Monarchy

1.1.1 The origins of Rome

The origins of Rome are obscure. It is impossible to be certain of the chief events, let alone the details. Legends abound; facts do not. The archaeological evidence is rather slight, and the literary sources cannot be relied on with confidence.

The earliest detailed accounts of Rome's origins date from the third century BC—a long time after the events that they purport to describe (see Tellegen-Couperus, Short History, s. 1.1; Mousourakis, Legal History, 3-18). Later writers such as Cato the Elder and Livy were able to do little more than to expand on the earlier unreliable accounts.

The founding of Rome has traditionally been dated as 753 BC, although other dates (ranging some fifty years either side) have been suggested. The founders, according to tradition, were Romulus and Remus, supposedly the descendants of the legendary Trojan hero, Aeneas. He was said to have escaped with a band of survivors following the defeat of Troy by the Greeks in the Trojan War. Driven by storms onto the north African coast, Aeneas resided for a while at the court of Dido, the Queen of Carthage. The heart-rending tale of her eventual abandonment by Aeneas has provided artistic stimulus for writers, poets, and composers

down the ages. On reaching the west coast of Italy, Aeneas and his descendants reputedly established settlements in the vicinity of the Tiber at Lavinium and Alba Longa (Castelgandolfo). Archaeological evidence tends to confirm aspects of the Aeneas legend, particularly the establishment of these settlements long before the founding of Rome, though modern scholarly opinion favours the Etruscans as the true founders of Rome (see Tellegen-Couperus, Short History, s. 1.2). Literary evidence suggests that the Romans believed that their origins were traceable to Aeneas.

1.1.2 The kings

There are said to have been seven kings of Rome from Romulus to Tarquinius Superbus.

Given that the aggregate period of their rule was almost 250 years, one must regard a total of seven kings with a little scepticism. An average reign of thirty- five years seems rather lengthy for that era. During this period, Rome acquired some of her most important institutions, particularly in the sphere of government. Under Romulus, a consultative body of elders and eminent citizens was established—the Senate. Their descendants, known as 'patricians', were to play a significant role in the affairs of Rome, especially in the early years of her existence. The Senate became identified with the fortunes of Rome. Further, Romulus divided Roman citizens into three 'tribes’, each consisting of ten curiae (administrative and political units possessing voting powers) that formed a primitive assembly, the comitia curiata. Its primary function was to confirm the king in office and to vest authority in him: there was no hereditary right of succession.

Numa Pompilius, elected king when Romulus died, reputedly organized the religious life of Rome. The ritualistic taking of vows to the gods, in order to placate their spirits and to seek their favours, became a central feature of daily life, both at a public and private level. The paterfamilias, the head of the Roman household, was entrusted with the performance of daily acts of family worship—one of his most important duties.

Numa's successors pursued a limited policy of territorial expansion, but it was during the reigns of the last three kings, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus, that Rome began to achieve an important status among its Latin neighbours—a sign of things to come.

1.1.3 Etruscan influence

The two Tarquins—and possibly Servius Tullius—were Etruscans, a flourishing and sophisticated civilization situated in Etruria to the north and northwest of Rome. They were a well-organized and energetic people—warriors, craftsmen, builders, and city dwellers. And they were outward looking and expansionist.

It was hardly surprising that in the seventh century BC, possibly earlier, an Etruscan migration occurred, leading to a peaceful fusion between the immigrants and the native Roman population. The Etruscans came predominantly from the southern cities of Etruria such as Veii. Rome provided a convenient point for crossing the Tiber and was thus regarded by the Etruscans as vital to their control of Latium and Campania, the area between Rome and the Bay of Naples. The Etruscan kings undertook an ambitious programme of public works and buildings, providing Rome with paved streets, temples, shrines, city walls, and a drainage system. Rome was transformed into a city.

There were administrative and political achievements too. In the middle years of the sixth century BC, Servius Tullius established the comitia centuriata, an assembly in which the citizen body was divided into centuries along military lines. This was a far-sighted attempt to ensure that the newly reorganized Roman army had some say in the affairs of the State. Servius had radically altered the composition of the army by opening its ranks to all citizens wealthy enough to equip themselves. The assembly had important functions, including the appointment of high-ranking officers for the army. Consequently, this assembly had a crucial role in the affairs of Rome.

A policy of gradual territorial expansion is discernible in the activities of the Etruscan kings. Rome, acting in league with its powerful Etruscan neighbours, soon proved to be the dominant force in the area, adept at furthering her interests through a mixture of high-handed diplomacy and well-timed military conquest. A ring of neighbouring towns was colonized in order to provide a protective shield for Rome. They included Alba Longa, Rome's ancestral city. And it is probable that the first steps were taken at this time to establish a port at Ostia, where the l iber meets the sea. By 510 BC, Roman territory covered an area of some 300-400 square miles, considerably larger than any Latin community.

1.1.4 The events of 510 BC

Aggressive tactics by the Etruscan kings might have paid dividends in Rome's relations with its neighbours, but such a policy ran obvious risks if pursued internally. An elective monarchy needs the constant support of the people. Tarquinius Superbus somehow lost it; a surprise, perhaps, because in many ways he had proved even more energetic and successful than his predecessors. However, his apparently tyrannical ways precipitated an aristocratic revolt against him. The accusation that one of his sons had allegedly raped Lucretia, the wife of a Roman noble, was used by later Roman poets and historians to justify the revolt. The fact that it led to the abolition of the monarchy, and not just to the expulsion of the particular incumbent of the office, does suggest that the Romans had wearied of rule by kings. The expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus was one of several incidents at that time which demonstrated that Etruscan domination of parts of Italy was diminishing. Superbus attempted to regain Rome but was unsuccessful, as were several other Etruscan leaders.

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Source: Du Plessis Paul J. Borkowski's. Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford University Press,2020. — 440 p.. 2020

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