Hemmingsen as Student of Melanchthon
Niels Hemmingsen was born in 1513 on the Danish island of Lolland to parÂents of modest social status?4 As a child and young man, Hemmingsen showed great aptitude for studies and visited a variety of different schools in the kingÂdom, including in Lund, where he was able to learn Greek.
As a 24 year old, he was able to travel to Wittenberg where he enrolled in autumn 1537. He studÂied in Wittenberg until 1542 when he returned to Copenhagen. Here he was appointed professor in Greek in 1543 and in dialectics in 1545. At this time, he also lectured on Hebrew and the bible. In 1547, Hemmingsen was appointed pastor in a church in Copenhagen. After having taken a bachelor in theology in 1553, he was appointed professor of theology, and in 1557, he was made docÂtor of theology. Hemmingsen held the office of rector of the university several times as well as that of vice chancellor. In these years, Hemmingsen published several works, including a work on method, De methodis in 1555, a handbook in theology, Enchiridion theologicum in 1557, and De lege naturae in 1562.In the 1570s, Hemmingsen increasingly came under attack for his views on the Eucharist, particularly from Electoral Saxony. As a consequence, Hemmingsen was dismissed from his post as professor in theology in 1579 and withdrew to Roskilde. Here Hemmingsen continued his literary works alongÂside his administrative duties in the church. Although dismissed as professor, Hemmingseris fame grew abroad: a collection of his works were published in Geneva in 1586,[137] [138] [139] [140] and several prominent people visited Hemmingsen, includÂing James vι in 1590.w He died in 1600. Matthias Skat Sommer has argued persuasively that as a professor of theÂology in Copenhagen, Hemmingsen was a leading agent in shaping â€?postÂReformation Danish confessionalization'. That Hemmingsen should later write a work on the law of nature was no doubt due also to the years he visited Wittenberg and studied under Melanchthon. It was precisely in those years, from the late 1530s to the mid- 1540s, that Melanchthon turned to a systematic study of moral philosophy and natural law on the basis of Aristotle and published his own text books on the subject. The first edition of Melanchthoris textbook on moral philosÂophy, the Philosophiae Moralis Epitome, was published in 1538, the year after Hemmingsen’s arrival, and it is likely that the Dane followed lectures on it?8 Natural law played a central role in Melanchthon’s moral philosophy. The law of nature provided the normative and epistemic foundation for moral philosophy, which was as such an explication of natural law. At the same time, the concept of natural law provided Melanchthon with a means of clarifying the relationship between the Gospel and moral philosophy, as well as the legitimacy and necessity of moral philosophy for Christians. Central to this stood the distinction between Gospel and (divine) law. The Gospel was the revealed word of god concerning salvation through Christ. This was a knowledge which reason could not know.[141] Moral philosophy, however, was the domain of reason, dealing with a speÂcific aspect of divine law. In the first edition, Melanchthon at the outset defined it thus: â€?It is evident that the law of nature is that same law of God concerning those virtues, which reason can understand. A more fitting and true definition cannot be given, than that moral philosophy is that part of divine law or the Decalogue which reason understands’. Melanchthon did not deny the impact the Fall had had on man, far from it. A further distinction with divine law was needed. The lex Dei was the â€?knowlÂedge of how we should be, and what acts should be done before God and men.'2i Man’s knowledge of this law had indeed been damaged by the Fall. Specifically, â€?even though the divine law is impressed on the nature of man, in this weakness of nature, reason cannot adequately comprehend what the law commands concerning spiritual emotions towards God and perfect obeÂdience’. But at the same time Melanchthon clearly indicated an area in which moral philosophy, as a product of reason and learning, could judge rightly: â€?but the judgement concerning civil actions remains, which itself is the law of nature, a part of divine law. Human nature has nothing more outstanding or dignified.’[144] In short, reason and natural law could judge concerning â€?civil actions', but â€?perfect obedience’, that is, the â€?spiritual emotions towards God’ was now beyond reason and natural law. As has been often noted, Melanchthon did frequently refer to the Decalogue as a summary of natural law. But it is important to be clear on the precise philosophical role he accorded to this â€?divine’ summary. The Decalogue was, according to Melanchthon, a wonderful â€?method’ of categorising the precepts of natural law. But it would not be correct to say that he derived natural law from the Decalogue. This would have been problematic, as Melanchthon held the Decalogue, the moral law, to be binding on the Christian precisely because it conformed to the law of nature?[145] Rather, Melanchthon used the Decalogue as a summary, as a pedagogical tool. Since he was teaching unschooled youth, he used the Decalogue because the philosophical method, although erudite, would be too copious for his purÂposes?[146] As such, Melanchthon also characterised the Decalogue as â€?parae- netic’, or â€?pure precepts’, as opposed to the demonstrations properly found in moral philosophy?[147] Despite his frequent recourse to the Ten Commandments, then, Melanchthon was adamant that there was a philosophical method of determining natural law by, as he put it in the 1540 edition, â€?investigating the causes and ends proper to man’.[148] It was this Philippist conception of philoÂsophical natural law that Hemmingsen developed. 4