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Notes

1 I would like to thank Edda Frankot for polishing my English and the editors of this volume for their helpful comments.

I use the term �citizen’, from the Latin civis, to indicate the members of the universitas civium who had citizenship.

The universitas (community) was a corporative body and as such a fictional legal and immortal person. The corporation was represented by the council, which also carried out legal business and financial obligations. One has to distinguish this corporative body from the association of the inhabitants (society), whose members had the same rights and obligations. In the later middle ages, the transition from the association to the corporative body is reflected by the marginal inscriptions on the seals from sigillum civium to sigillum civitatis; E. Isenmann, Die deutsche Stadt im Mittelalter 1150–1550, Wien/Köln/Weimar: Böhlau, 2012, p. 214.

2 G. Wittek, â€?fride und pax als Bezeichnungen für spätmittelalterlichen städtischen Frieden’, Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung 120, 1997, pp. 59–78.

3 F.J. Arlinghaus, �The myth of urban unity: Religion and social performance in late medieval Braunschweig’, in C. Goodson et al. (eds) Cities, Texts and Social Networks, 400–1500: Experiences and Perceptions of Medieval Urban Space, Farnham: Ashgate, 2010, pp. 215–32. In 1487 even the lord of Baunschweig, Duke William the younger, recognised the fact that it encompassed five towns:�der viff stede vnser staid to Brunswig’; M. Garzmann (ed.) Urkundenbuch der Stadt Braunschweig, vol. 5, Hannover: Hahn, 1994, p. 248.

4 F. Schmieder, Die mittelalterliche Stadt, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2005, pp. 113–7. For the ecclesiastical precincts in English towns, see C.D. Liddy, Contesting the City. The Politics of Citizenship in English Towns, 1250–1530, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017, pp.

66–8.

5 Isenmann, Die deutsche Stadt, pp. 793–830.

6 An example is given in the second part of this article.

7 A. Black, â€?The commune in political theory in the late middle ages’, in P. Blickle (ed.) Theorien kommunaler Ordnung in Europa, München: Oldenbourg, 1996, pp. 99–112, and K.S. Bader and G. Dilcher, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte. Land und Stadt – Bürger und Bauer im Alten Europa, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, 1999, pp. 400–3.

8 E. Isenmann, �The notion of the common good, the concept of politics, and practical policies in late medieval and early modern Germany cities’, in E. Lecuppre-Desjardin and A.L. van Bruaene (eds) De Bone Communi. The Discourse and Practice of the Common Good in the European City (13th–16th c.), Turnhout: Brepols, 2010, pp. 107–48, at pp. 114–5. These duties are very similar to the obligations in Scottish towns; C. Hawes, �The urban community in fifteenth-century Scotland: Language, law and political practice’, Urban History 44, 2017, pp. 365–80, at pp. 375–6

9 In Lübeck, a man was considered a citizen if he â€?waket und shotet mit uns’ (â€?when he watches and pays taxes with us’); A. Graßmann (ed.) Lübeckische Geschichte, Lübeck: Schmidt-Römhild, 1988, p. 232.

10 In this respect, the German towns are comparable to English towns; see Liddy, Contesting the City, p. 41: �In cases within the city, citizens were to be tried only by their peers’.

11 Since the thirteenth century scholars used the terms cives simpliciter (citizen per se) and cives secundum quid (citizen with certain restrictions) to mark the difference; K. Schreiner, â€?Teilhabe, Konsens und Autonomie. Leitbegriffe kommunalere Ordnung in der politischen Theorie des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit’, in P. Blickle (ed.) Theorien kommunaler Ordnung in Europa, München: Oldenbourg, 1996, pp. 35–61, at pp. 37–8.

12 Isenmann, Die deutsche Stadt, p. 448 (Translation: �Internal unity and peace outside (the city walls) are good for all indeed’).

The outer Holstentor was demolished in the nineteenth century.

13 W. Jansen, �Friede’, in Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe, vol. 2, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1975, pp. 543–91, at p. 546, and Isenmann, �The notion of the common good’, p. 120: peace is preserved by justice and legislation and therefore under the law.

14 G. Wittek, â€?Stadtfrieden. Über das Zusammenleben in der hoch- und spätmittelalterlichen Stadt’, Die alte Stadt. Zeitschrift für Stadtgeschichte, Stadtsoziologie und Denkmalpflege 21, 1994, pp. 165–81, at pp. 173–4.

15 Isenmann, Die deutsche Stadt, p. 513. In this respect, legal culture in the German towns was quite similar to the practice in Scottish towns. E.L. Ewan,�The community of the burgh in the fourteenth century’, in M. Lynch (ed.) The Scottish Medieval Town, Edinburgh: Donald, 1988, pp. 228–43, at p. 233, stated with regard to Aberdeen: �Humiliation before the community was considered to be a powerful deterrent’.

16 Bader and Dilcher, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, p. 646.

17 J. Rogge, â€?Ehrverletzungen und Entehrungen in politischen Konflikten in spätmittelalterlichen Städten’, in K. Schreiner and G. Schwerhoff (eds) Verletzte Ehre. Ehrkonflikte in Gesellschaften des Mittelalters und der Frühen Neuzeit, Köln: Böhlau, 1995, pp. 110–43, at pp. 114–6.

18 H.L. Reimann, Unruhe und Aufruhr im mittelalterlichen Braunschweig, Braunschweig: Waisenhaus Buchdruckerei und Verlag, 1962, pp. 107–9.

19 In April 1374, members of the patrician families fled from Braunschweig after an uprising against the council; M. Puhle, â€?Die Braunschweiger “Schichten” (Aufstände) des späten Mittelalters und ihre verfassungsrechtlichen Folgen’, in M. Garzmann (ed.) Rat und Verfassung im mittelalterlichen Braunschweig, Braunschweig: Waisenhaus-Druckerei, 1986, pp. 253–1, at p. 240; in 1375, patricians and their families had to leave Nordhausen; B. Kannowski, Bürgerkämpfe und Friedebriefe, Köln/Weimar/Wien: Böhlau, 2002, p.

44; in Lübeck, most members of the patrician council were forced to leave the town in 1408; Isenmann, Die deutsche Stadt, p. 276.

20 Graßmann, Lübeckische Geschichte, pp. 249–53; Kannowski, Bürgerkämpfe, pp. 26–9; see R.A. Rotz, â€?“Social struggles” or price of power? German urban uprisings in the late middle ages’, Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 76, 1985, pp. 64–95, for an overview of conflicts between citizens and councils in Germany.

21 Reimann, Unruhe und Aufruhr, pp. 109–10.

22 Kannowski, Bürgerkämpfe, p. 4, gives examples from the Hanseatic town Rostock 1428:â€?dorch nutticheit und eynes fredes willen’ (â€?utility and the will for peace’), and from Braunschweig 1445: â€?dorch eyndracht unde vrede samitheit willen’ (â€?for unity and peace for all’). Again, in 1446, the council in Braunschweig called together struggling parties in order to â€?desse sake endighen und to frede setten’ (â€?to end the struggle and bring about peace’); Chroniken der deutschen Städte, volume 16 (= Braunschweig vol. 2), Leipzig: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1880, p. 515.

23 With a focus on north-western towns of the Empire: W. Ehbrecht, Konsens und Konflikt. Skizzen und Überlegungen zur älteren Verfassungsgeschichte deutscher Städte, Köln/Weimar/Wien: Böhlau, 2001, and see also B. Scheper, Frühe bürgerliche Institutionen norddeutscher Hansestädte. Beiträge zu einer vergleichenden Verfassungsgeschichte Lübecks, Bremens, Lüneburgs und Hamburgs im Mittelalter, Köln/Wien: Böhlau, 1975.

24 W. Reinhard (ed.) Power Elites and State Building, Oxford: Scientia Bonnensis, 1996; E. Schubert, Fürstliche Herrschaft und Territorium im späten Mittelalter, 2nd edn, München: Oldenbourg, 2006; and G.A. Loud and J. Schenk (eds) The Origins of German Principalities, 1100–1350. Essays by German Historians, London/New York: Routledge, 2017.

25 Ernst was the second son of Ernst, Duke and Elector of Saxony.

He was born into the politically important dynasty of Wettin, which controlled most of Saxony, Meißen and Thuringia; J. Rogge, â€?Ernst von Sachsen, Erzbischof von Magdeburg und Administrator von Halberstadt (1476–1513)’, in W. Freitag (ed.) Mitteldeutsche Lebensbilder. Menschen im späten Mittelalter, Cologne: Böhlau, 2002, pp. 27–68.

26 J. Rogge, â€?Reden, Streiten und Verhandeln. Innerstädtische Kommunikation und Stadtkonflikte in den 1470er Jahren in Halle’, in W. Freitag and M. Ruprecht (eds) Aufruhr, Zwietracht und Gewalt. Konfliktlagen in der halleschen Stadtgesellschaft vom Mittelalter bis zur Neuzeit, Halle: Mitteldeutscher Verlag, 2006, pp. 28–41.

27 K. Schreiner, â€?Iura et libertates. Wahrnehmungsformen und Ausprägungen “bürgerlicher Freyheiten” in den Städten des Hohen und Späten Mittelalters’, in H.J. Puhle (ed.) Bürger in der Gesellschaft der Neuzeit. Wirtschaft – Politik – Kultur, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991, pp. 59–106, at p. 81.

28 M. Hecht, Patriziatsbildung als kommunikativer Prozess. Die Salzstädte Lüneburg, Halle und Werl im späten Mittelalter und Früher Neuzeit, Köln/Weimar/Wien: Böhlau, 2010, p. 31.

29 Ibid., pp. 133–4.

30 J. Opel (ed.) Denkwürdigkeiten des Hallischen Rathsmeisters Spittendorf, Halle: Hendel, 1880, p. 218.

31 G. Wittek, â€?Stadtfrieden – ausgewählte Beispiele aus Halle, Halberstadt, Quedlinburg und Stendal im Vergleich’, in G. Wittek (ed.) Concordia Magna. Der Magdeburger Stadtfrieden vom 21. Januar 1497, Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2006, pp. 171–82.

32 M. Puhle (ed.) Magdeburg 1200. Mittelalterliche Metropole, Preußische Festung, Landeshauptstadt. Die Geschichte der Stadt von 805–2005, Stuttgart: Theiss, 2005, pp. 103–5.

33 G. Wittek, �Die Verteidigung der Magdeburger Stadtfreiheit gegen Erzbischof, König und Reich – fixiert im Stadtfriedensvertrag vom 21. Januar 1497’, in Wittek (ed.) Concordia Magna, pp.

17–48, at p. 28.

34 Ibid., pp. 30–1.

35 J. Weitzel, �Schiedsgericht’, in Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. VIII, Stuttgart: Metzler, 1995, pp. 1454–5.

36 See K. Kroeschell, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, vol. 2, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1980, p. 33 on the difference between the arbiter, who was bound to the rules of law, and the arbitrator, who was free of such an obligation. He also mentions the influence of canon law on the development of the arbitration proceedings.

37 Urkundenbuch der Stadt Magdeburg, vol. 3, Halle: Scientia-Verlag, 1896, no. 1028, pp. 602–15, at pp. 602–3. Concerning the manner in which the arbitrators resolved the conflict: alsz von ynen hirzu verordente gutliche hendeler der selbigen yrer gebrechen, spenne und irniszs[…] nach unserem besten vorstentniszs und gnugsamer vorgehabter betrachtunge aller ummestende und gelegenheit der selbigen parthien und irrigen sachen, so wir mit ankerunge unsers truwen vleisz, mughe und arbeit lange zceit derhalben gehabt und vorgewant, in der sune, guthe und fruntschaft gericht, beteidingt und entschieden in form, massze und weise, wie hir nachfolget und sunderlich.

Translation (as verbatim as possible): �Appointed by them as amicable negotiators to handle their legal disputes, friction and discords […] according to our best understanding and close assessment of all circumstances and the interests of the parties and their disputes which, using our honest diligence, capacity and labour, we had expended for a long time, we have negotiated, evaluated and decided [the legal disputes] in a way of reconciliation, good understanding and friendship in the following manner’. All translations made by me. See also Wittek, Verteidigung, pp. 34–35.

38 Urkundenbuch der Stadt Magdeburg, pp. 602–15.

39 Urkundenbuch Magdeburg, p. 609 (concerning the jurisdiction of the archbishop in the town): Anclage den bevehel und commission, so unser gnedigster here in sachen der burger der alden stadt zu thun pfleget, auch die appelacion, so an unsern gnedigsten hern von den schultisz und scheppfem der alden stadt gethan betreffende, sein also beteidinget, dass unser gnedigister here die sachen und gebrechen, der wegen ein burger der alden stadt vor sein gnaden verclaget, so die selbige sach ein geistlich sach, an den tumprobest aidr seinen officiall, so abir die selbige werntlich were, an schulttisz unnd schepfen egenanter alden stadt weisen und remitieren sall.

Translation: �Concerning the complaints against the power of disposition and sovereignty, which our merciful lord exercises in the affairs of the burgesses of the old town and the appellation, which the mayors [�Schultheiss’] and aldermen direct to our lord, it was agreed, that our merciful lord’s litigations and breaches of law, because of them a burgess of the old town takes action at the archbishop’s court, in case it is a clerical lawsuit, should assign the case to the provost of the cathedral chapter or his official; but if it is a secular issue, (he) should assign the case to the village mayor and the aldermen’.

40 Urkundenbuch Magdeburg, pp. 610–1 (concerning the defence fortification): Unser gnedigster here und seiner gnaden nachkomen ertzbischove zu Magdburgk fur sich und seiner gnaden dyner und vorwanten den ingangk und uszgangk durch den mollnhof unnd den rotten thurm und bergkfride zu fusze, pferdt und mit wagen zu tage und nacht haben sall.

Translation: �Our gracious lord and his successors as archbishops of Magdeburg shall have for themselves as well as for their servants and subordinates the right to enter and leave the town through the mill yard, the red tower and the keep by foot, horse and carts by day and night’.

auch sal der rath alle ander thurme, thor, die graben, das gemewr, der wegen dan clagen und widerclagen durch unsern gnedigsten hern und den rath angestallt, usz gunst und gnedigen willen unsers gnedigisten hern und seiner gnaden capittels hinfurder zu ewigen gezeiten innehaben die zu bewaren, zu behuten, auch mit notturfftigem gebeude zu enthalten, doch eyme itzlichen andern an seinem rechten ane schaden und abbruch.

Translation: �The council shall keep all the other towers, gates, ditches and masonry, which had been contested between our gracious lord and the council with lawsuits and counter-claims, by the favour and the will of our gracious lord and his grace’s’ (cathedral) chapter, henceforth and forever in order to preserve and protect them as well as to maintain them by necessary construction work, but without damage or disturbance of mutual rights’.

41 Urkundenbuch Magdeburg, p. 611 (concerning the serving of wine and beer): Umb forderung den weinkeller, das anczapfen des weins und biers zu Gaterszleben betreffende sein in der gestalt geschieden, dasz desz capittels weinkeller und schencken ane alle irnisz und vorhinderunge desz raths bleiben sal, doch mag der rath iren burgern, dasz sie sich desselbigen kellers, weins und biers nicht gebrauchen, vorbite und die velligen buessen.

Translation: �In regard of the claims concerning the wine cellars and the tapping of wine and beer in Gaterleben, it is ruled that the wine cellars and taverns [of the cathedral chapter] should be without any disturbance and impairment by the council. Nevertheless, the council is entitled to prohibit its citizens to use the cellar, the wine and the beer. The council can impose a penalty on those who have committed such abuse’.

42 Urkundenbuch Magdeburg, p. 613: Obligation of council and citizens: alsz gehulte, getruwe und gehorszame underthane und alsz unserm rechten hern zustehn und angehoren, dem wir auch redeliche dinsts thun wollen, alsz wir von rechte zu thun pflichtig sein.

Translation: �as favor receiving, faithful and obedient subjects, we are under the control of our legal lord, whom we will provide with honest service as we are obligated by the law’.

Obligation of Archbishop Ernst: dasz wir sie lassen sullen und wullen bey irem rechte, bey yrer freiheit und bey yrer wonheit, die sie von alder gehabt haben.

Translation: �that we want them to maintain their right, their freedom and their customs, which they have had of old’.

43 Urkundenbuch Magdeburg, pp. 614–5.

44 Urkundenbuch Braunschweig, pp. 247–9 (charter from 1487) and pp. 268–70 (charter from 1503).

45 Bader and Dilcher, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, pp. 726–7.

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Source: Armstrong Jackson (ed.). Cultures of Law in Urban Northern Europe: Scotland and Its Neighbours, 1350-1650. Routledge,2020. — 304 p.. 2020

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