Popular assemblies

According to tradition, the Roman people exercised their power in popular assemblies called comitia (from com-ire: to come together). These assemblies were basically constituted for legislative and judicial purposes, as well as for the election of magistrates.

The comitia voted only on proposals made by the presiding magistrates, without the opportunity to debate the proposal or make amendments during formal meetings. True public debates and political discussions of important issues took place in informal gatherings (contiones). The popular assemblies consisted of different units (e.g. military and residential), and each unit voted as a bloc; votes of individuals were not counted. The decadence and eventual disintegration and disappearance of the comitia were closely related to this system of organizing votes, which easily degenerated into corruption. As a result, the patrician farming class continued to exercise exclusive control over all important issues.

The oldest assembly was the aforementioned comitia curiata, which became insignificant during the Republic period. The only functions of the comitia curiata in the Republic were in the realm of sacral law. The second type of popular assemblies was the comitia centuriata, which became one of the most important assemblies under the republican constitution. Military in origin, they were political in practice. The comitia centuriata chose the highest magistrates (consuls, praetors, and censors); they passed statutes on the pro�posal of the consuls and made formal decisions on war and peace. They were also involved in political trials in which the life of an accused citizen was at stake.

The tribal assemblies were the last established popular assemblies. Civil in character, the comitia tributa distributed the citizens, both patricians and plebeians, in accordance with the different territorial districts, called tribes (like the old primitive institution under the kings, but not connected to it). This system strongly favored landowners. Landless citizens were confined to the four urban tribes, strong in numbers of individuals but weak as voting units, while the landowners controlled the growing rustic tribes. In 241 bce there were thirty-one rural and four urban tribes. The comitia tributa elected lower magistrates, enacted laws, and imposed fines for violation of statutes.

As a political body, the plebeians were organized in plebeian assemblies or councils (concilia plebis) based also on tribes. These councils included the greater part of the citizenry, but not the whole people. A plebeian magistrate, either a tribune or an aedile, convened and presided over plebeian assemblies. Resolutions passed by the plebeian councils bound only the plebeians them�selves. However, the lex Publilia of 339 bce validated plebeian resolutions for the whole people if they were ratified either by the Senate or by another assembly. The aforementioned lex Hortensia of 287 bce made plebeian reso�lutions equivalent to statutes passed in the comitia centuriata or tributa. The plebeian council elected the tribunes and the plebeian aediles, and it acted as an appellate judicial body for fines imposed by them.