns: Medieval Urban Literacy, vol. II, Turnhout: Brepols, 2014. For a comprehensive bibliography on urban literacy listing more than 6,700 titles, see M. Mostert, A Bibliography of Works on Medieval Communication, Turnhout: Brepols, 2012.

37 R. Peters, â€?Das Mittelniederdeutsche als Sprache der Hanse’, in P.S. Ureland (ed.) Sprachkontakt in der Hanse, Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1987, pp. 65–88.

38 A. Adamska, �Latin and three vernaculars in East Central Europe from the point of view of the history of social communication’, in M. Garrison, A.P. Orbán and M. Mostert (eds) Spoken and Written Language. Relations between Latin and the Vernacular Languages in the Earlier Middle Ages, Turnhout: Brepols, pp. 325–64.

39 Garrison, Orbán and Mostert, Spoken and Written Language, p. ix.

40 J.W. Armstrong and A. Mackillop, �Introduction: Communities, courts and Scottish towns’, Urban History 44(3), 2017 (special section: �Communities, courts and Scottish towns’, J.W. Armstrong and A. Mackillop (eds)), pp. 358–64.

41 For an overview of research on the concept of a community from a historian’s perspective, see C. Hawes, �The urban community in fifteenth-century Scotland: Language, law and political practice’, Urban History 44(3), 2017 (special section: �Communities, courts and Scottish towns’, J.W. Armstrong and A. Mackillop (eds)), pp. 365–80.

42 This notion originates in the psychological work on �situated learning’; J. Lave and E. Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, and E. Wenger, Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. It has been applied in sociolinguistics; see J. Holmes and M. Meyerhoff, �The community of practice: Theories and methodologies in language and gender research’, Language in Society 28, 1999, pp. 173–83 and more recently adapted to historical sociolinguistics and pragmatics, see A.H. Jucker and J. Kopaczyk, �Communities of practice as a locus of language change’, in J. Kopaczyk and A.H. Jucker (eds) Communities of Practice in the History of English, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2013, pp. 1–13.

43 Michael Richter mentions Swansea burghers who shared a pool of idioms to refer to time measurements in concrete physical terms; see �Trace elements of obliterated vernacular languages in Latin texts’, in: Garrison, Orbán, and Mostert (eds) Spoken and Written Language, pp. 1–9, at p. 8.

44 For the emergence of discourse standardisation in the administrative record in Scotland, see Kopaczyk, The Legal Language of Scottish Burghs. For the discussion of how the written word gained the trust of medieval communities, see Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record, pp. 231–57.

45 Andrew Butcher extends the more established sociolinguistic concept of a speech community to a text community in his analysis of the administrative records of Hythe, one of the Cinque Ports, �The functions of script in the speech community of a late medieval town, c. 1300–1550’, in J.C. Crick and A. Walsham (eds) The Uses of Script and Print, Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, 2004, pp. 157–70. This notion was applied in the Scottish context and supported with textual data extracted by corpus-linguistic methods in J. Kopaczyk, �How a community of practice creates a text community: Middle Scots legal and administrative discourse’, in Kopaczyk and Jucker (eds) Communities of Practice, pp. 225–50.

46 On the relationship between the Latin and Scots versions of the Leges, see Kopaczyk, �Latin and Scots versions of Scottish medieval burgh laws’, and recent work by the same author: J. Kopaczyk, �Textual standardisation of legal Scots vis a vis Latin’, in L. Wright (ed.) The Multilingual Origins of Standard English, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2020.

47 The parallel versions of the laws were consulted in The Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland (hereafter APS), vol. I, ed. Cosmo Innes and Thomas Thomson, Edinburgh: Record Commission, 1844. It is noteworthy that provost does not appear in the edition as a vernacular counterpart of prepositus. The editors of the APS claim to have followed the Berne MS (National Records of Scotland) for the Latin version (the empirical degree-of-difference test I carried out also suggests it; see J. Kopaczyk, �Textual standardisation of legal Scots vis a vis Latin’, in Wright (ed.) The Multilingual Origins of Standard English, Figure 2) but it is not clear which vernacular manuscript or manuscripts served as the basis of the parallel Scots version of the Leges. For comment on this and related manuscripts, see now A. Taylor, The Laws of Medieval Scotland: Legal Compilations from the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, Edinburgh: Stair Society, 2019. Pryde suggests that the term provost for the head of the local government started to be used after 1450, first in Glasgow, then Edinburgh, and in the Acts of the Parliament in 1503/4 (G.S. Pryde, �Introduction’, Ayr Burgh Accounts, 1534–1624, Edinburgh: Scottish History Society, 1937, pp. xxii–xxiii). Contemporary records compiled directly in the burghs seem to be using provost regularly, albeit in combinations reflecting the broader community, as in provost and balzeis; provost, balzeis and consail; provost, baizeis, consail and comonite; see Kopaczyk, �How a community of practice creates a text community’, p. 234. To establish the network of Latin and Scots nomenclature counterparts across all witnesses of burgh laws in both languages would be a major project, which falls outside the scope of this chapter. It is also worth noting that the nomenclature seems to have been different in the records compiled directly in the burghs.

48 As Andrew R.C. Simpson’s chapter in this volume demonstrates, a similar network of Latin and vernacular labels could be constructed for the various roles of the men of law in medieval Scotland.

49 For various outlooks on medieval urban communities from the perspective of individuals, see, for example, Elizabeth Ewan on communal rights and privileges as a unifying force in Townlife in Fourteenth-Century Scotland, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990; conversely, on the hierarchies precluding a sense of community, see E.P. Dennison, �Power to the people? The myth of the medieval burgh community’, in S.M. Foster, A.I. Macinnes, and R. MacInnes (eds) Scottish Power Centres. Glasgow: Cruithne, 1998, pp. 100–31 and Hawes, �The urban community in fifteenth-century Scotland’.

50 I put forward a comprehensive framework designed to capture this complexity in a systematic manner; J. Kopaczyk, �Administrative multilingualism on the page in early modern Poland: In search of a framework for written code-switching’, in: Pahta, Skaffari, and Wright (eds) Multilingual Practices in Language History, pp. 275–98.

51 Other examples of a macrogenre would be a textbook, a newspaper or a conversation, each forming a whole but with discernible individual genres within it such as a report, a declaration, a story, a joke, and others.

52 P.D. Kurtz and L.E. Voigts, �The significance of now-dispersed Bute 13: A mixed-language scientific manuscript’, in P. Pahta and A.H. Jucker (eds) Communicating Early English Manuscripts, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 38–54 and D. Schipor, �A study of multilingualism in the late medieval material of the Hampshire Record Office’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Stavanger, 2017.

53 M. Connolly and R. Radulescu (eds), Insular Books: Vernacular Manuscript Miscellanies in Late Medieval Britain, Oxford, 2015, and J. Tucker, Reading and Shaping Medieval Cartularies. Multi-Scribe Manuscripts and their Patterns of Growth. A Study of the Earliest Cartularies of Glasgow Cathedral and Lindores Abbey, Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2020.

54 M. Włodarczyk, J. Kopaczyk and M. Kozak, â€?Multilingualism in Greater Poland court records (1386–1448): Tagging discourse boundaries and code-switching’, Corpora, forthcoming.

55 Latin abbreviations have been silently expanded; compare the facsimile in Figure 3.2.

56 Some scholars distinguish between code-switching and language mixing to capture switching from one language to another between and within sentences, e.g. R. Ingham, �Mixing languages on the manor’, Medium Aevum 78(1), 2009, pp. 80–97. Sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic research on spoken code-switching refers to inter- and intra-sentential code-switching, respectively; see C. Myers-Scotton, �Comparing codeswitching and borrowing’, in C.M. Eastman (ed.) Codeswitching, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1992, pp. 19–39.

57 There were two ways of spelling /ð/, the first sound of that, in Middle Scots: with a which had initially been a thorn but in time became indistinguishable from the used for vowels, as in �that’ >, and with a as in �others’. The first variant was becoming the norm for word-initial contexts while the second was found in middle and final positions, until Anglicisation eradicated that distinction. For details, see B. Molineaux, J. Kopaczyk, R. Alcorn, W. Maguire, V. Karaiskos and B. Los, �Phonotactics, graphotactics and contrast: The history of Scots dental fricative spellings’, English Language and Linguistics, 2020.

58 L. Voigts, �What’s the word? Bilingualism in late-medieval England’, Speculum 71, 1996, pp. 813–26.

59 Kopaczyk, �Latin and Scots versions of Scottish medieval burgh laws’, p. 11. This example comes from the APS, vol. 1.

60 Kopaczyk discussed this phenomenon in more detail in �Code-switching in the records of a Scottish brotherhood’, pp. 289–91.

61 Wright, �On variation in medieval mixed-language business writing’.

62 S. Kaislaniemi, â€?Code-switching, script-switching, and typeface-switching in early modern English manuscript letters and printed tracts’, in M. Peikola, A. Mäkilähde, H. Salmi, M.-L. Varila and J. Skaffari, Verbal and Visual Communication in Early English Texts, Turnhout: Brepols, 2017, pp. 165–200.

63 This conceptualisation was proposed by R. Carrol, M. Peikola, H. Salmi, M.-L. Varila, J. Skaffari and R. Hiltunen, â€?Pragmatics on the page. Visual text in late medieval English books’, European Journal of English Studies 17(1), 2013, pp. 54–71. Earlier similar approaches include T.W. Machan, â€?The visual pragmatics of code-switching in late Middle English literature’, in Schendl and Wright (eds) Code-Switching in Early English, pp. 303–33; more recently, the eROThA project has incorporated work on visual aspects of code-switching: M. Włodarczyk, J. Kopaczyk and E. Adamczyk, â€?Visual code-switching in the electronic repository of Greater Poland Oaths 1386–1444 (ROThA)’, paper presented at Monolingual Histories – Multilingual Practices. Issues in Historical Language Contact, University of Ghent, 2017.

64 James Young was a notary of Canongate; see H. Paton, �Introduction’, in G. Donaldson (ed.) The Protocol Book of James Young 1485–1515, Edinburgh: Scottish Records Society, p. v. The transcription comes from the LAOS files. The original is kept at the National Records of Scotland; see Appendix for details.

65 See, for example, J. Armstrong, �Concepts of kinship in Lancastrian Westmorland’, in B. Thompson and J. Watts (eds) Political Society in Later Medieval England: A Festschrift for Christine Carpenter, Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2015, pp. 146–65, at pp. 153–4.

66 Armstrong and Mackillop, �Introduction: Communities, courts and Scottish towns’, p. 363.

67 For Latinisation in particular locations covered by the eROThA project, see H. Kowalewicz and W. Kuraszkiewicz (eds) Wielkopolskie roty sądowe XIV–XV wieku [The Greater Poland Court Oaths of the 14th–15th century], Warszawa, Poznań, Wrocław, KrakĂłw and Gdańsk: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, vol. 1, Roty poznańskie [The Poznań oaths], 1959, p. 10; vol. 2, Roty pyzdrskie [The Pyzdry oaths], 1960, p. 6; vol. 5, A, Roty gnieźnieńskie [The Gniezno oaths], 1981, p. 7.

68 See, for example, A. Havinga’s chapter in this volume.