A Provisional Conclusion for an Unfinished Process: What Kind of Integration Are Europeans Looking For?

As twenty-first-century Europeans most of us do not live in autonomous nationstates, for whether we are Spanish, Slovakian, French, Latvian, German, Czech, British, Finnish, Romanian, Austrian, Italian, Cypriot, Belgian, Estonian, Swedish, Portuguese, Bulgarian, Greek, Slovenian, Hungarian, Lithuanian, Dutch, Irish, Maltese, Luxembourgian, Polish, Croatian or Danish, all citizens of the 28 states of the European Union are subject to legislation most of which (approximately by 60 %, and rising) is not determined by our national political and constitutional systems, but in Brussels.^{^[1245]}

Another issue is whether we are actually aware of this fact or not.

We may have little interest in the elections for the European Parliament and do not really understand how EU institutions function and what they are for. To some extent, this is understandable, as until now European integration has been carried out sotto voce, with citizens not closely engaged in the process, as the whole enterprise is one of extreme complexity. This explains why it is the member states, or rather, their governments, which have spearheaded this integration of a series of states which,

for the most part, had been independent for centuries, each with its own languages, histories, particular cultures, and idiosyncrasies. It is easy to understand how managing to reconcile the varying demands of 500 million citizens who have been living in separate nations for centuries is a daunting, if not outright impossible, task. Thus, it is their respective governments that lead the way and make decisions about integration, which we, as citizens, generally find out about after the fact.

One example will serve to illustrate this. The adoption of the far-reaching educational reform package known as the Bologna Process was decided upon at a meeting of education ministers representing the different member states.

The “man on the street” in Europe was not asked if he agreed with it or not, if he liked his traditional education system the way it was or wanted to modify it. Instead, a small number of “Eurocrats” decided, on their own, that we should imitate the U.S. educational model (Aguilera-Barchet 2012, 12) disregarding the fact that higher education in Europe has traditionally been essentially not a private but a public service, and, at the same time, overlooking perhaps the best aspect of the American system: the 4 years of liberal arts education at the college level generally required before specializing in a specific professional field. This did not, however, prevent our ministers of education from wiping the slate of our traditional education system clean (which hitherto had not functioned so badly) and from dictating that henceforth our young people ought to study according to their (peculiar) understanding of the American higher education system.^{^[1246]}

That said, Bologna is a complex issue that may be better addressed elsewhere. I do wish, however, to indicate and underscore here that a significant reform of European higher education, one which has dramatically changed our teaching and research practices, was implemented without even seeking the opinion of the students, professors, and researchers directly involved. Instead, a group of ministers made this decision at a meeting unilaterally.

While the integration process is not necessarily deleterious, hitherto it must be said that so far it has not been very democratic.^{^[1247]} Rather, it has been the work of governments, while citizens have barely been consulted as to whether we want to integrate or not, essentially because, when the citizens are consulted, there exists the danger that integration will be stymied. In fact, a series of specific referendums in recent history ended up hampering the integration process. On September 28, 2000, for example, the Danes said “no” to the euro; on September 14, 2003 the Swedes voted against the common currency; on May 29, 2005 54 % of the French rejected ratification of the European Constitution Treaty (TCE); on June 2 of the same year 61 % of Dutch voters did the same; and on June 12, 2008 53 % of the Irish people spurned the Lisbon Treaty, making it necessary to hold a second referendum, held on October 3, 2009, when 67 % of the Irish voted in favor of it.^{^[1248]}

When consulted, then, the people are not always in favor of European integration.

This reticence complicates and slows down the process (Markantonatou 2013, 43-60), but that is a risk which democracy entails, and one which must, of course, be taken. The case of France and the 2005 referendum was extremely significant because the referendum submitted by President Chirac gave rise to an intense debate in French society. The pro-treaty and anti-treaty camps fought it out in the press, on television and on the radio.^{^[1249]} There were numerous rallies and demonstrations centering on the issue. French public opinion regarding integration was taken seriously. The debate stirred up passions and rankled many. As a result of this, the French realized the significance of their vote regarding the treaty signed by their government in Rome in 2004. Basically, the bone of contention was the liberalization of the economy through the progressive privatization of all sectors. That is, the fundamental principles upon which the European Union was based and, prior to 1992, the European Economic Community: free competition, private initiative, minimal market regulation and the prohibition of public subsidies (Steinberg 2006, 340-366). In short, a return to the old principles of the liberal state, which we have already examined, and a rejection of the interventionist state model which appeared after 1917.^{^[1250]}

Is the implementation of a pure free market system good or bad? The question is tricky. The liberal state promotes economic development, which is good. However, it does not protect the least privileged, which relegates a sector of our affluent societies to living in precarious conditions. This creates social tensions, which is not good. On the other hand, the state may effectively intervene to moderate free market oscillations and to mitigate the crises that follow times of prosperity, which is good. Aiding the weak out of social solidarity is great and, above all, serves to prevent social conflict. When an all-powerful state seeks to regulate everything, however, and to control every aspect of our lives, private initiative is frustrated and freedom is curtailed (de Grazia 2005, 336-376).

Also, when politics always takes precedence over the individual, this is the first step towards dictatorship. And that is bad.

Thus, European integration has its positive and negative aspects. However, that is not the real issue. The most important point is that European integration is inevitable. In today’s world, populated by six billion people, Europe’s nationstates have no choice but to unite to survive. It is a question of economies of scale. How can 46 million Spaniards or 80 million Germans compete with 1.6 billion Chinese, or over 300 million Americans? It is not feasible. 500 million Europeans, on the other hand, can have an impact, or at least exert some degree of influence around the world, so that things are not entirely dictated by the president of the United States or the president of the People’s Republic of China. The price to be paid, however, is a reduction in our states’ levels of autonomy, and complying with the decision of EU-level leaders and officials, or “Eurocrats”. It is obvious that solutions that are the product of consensus reached among 28 different states, each one with its own history and peculiarities, are not going to please or favor each state equally.

It is true, and encouraging, however, that although governments have to date been the drivers behind the process, the idea of Europe has already begun to make headway with the public. Hence, the democratization of the process must necessarily be a mid- to long-term process. In fact, a clear explanation of the advantages of “integration” makes it possible for public opinion to get behind it. This is what happened in Ireland from 2008 to 2009, where in just 16 months support for ratification of the Lisbon Treaty shot from 46 to 67 %. This is the way to expand political integration and, above all, to nurture the idea of a shared “civilization”: through cultural and educational efforts that may pave the way towards a “European nation” (Shore 2006, 15-39).

To achieve this, some questions remain unanswered: do European states have no choice but to unite to transcend a nation-state model that generated two devastating world wars, put an end to European supremacy, and shattered the optimistic vision of the future harbored at the outset of the century? (Macormick 1995, 259-266) Are Europe’s nation-states bound to disappear, or shall nationalism and regionalism end up redefining Europe’s map?^{^[1251]} Shall our idiosyncrasies and cultural peculiarities eventually be lost, swallowed up by a single and homogenized model?^{^[1252]} The answers should come in the near future in a fascinating and ongoing process that will entirely depend on how we Europeans face the transformations shaping the world in which we live (de Benoist and Champetier 2012).

TIMELINE

European Integration, 1918-1945

1918 11 November. The signing of an armistice puts an end to World War I.

1919 January. The Irish Republic unilaterally declares its independence from the UK.

June 28. Signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty encompasses the foundation of the League of Nations, with headquarters in Geneva.

1920 January 10. Entry into force of the Treaty of Versailles.

March 19. The Congress of the United States rejects ratification of the Treaty of Versailles.

1921 December 6. An Anglo-Irish Treaty puts an end to the Irish War of independence.

1922 October 27-29. March on Rome. Mussolini seizes power.

Fifth Pan-American Conference in Santiago de Chile (the first was held on the initiative of the U.S. between 1889 and 1890; the last, the 10th, in Caracas in 1954).

December 6. Ireland becomes a self-governing British Dominion called the Irish Free State. Beginning of the Irish Civil War (1922-1923).

1923 January 1. France and Belgium begin the military occupation of the Ruhr. Publication of the Pan-European manifesto of Richard Coudenhove- Kalergi. The origin of the International Pan-European Union. September 13. Spain. The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera begins.

8-9 November. Germany. Beer Hall Putsch.

1925 January 25. French Prime Minister Edouard Herriot delivers a speech in the Senate in favor of European unification.

August 25. The last French troops abandon the Ruhr.

1926 European Union Customs Union. Gustav Stresemann manages to bring Germany into the League of Nations.

1929 September 5. Aristides Briand delivers a speech in Geneva to the League of Nations laying out his plans for a united Europe.

October. The New York Stock Exchange collapses.

1931 April 14. Founding of the Second Spanish Republic.

1933 January 30. Hitler is appointed Chancellor.

March 23. The Reichstag approves the “Enabling Act” (Ermachtigungsgesetz), which grants Hitler dictatorial powers.

1935 Signing of the Franco-Soviet Pact.

1936 July. Outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.

October. Constitution of the Rome-Berlin Axis.

1937 A new Irish constitution creates a new state: Ireland (Eire).

1938 March 12. Annexation of Austria into the Third Reich (Anschluss).

September 30. Munich Accords. Daladier (France) and Chamberlain (England) accept the German occupation of the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia).

1939 April 1. End of the Spanish Civil War.

May 22. Signing of the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.

September 1. Germany invades Poland.

September 17. Russia invades Poland.

1940 May. Germany invades France.

June. Franco-British union proposal.

1941 June. Germany invades Russia.

1943 February. Surrender of Von Paulus in Stalingrad.

March 21. At the Pan-European Congress in New York Churchill comes out in favor of the creation of a Council of Europe as a high court to resolve differences between the various European states.

December 1. Tehran Conference. First meeting of Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt to reestablish the world order after World War II.

1944 March 18. In Algiers General De Gaulle endorses the integration of the nations of Western Europe.

July 1-22. The Bretton Woods (New Hampshire) Accords set down the new world economic order.

September 5. Creation of the Benelux.

European Integration Since 1945

1945 February 4-11. Yalta Conference.

June 26. Signing of the United Nations Charter.

July 7-August 2. Potsdam Conference.

October 24. Creation of the United Nations in San Francisco, California

1946 2 June. Constitutional referendum in Italy.

June 18. Proclamation of the Italian Republic.

September 19. Speech by Winston Churchill at the University of Zurich in favor of European integration.

1947 February 21. The British Ambassador in the U.S., Lord Inverchapel, delivers President Truman a memorandum announcing that England can no longer oversee the world order.

March 5. Dunkirk Conference. France and England ally against a possible German resurgence. In 1948, the three Benelux countries join the alliance. The Western Union is born.

June 5. Speech by George Marshall, President Truman’s Secretary of State, who at Harvard University presents a general outline of the European Recovery Program (ERP), better known as the Marshall Plan.

September 22-27. Stalin creates the Cominform (replacing the Comintern).

1948 May 7. Opening of the Congress of The Hague.

June 25. The Allies initiate the Berlin Airlift (Luftbrucke) to supply West Berlin and break the blockade imposed by Stalin. The blockade is lifted on May 12, 1949.

December 10. The United Nations issues the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

April 4. Foundation of NATO.

April 18. Ireland becomes a Republic.

May 5. Statute of the Council of Europe (Spain joins on March 1, 1978).

May 12. End of the Soviet blockade of West Berlin.

May 23. Approval of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. Establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany.

October 1. Mao Tse-tung founds the People’s Republic of China.

May 9. Schuman Declaration. European integration (Community Method) process gets underway. June 25. Outbreak of the Korean War (until July 17, 1953).

November 4. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is signed in Rome. It enters into force in 1953. Spain joins in 1979.

April 18. Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Paris, which constitutes the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), entering into force on July 23, 1952.

May 27. Signing of the European Defense Community (EDC) Treaty. July 17. End of the Korean War.

August 30. The French National Assembly rejects the European Defense Community Treaty, signed by the six on May 27, 1952.

March 25. The six sign the Treaty of Rome, which constitutes the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

January 1. Belgium inaugurates the rotating presidency of the European Community Council.

March 19. Creation of the European Parliamentary Assembly (“European Parliament” since 1962) in Strasbourg, which replaces that of the ECSC.

October 7. Establishment in Luxembourg of the Court of Justice of the European Communities, which replaces that of the ECSC.

January 4. Creation of the EFTA, an initiative of the U.K.

August 13. Construction of the Berlin Wall (Berliner Mauer) begins. February 9. Spain officially requests entry into the EEC.

March 27-30. The European Parliamentary Assembly changes its name to the European Parliament.

June 2. Contacts officially begin to discuss Spain’s entry into the EEC. Five of the six countries (France, Germany, and the Benelux) are in favor; only Italy objects, but in the end Spain is forced to cede and wait 22 years to enter.

April. Executive Merger Treaty. Signing in Brussels by the six member states of the three European Communities (ECSC, EEC, and EAEC- EURATOM). By virtue of these agreements, the Communities become subject to just one executive, a single Commission and a single Council. It enters into force on July 1, 1967.

January 30. Luxembourg Compromise. The six agree that unanimous votes (rather than by majority) shall be required to make decisions affecting essential issues.

28 November. France vetoes the United Kingdom’s entry into the EEC. June 29. Spain signs a preferential agreement with the European Economic Community. Spain’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, Gregorio Lopez Bravo, signs an accord with this European Community lifting tariff barriers between Spain and the Common Market. This is the first step towards Spain’s incorporation into the EEC, though this would not come about for 16 years.

January 1. Three new states join the European Communities: Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. This is the first expansion, creating the “Europe of the Nine”.

January 29. In Brussels, Gregorio Lopez Bravo signs an additional protocol related to the preferential agreement signed between Spain and the EEC.

July 28. Spain presents its application to join the three European Communities (ECSC, EEC, and EURATOM). It would take another 9 years for Spain to be admitted.

16 November. The Congress of Deputies unanimously approves Spain’s entry into the Council of Europe. Official entry occurs on November 24 after the ratification by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Marcelino Oreja, of the Statutes of the Council and the signing of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.

January 23. Spain joins the Assembly of the Council of Europe as a full member, represented by seven deputies and five senators.

March 1. Entry into force of the European Monetary System (EMS).

May 7-10. First elections to the European Parliament by direct universal suffrage. This first democratic Parliament is constituted on the following July 17.

September 18. In Brussels Spain formally begins negotiations to join the European Communities.

October 4. In Strasbourg Spain ratifies the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.

January 1. Greece becomes the 10th member state of the European Communities.

March 22. In Brussels Spain concludes 6 of the 16 sessions of its negotiations for entry into the EEC.

June 27. At the European Summit in Fontainebleau January 1, 1986 is scheduled as the date for Spain’s entry into the EEC.

June 12. Spain signs the treaty to join the European Communities.

June 14. Signing of the Schengen Agreement on the elimination of borders between EU countries. Spain signs in 1991.

January 1. Integration of Spain and Portugal into the European Communities. The Europe of the 12 is born.

February 17 and 28. The Single European Act is signed in Luxembourg and The Hague, amending the Treaty of Rome. It enters into force on July 1, 1987.

January 1. First 6-month presidency of the European Council by a Spaniard. November 9. Fall of the Berlin Wall.

September 12. Signing in Moscow of the 2 Plus Four Agreement. England, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union renounce the rights they had vis-a-vis Germany since 1945.

October 3. Reunification of Germany.

December 21. Dissolution of the USSR (Alma-Ata Protocol).

February 7. Signing in Maastricht (Netherlands) of the European Union Treaty. It comes into force, once all ratification procedures are finalized, on November 1, 1993.

January 1. Austria, Finland, and Sweden join the EU. The Europe of the 15 is born.

July 1. Spain assumes the Presidency of the European Council for the second time (the 1st being the first half of 1989).

October 2. The foreign ministers of the 15 sign the Amsterdam Treaty. It enters into force on May 1, 1967.

June 19. Bologna Declaration. European education ministers approve the creation of the European Higher Education Area, to be fully implemented by December 31, 2010.

December 7. Ratification of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, adopted on October 2. A version of the Charter is officially promulgated on December 12, 2007 in Strasbourg. After the signing of the Lisbon Treaty, the Charter becomes binding upon all states. except Poland and the United Kingdom.

February 26. The Treaty of Nice is signed, setting the majorities necessary to make decisions after the successive expansions carried out. It comes into force on February 1, 2003 after the ratification procedures are finalized. January 1. The euro enters into force. On February 28 it becomes the sole, official currency, the day that Spain occupies the presidency of the European Council (previously: 1989, 1995) for the third time.

July 23. The ECSC is dissolved.

May 1. Eleven new members are incorporated into the EU: Poland, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia.

Rome. The heads of state and government and their respective ministers of foreign affairs sign a treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe.

2005 May 29. In a referendum, the French reject the Constitution Treaty. June 1. The people of the Netherlands also refuse to ratify the Constitutional Treaty.

2006 Approval of Northern Ireland Act, a preliminary step to the restoration of devolved government in the territory.

2007 January 1. Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. The Europe of the 27 is born. December 13. Signing of the Treaty of Lisbon, which replaces the Constitutional Treaty from 3 years earlier.

2009 December 1. The Treaty of Lisbon enters into force after the 27 ratification processes are completed.

2010 January 1. Herman Van Rompuy begins his term as the EU’s first president. Spain assumes its fourth presidency of the European Council (1989, 1995, and 2002).

2013 July 1. Croatia joins the EU as its 28th member state.

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