The End of the Nation-State Era and the Beginning of Global Constitutional History?

The nation-state, as a western constitutional model, has certainly not disappeared from our contemporary world, and new nation-states are still being created, such as South Sudan, founded in 2011 in response to the War in Darfur (Toingar 2014, 5-8).

Unilateral, nation-based approaches to international relations and conflict resolution have, however, been in crisis ever since World War I, progressively superseded by global approaches that tend to replace mandated and imposed solutions with multilateral, negotiated settlements, i.e., governance rather than government.

17.11.1 From the League of Nations to the United Nations

In the wake and in light of World War I, it became clear that the nation-state model was incapable of successfully addressing the new world order by preventing war and assuring widespread public well-being. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was the first major international figure to conceive and promote a system by which conflicts between states would be resolved globally through the mechanism of a broadly supported international institution granted considerable authorities. Wilson’s 14-point plan, taken before the U.S. Congress on January 8, 1918, called for the formation of “a general association of nations” designed to assure the peace.

Unsurprisingly, Wilson became the arbiter of the Versailles Treaty, its first 30 articles and an addendum establishing the Pact of the League of Nations, which entered into effect on January 10, 1920. The League of Nations’ primary mission, as set forth in its covenant, was to prevent wars through collective security and disarmament and settle international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Despite these lofty and admirable aims, it would fail to achieve any of them. 22 years after Versailles, its most obvious failure would be its inability to prevent the outbreak of World War II.

It did not help that that the United States, ironically, refused to join the very institution that President Wilson had designed and championed, as the League faced too much opposition in Congress (Cooper 2010, 330-376).

After Hitler’s defeat, the same approach was revived and carried out once again with the creation of the United Nations and the founding of a whole series of international organizations designed to prevent international conflicts. In the economic sphere other multilateral accords were reached, such as the Bretton Wood Agreements and the creation of institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the GATT, and the International Trade Organization and the foundation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) (van den Bossche and Zdouc 2013, 74-81), to cite only a few. The fundamental assumption underlying these different bodies is that international concerns and crises—which grow in number and complexity as the globe becomes increasingly interconnected—should be addressed and solved not by the dominant powers within states, or through unilateral or bilateral agreements, but rather through ongoing negotiations and multilateral agreements supported by alliances of states granted progressively expanded missions and authorities. Government is being replaced by “governance”.^{^[1114]}

17.11.2 Governments and Governance: From Authority

to Negotiation

The fall of the Berlin Wall and the disappearance of the Soviet Union were viewed by some thinkers as the “end of history”, as they concluded that the end of the Cold War left the U.S. as the uncontested leader of the world, and a period would begin relatively devoid of conflicts (Fukuyama 2012, 199-210). This rosy outlook came crashing down on September 11, 2001 with the World Trade Center attacks as the world’s gaze turned to the danger posed by a new threat: radical Islam. The ensuing War on Terror, undertaken and waged by the U.S. in collaboration with its allies, is a new type of conflict in which states are required to form broad and tight-knit coalitions to fight an often invisible enemy.

The global economy, meanwhile, is no longer driven principally by the U.S., but rather by the world’s fastest growing economies, particularly Brazil, Russia, India, and China (the BRIC countries). The result is the need for increasingly multilateral approaches to international relations (Cutler 2012, 56-70), a development seen by French political scientist Bertrand Badie (1950) as, ironically, the “beginning of history” (Badie 2012), because it marks the dawn of a new era in which no state or nation will wield enough power to impose itself at the world level, and government shall be replaced by governance, understood as a collective and negotiated approach to international problems.^{^[1115]} According to this vision, the changes in the world are of such a magnitude that they can no longer be resolved by any one country, and it shall be necessary to globally administrate the planet, advancing towards a model of international governance (Gaus 2003, 148-176). States around the world shall be called upon to converge,^{^[1116]} while politics is destined to become a collaborative and multilateral affair.

Governance has become particularly important in Europe since 1945, as after World War II its nations were eclipsed and overshadowed on the world stage by the hegemonic superpowers of the Cold War era: the United States and the Soviet Union. Europeans were forced to react and forge a powerful union if they were to play a major role and exert their influence in the new world order. This was to be no easy task, as for centuries Europeans had been organized into sovereign states, each with their own traditions, institutions and peculiarities, and European governments had been traditionally reluctant to sacrifice their sovereignty, often won only after hard-fought historical struggles. Nevertheless, Europe was compelled to adapt and devise a peculiar way of integration, based essentially on negotiation. These efforts shall be the subject of the next chapter.

TIMELINE

1797 May 27. Babeuf is executed after the “Conspiracy of Equals” fails.

1848 February 21. Publication in London of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

1864 Foundation in London of the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA), also known as the “First International”.

1867 Marx publishes the first volume of Das Kapital.

1871 March 18-May 28. Paris Commune.

1872 V Congress of the First International in The Hague. Split between Marx (social democrat) and Bakunin (revolutionary anarchist).

1875 Foundation of the Social Democratic Party of Germany.

1879 Madrid’s Pablo Iglesias founds the PSOE. Marxist party of the working, revolutionary socialist class.

1883 Karl Marx dies in London on March 14. Bismarck introduces legislation providing health insurance for workers. The following year an industrial accident insurance law is passed. In 1889, also thanks to an initiative backed by the Iron Chancellor, the German Empire approves Europe’s first system of pensions and disability benefits.

1889 July 14-19. Foundation in Paris of the “Second International”.

1895 August 5. Death of Friedrich Engels in London.

1902 II Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. Lenin, a Bolshevik (“member of the majority”) imposes his radical theses upon the Mensheviks (“members of the minority”), led by Julius Martov.

1904 February 8. Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war. The Russians are ultimately defeated.

1905 January 22. First Russian Revolution. Trotsky creates “soviets” (assemblies of workers and soldiers).

1910 August 29. Japan annexes Korea.

1917 February 5. Promulgation of the Constitution of the United Mexican States. March 3-15. Revolution of February (Julian Calendar). Abdication of Tsar Nicholas II.

April 3. Lenin publishes his revolutionary program (April Theses).

July 21. Alexander Kerensky, President of Russia’s provisional government. November 7. Triumph of the Soviet Revolution (October Revolution; Julian Calendar).

1918 July 17. The tsar and his family are executed, shot in Yekaterinburg by order of Lenin.

November 9. Abdication of William II and the Kronprinz. Proclamation of the Republic (November Revolution). Socialist Friedrich Ebert heads an interim government (Chancellor until February 11, 1919).

November 11. An armistice is signed in the Forest of Compiegne. End of World War I.

1919 January 1-15. Spartacist Revolution (Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg).

January 19. Elections to the “Constitutional Assembly” (Nationalversammlung) in Germany. The SPD (Social Democratic Party) wins

On February 11, Philip Scheidemann succeeds Ebert as chancellor.

March 2-6. The Communist International’s World Congress. Foundation of the Kommintern (Third International).

June 28. Signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

July 31. Promulgation of the Weimar Constitution. The German Reich becomes a parliamentary republic. Friedrich Ebert serves as its first president.

1922 April 3. Stalin is appointed General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party.

October 28. Mussolini seizes power (March on Rome).

November 16. Mussolini obtains the confidence of the Legislature (316 to 116, with 7 abstentions) and becomes President of the Council of Ministers.

1923 July 21. The Italian Chamber of Deputies approves a new election law (“Acerbo Law”) 223 to 123.

September 13. Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.

November 8-9. Failure of the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler is incarcerated.

1924 January 21. Death of Lenin. Kamenev and Zinoviev take control of the

Party.

June 10. Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, a harsh critic of Mussolini’s government, is kidnapped by fascist militia. His body is found on August 16.

1925 February 28. Friedrich Ebert, President of the Weimar Republic, dies in office and is succeeded by Paul von Hindenburg.

1927 December 2-19. XV Congress of the Communist Party. Stalin seizes power.

1929 February. Stalin expels Trotsky from the Soviet Union.

October 24-29 (Thursday-Tuesday). The New York Stock Exchange (Wall Street) collapses.

1931 April 14. Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.

September 18. Japan invaded Northeastern China.

1932 March 1. The Kwantung Army established the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria.

November 8. Franklin Delano Roosevelt is elected, with 57.4 % of the vote and winning 42 States; Herbert Hoover takes 39.7 % of the vote and wins 6 States.

1933 January 30. Hitler is appointed Chancellor (NSDAP: 33 % of the votes). February 27. The Reichstag Fire.

March 4. Franklin Delano Roosevelt takes office as the 32nd President of the United States (serving until April 12, 1945, being reelected three times).

March 5. Parliamentary elections in Germany (NSDAP: 43 % votes). The detention of socialist and communist representatives gives Hitler the two-thirds majority needed to alter the Constitution.

March 23. Enabling Act (Emachtigungsgesetz). The Reichstag grants Hitler full powers. Beginning of the dictatorship.

1934 June 30-July 2. Night of the Long Knives (Nacht der langen Messer). Hitler orders the Geheime Staatspolizei (secret state police, or Gestapo) and the Schutzstaffel (SS) to kill the principal leaders of the Sturmabteilung (the SA or “brown shirts”). The fascist militias are incorporated into the army.

1936 July 18. Military revolt in Spain against the Republic. Beginning of the Civil War.

August. initiation of the first political trials in Moscow. The “Great Purges” begin. Stalin judges and executes his former political rivals (until March 13, 1938).

1937 July 1. China-Japan War begins.

1938 March 12. Incorporation of Austria into the Third Reich (Anschluss). September 3. Leon Trotsky founds the Fourth International in Paris. September 30. The Munich Agreement. Chamberlain and Daladier cave in to Hitler on the question of the Sudetenland in an infamous act of appeasement.

1939 April 1. End of the Spanish Civil War, with the absolute victory of General Francisco Franco.

August 23. Ribbentrop and Molotov sign the Non-aggression Pact between the Third Reich and the Soviet Union.

August 31. The Soviet Union and Japan fought a massive tank battle on the Mongolian border. Japan was defeated.

September 1. Germany invades Poland.

September 7. The Soviet Union invades Finland, occupies part of Poland, and takes over Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia.

1940 April-May. Katyn Massacre (Poland). Soviet troops gun down 22,000 Polish soldiers in cold blood.

August 21. Leon Trotsky is assassinated in Coyoacan (Mexico) by Catalonian Ramon Mercader, at Stalin’s behest.

September 23-29. Japanese troops begin to occupy the French colony of Indochina.

September 27. Germany, Italy, and Japan sign the Tripartite Pact, against England and France. The treaty is also seen as a warning to the United States.

1941 June 22. The Germans invade Russia (Operation Barbarossa).

December 7. (December 8 in Japan) Japan attacks Pearl Harbor in Hawaii as well as Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines, Hong Kong, and Malaya. War with the West has begun.

December 8. Japanese troops invade Malaya and Thailand and seize Shanghai. Later in December, Japanese army invades Burma and Hong Kong.

January 20. Wannsee Conference, at which the implementation of Jewish extermination, the “Final Solution” (Endlosung), is decided.

February 19. By the Executive Order 9066, the U.S. government forces over 120,000 Japanese-Americans to move from the U.S. West Coast to “relocation” camps in isolated areas.

January 31. Von Paulus surrenders at Stalingrad.

July 24. Mussolini is dismissed by the Grand Council of Fascism and replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio.

June 6. Landing of the Allies at Normandy.

April 12. Roosevelt dies and is replaced in office by Harry S. Truman.

April 28. Mussolini is shot, along with Claretta Petacci.

April 30. Hitler commits suicide in his Berlin bunker.

May 7. Unconditional surrender of Germany.

June 20. Okinawa falls to the Allies. In addition to the military casualties, some 120,000 civilians also died.

July 26. The U.S., Great Britain, and China issue the Potsdam Declaration calling for Japan to immediately and unconditionally surrender or to suffer prompt and utter destruction.

August 6-9. Atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. August 15. Japan surrenders.

September 2. Ho Chi Minh founds the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. March 5. Churchill popularizes the term “Iron Curtain” in reference to the separation between eastern Europe under Soviet influence and western Europe.

June 2. In a referendum, 54 % of Italians vote against the monarchy. Proclamation of the Italian Republic (Constituted on December 22, 1947). June 5. George Marshall’s speech at Harvard University. Launch of the European Recovery Program (ERP), better known as the Marshall Plan.

June 25. Initiation of the Berlin Airlift (Luftbriicke) to rescue western Berlin from the blockade imposed by Stalin.

April 4. Signing in Washington of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) agreement, forming a western alliance against Soviet expansionism.

May 23. Enactment of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. The Federal Republic of Germany is born.

October 1. Mao Tse-tung proclaims the People’s Republic of China at the Gate of Tiananmen Square (Forbidden City).

December 10. Final military victory of Mao over nationalist forces. Chiang Kai-Shek takes refuge in Taiwan.

June 25. Start of the Korean War.

October. China invades Tibet.

March 5. Stalin dies. His legacy: 14 million dead Russians (four million killed in political purges, ten million dead from starvation).

July 17. End of the Korean War. Division between North Korea and South Korea (demilitarized zone). 4 km wide and 238 long.

May 7. A French army surrenders at Dien Bien Phu. Ho Chi Minh is proclaimed President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

February. 20th Congress of the CPSU (Russian Communist Party). Condemnation of Stalinism (Nikita Khrushchev). October 23-November

10. The Hungarian Revolution against the Soviet Union is brutally put down by Soviet tanks.

January 1. Triumph of the Cuban Revolution (Flight of Fulgencio Batista. Fidel Castro seizes power).

April 15-19. Anti-Castro invasion of Cuba ends in disaster at the Bay of Pigs.

August 13. Building of the Berlin Wall (Berliner Mauer), which would stand until November 9, 1989.

October. The Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy is on the verge of declaring war on the Soviet Union (under Khrushchev).

November 22. President John F. Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas.

August 2. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident. An American warship is purportedly attacked by a North Vietnamese patrol boat. The U.S. would exploit the incident to justify the Vietnam War.

February 6. President Johnson orders the bombing of North Vietnam. The Vietnam War begins.

August 8. Mao launches the “Cultural Revolution”, which seeks to eradicate traditional Chinese culture. For 10 years, the Revolution implements a series of radical policies.

October 9. Revolutionary leader Che Guevara is executed in La Higuera (Bolivia) by order of Bolivian President Barrientos.

January 5-August 20. Stage of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia (Prague Spring), with Alexander Dubcek emerging as a leader. The invasion of Warsaw Pact troops puts down this attempt at reform.

May. A state of emergency is declared in France in response to student and worker protests (May 1968).

January 27. Signing of the Peace of Paris between the United States and North Vietnam.

March 29. The last U.S. soldiers leave Vietnam.

October 16. The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to Henry Kissinger.

April 17. The Khmer Rouge conquers Phnom Penh. Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) perpetrates genocide against all non-revolutionaries. Two million Cambodians are killed.

April 30. North Vietnamese troops occupy Saigon.

November 20. Francisco Franco dies in Madrid.

September 9. Death of Mao Tse-tung in Beijing. End of the “Cultural Revolution”. Deng Xiaoping opens up the Chinese economy to capitalism. June 15. The first democratic elections in Spain since February 1936.

1979 January 7. The Vietnamese Army occupies Phnom Penn. End of the Khmer Rouge regime. Pol Pot, one of history’s most prolific killers, dies in prison in 1998.

1982 November 10. Leonid Brezhnev dies in Moscow (in power since October 20, 1964).

1985 March 11. Mikhail Gorbachev comes to power in the Soviet Union (in office until August 24, 1991).

1989 April 15-June 4. Tiananmen Square Revolt. Harshly repressed by the “People’s Liberation Army”.

November 9. Fall of the Berlin Wall.

1990 August 31. Signing in Berlin of the “Unification Treaty” (Einigungsvertrag). Ratified by the Volkskammer (GDR) and the Bundestag (RFA) on September 20.

September 12. Germany fully recovers its sovereignty as a state. Signing in Moscow of the 2 Plus Four Agreement. Two (Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic) plus Four (the powers that defeated the Third Reich in 1945: France, the United Kingdom, the U.S.A., and the Soviet Union).

1991 March 15. The Two Plus Four Agreement enters into force.

December 26. The Supreme Soviet declares the Soviet Union defunct.

2001 September 11. Airplanes hijacked by radical Islamic terrorists fly into and destroy the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center (New York) and part of the Pentagon (Washington, DC).

2005 October 10. Angela Dorothea Merkel becomes the first female chancellor of unified Germany.

2006 July 31. Raul Castro replaces Fidel Castro as the acting president of Cuba. 2008 February 24. Ratil Castro is elected President of the Council of State in

Cuba by members of the National Assembly of People’s power. He definitively succeeds his brother Fidel, who announces his resignation two days prior.

August 8-24. Beijing Olympics. The games are held despite worldwide protests against the People’s Republic of China’s human rights violations.

2012 The U.S. Supreme Court declares President Barack Obama’s universal health care legislation constitutional.

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