World War I and the Crisis of the Liberal State Model

16.10.1 The Implosion of the Nation-State System

The creation of sets of alliances (Central Powers vs. the “Triple Entente”), ulti­mately unleashed an apocalyptic war which would last four and a half years and, in short, change everything.

16.10.2 The Assassination in Sarajevo and Europe's Suicide

The spark which produced the conflagration was a terrorist attack which took the life of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Franz Ferdinand, and his wife, Sophie Chotek, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 (Smith 2009). It is not only intriguing, but essential for an understanding of twentieth century history, to note how this particular event was capable of igniting a firestorm which consumed all the western nations, as it demonstrates how the logic of the liberal nation-states’ relationships generated international tensions which ultimately proved not only unsustainable, but catastrophic.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was not, in reality, a nation-state, as it encompassed a multitude of nationalities struggling for their autonomy, along the lines of Belgium, Italy and Germany. It was its two most powerful nations, Germany and Hungary, which dominated the others; the Germans imposed their will on the Czechs, Poles, Slovenes, Ruthenians and Italians, while the Hungarians held sway over the Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs, and Croats. However, the nation­alist agitation that triggered liberal movements and revolutions throughout Europe in a series of uprisings defying the Metternich System would generate hope among all these peoples, who aspired to form their own independent nation-states.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire had no intention of tolerating these aspirations to sovereignty, and fully employed its police, secret services and army to maintain the status quo. To resist them a series of secret nationalist societies arose which sought to hurl defiance at the Empire through the assassination of political figures. Such was the situation when Franz Ferdinand, the heir to Francis Joseph of Austria, paid an official visit to Sarajevo in 1914. There, on June 28, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Young Bosnia nationalist group, shot the heir to Austro-Hungarian Empire and his wife at close range (Mulligan 2010, 208).

In a Europe divided into two blocks, the attack threatened to upset the fragile balance which had hitherto been maintained. Then started the July crisis (Mulligan 2010, 208-226). On July 23, Francis Joseph’s government sent an ultimatum to the Serbian government, holding it responsible for the assassination. All the conditions contained therein were accepted, except for two: the participation of Austro- Hungarian official agents in the investigation of the shooting, and the banning of Pan-Serbian propaganda. On July 25, after receiving support from William II of Prussia, at that time the head of the German Empire, Francis Joseph’s government severed relations with Serbia, a small country, but one allied with Russia by means of a defensive treaty. The next day, on July 26, Tsar Nicholas II ordered the “premobilization” of the Russian army, which did not dissuade Austria-Hungary from declaring war on Serbia 2 days later. All of Europe held its breath for 5 harrowing days, wondering if the conflict would spread.^[955]

16.10.3 The Dominos Fall

On July 29, Russia ordered partial mobilization. Germany acted to mediate, but its initiative was rejected by St. Petersburg. London then informed Berlin that if Germany were to declare war on Russia, England would be forced to join the conflict.

On July 30, Germany rejected a Russian and a second English proposal to limit the geographical scope of the war.

On July 31, Berlin sent an ultimatum to St. Petersburg, urging the Russians to demobilize. Russia did not respond, and Germany called general mobilization. On the same day France undertook preparations to mobilize its army.

On August 1, William II declared war on Nicholas II, 2 days later on France. The following day a German army invaded Belgium, despite the fact that it had been a neutral state since 1839. The violation of Belgian neutrality dragged England into the war. It was August 4, 1914 and there was no going back (MacMeekin 2013, 373).

16.10.4 An Apocalyptic Conflict

In the end, 32 countries ended up fighting in the Great War, 28 of them on the “Allied” side, which included France, the United States, Serbia, Belgium, Canada, Portugal, Japan, the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire. The Allies squared off against the “Central Powers”, a coalition composed of the Austro-Hungarian, German and Ottoman empires, ultimately joined by Bulgaria. Finally, Italy began the war on the side of the Central Powers, but ended up changing sides.

The result was a war of extermination in which 65 million soldiers fought, 10 million soldiers died, 19 million were wounded, and 35 million were maimed, in addition to the more than 14 million civilians (10 million in Russia alone), who died as a result of the conflict.^[956]

In France 10 % of the male population perished in the Great War, which led to serious demographic stagnation. The republican principle of compulsory military service (conscription) would make the 1914 war the most lethally in the history of French democracy, with 900 men killed daily on average during the 1,556 days that the conflict lasted (Riaud 2008, 137). This explains why even the smallest French towns still have monuments to the poilus^[957] killed in the conflict—impressive testaments to the devastating impact of one of the greatest tragedies in human history.

16.10.5 The Constitutional Consequences of World War 1: The End of Liberalism and the Resurgence of State Power

From the point of view of the history of public law, Word War I is crucial because it overturned the liberal model rooted in a limited state. The colossal effort required by this “total” war demanded general mobilization, both military and civilian. Women played a particularly important civilian role, as the men were fighting on the front (Braybon 2000, 149-162). Thus, in the wake of the Great War, women began to win the vote in a number of western countries.^[958] For four and a half years, the efforts of entire nations had centered upon the war, which meant that states acquired new scopes and degrees of power they would never fully relinquish after the conflict.^[959]

A far-reaching consequence of the massive and devastating war effort under­taken by the powers which fought in World War I, was the bolstering of state power. The need to concentrate all resources and energies to fight a “total” and ongoing conflict, in addition to bankrupting Europe, necessitated major state intervention in all areas of citizens’ lives, especially in the economic sphere—industrial and financial restructuring to sustain the war effort—and in the social—e.g. mandated rationing as a result of shortages, and the seizure of the materials necessary to fight the war (Turner 2000). All these interventionist measures abated after the war, but no country reverted entirely to the liberal system in place in 1914 (Luebbert 1991, 194-198). During the Great War, the states involved would develop the mecha­nisms of power that would lay the foundations for twentieth-century totalitarianism, as we shall see in the next chapter.

TIMELINE

The Foundations of the Restoration

1814 April 6. Napoleon abdicates.

May 4. Ferdinand VII reestablishes absolute monarchy in Spain

June 4. Louis XVIII grants Le Charte.

October 1. First meeting of the Congress of Vienna.

1815 June 9. Last session of the Congress of Vienna.

June 18. Battle of Waterloo.

July 18. Napoleon definitively exiled.

September 14. Russia, Prussia and Austria sign the Holy Alliance.

1818 October 1—November 15. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. France joins the Holy Alliance.

Revolution and Counter-Revolution Between 1820 and 1830

1820 January 1. Colonel Riego’s Revolt at Cabezas de San Juan.

March 8. Ferdinand VII endorses the Constitution of Cadiz.

1821 May 5. Napoleon dies on St. Helena.

1822 November 22. Congress of Verona.

1823 April 7. Entry into Spain of the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis. August 31. The French take the Fort of Trocadero (Cadiz). September 30. Surrender at Cadiz. End of the Liberal Triennium. November 7. Hanging of Riego.

1824 April 19. Lord Byron dies in Mesolonghi fighting for the independence of Greece.

December 9. Battle of Ayacucho. End of Spanish presence in the Americas. Spain’s only remaining colonies are Cuba and the Philippines.

1825 December 26. The Decembrist Revolt in St. Petersburg.

1826 June 22-July 15. Congress of Panama. Simon Bolivar fails in his attempt to form a federation comprised of the recently-founded Latin American states.

1829 September 14. The Ottoman Empire recognizes Greek independence (Treaty of Adrianople).

The July Monarchy as a Model (1830-1848)

1830 March 29. Ferdinand VII abolishes the Salic Law (Pragmatic Sanction). Elizabeth II is born on October 10.

July 27, 28, 29. Revolution in Paris. Fall of Charles X. August. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands’ southern provinces fight to secede. Belgium is born.

November 29. The Polish revolt against Russian occupation.

1831 February 7. Adoption of the Belgian Constitution.

1832 June 7. Lord Grey’s Electoral Reform Law in England.

December 26. Poland is incorporated into Russia via the Organic Statute and subjected to an autocratic, Orthodox and pro-Russian regime.

1833 September 29. Spain.

1834 April 10. Enactment of the Royal Statute, a constitution given unilaterally by the Spanish Regent Maria Cristina following the model of the French Charte of 1814.

1836 August 12. La Granja Uprising.

1837 June 17. The liberals enact a new Constitution.

1839 March. China. Beginning of the First Opium War (until 1842). British occupation.

August 31. Convention of Vergara (Maroto and Espartero). End of the First Carlist War in Spain.

1840 October 12. The beginning of Espartero’s Regency. The progressive liberals seize power in Madrid.

1843 November 10. England. Elizabeth II is declared of age.

1845 May 23. Narvaez promulgates a new constitution in Spain.

The Revolution of 1848 and Its Consequences

1848 January 12. Revolution breaks out in Palermo (Sicily).

February 22-25. Revolution breaks out in Paris.

March 4. Charles Albert of Savoy promulgates a constitution (Albertine Statute).

March 13. Revolution breaks out in Vienna. Metternich flees.

March 18. Revolution breaks out in Berlin.

May 18. The Frankfurt Parliament is constituted. October. A rebellion is quelled in Vienna.

December 2. Ferdinand I of Austria abdicates in favor of Francis Joseph.

1849 February 9. Promulgation of the Republic in Rome (Mazzini).

March 24. Charles Albert of Savoy hands the throne to his son, Victor Emmanuel II.

March 27. The Frankfurt Parliament proclaims the German Empire’s first constitution.

April 3. Frederick IV of Prussia refuses to be appointed king by the Frankfurt Parliament.

May 31. Dissolution of the Frankfurt Parliament.

1850 January 31. Frederick William IV grants a new constitution for the Kingdom of Prussia, which would remain in force until 1918.

March 20-April 29. Failure of the first attempt at a German federation, led by Prussia (Erfurt Union).

November 29. Frederick IV of Prussia yields to Francis Joseph of Austria (Punctation of Olmiitz).

Italian Unification

1852 Camillo Benso (Count of Cavour) becomes Victor Manuel II’ s prime minister.

1853 October. The French, Ottoman and British empires and the Kingdom of

Sardinia declare war on the Russian Empire; the “Crimean war” lasts until February of 1856.

1856 Beginning of the Second Opium War (until 1860). France and the UK control China.

1858 August. Cavour meets with Napoleon III at Plombieres. Franco-Sardinian Alliance.

September. The Spanish and French begin the occupation of Cochinchina (modern-day southern Vietnam), the campaign concluding in 1862. The Spanish pull out but the French remain, with their “Indochina” enduring until 1954.

1859 May-July. Austria is defeated by Franco-Sardinian forces in Magenta and Solferino.

August-September. Tuscany, Parma, Modena and part of the Papal States are incorporated into the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.

1860 May 11. Garibaldi lands at Marsala (Sicily), leading of force of 1,000 “redshirts”.

September. Victor Emmanuel II’s troops occupy Naples.

1861 January 2. William I of Prussia succeeds Frederick William IV. March 14. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (tricolor flag). June 6. Cavour dies (at age 50).

German Unification

1862 September 23. Bismarck heads the Council of Ministers.

1866 July 3. The Austrians are defeated by the Prussians at Koniggratz (Sadowa). End of the Seven Weeks’ War.

1868 September 19. Glorious Revolution in Spain. Dethronement of Queen Isabella II.

1870 July 13. The Ems Dispatch.

July 19. The beginning of the Franco-Prussian War.

September 2. French defeat at the Battle of Sedan. Napoleon III is taken prisoner.

September 19. Beginning of the siege of Paris by the Prussians.

1871 January 18. William I is proclaimed the kaiser of the German Empire in the Palace of Versailles (Hall of Mirrors). The Germans take revenge for the humiliations inflicted on them by Louis XIV and Napoleon.

January 28. End of the siege of Paris.

March 18-May 28. Paris Commune.

1873 Proclamation of the First Spanish Republic.

1874 December. Alfonso XII is proclaimed King of Spain in Sagunto by General Martinez Campos.

The Armed Peace

World War I

1914 June 28. Assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo.

August 4. The German Army crosses the Belgian border.

August 17-September 2. Battle of Tannenberg (Eastern front). September 5-12. Battle of the Marne. French counteroffensive. End of mobile warfare and the beginning of Trench warfare.

1915 April 1. Beginning of air warfare. French pilot Roland Garros is the first pilot to down an enemy plane with a machine gun firing through propeller blades.

April 22. Germans employ gas warfare at the Second Battle of Ypres.

April 25. Beginning of the Battle of Gallipoli (Dardanelles). After 8 months the British withdraw, defeated, having suffered over 250,000 casualties, the same number as the Turkish soldiers.

1916 February 21. Beginning of a heavy German offensive in Verdun. The battle would last until December (300,000 soldiers killed: 156,000 French and 143,000 Germans, with no territorial gains).

July 1-November 18. Battle of the Somme: over one million casualties, between the dead and injured. Over 600,000 French and British and 500,000 Germans.

1917 April 6. The United States declares war on Germany.

April 16—May 9. Nivelle Offensive. Within a week 100,000 French soldiers die.

May 3. Beginning of French mutinies.

May 15. Petain replaces Nivelle. Large-scale attacks are suspended.

June 25. The first American troops arrive on French soil. They would not enter the trenches, however, until October.

1918 March 3. Treaty of Brest Litovsk. Russia withdraws from the war.

April 3. French Marshall Foch is named Supreme General of the Allied forces.

August 8. Beginning of the last Allied offensive (Hundred Days’ Offensive). November 11. Signature of the Armistice (Compiegne).

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Further Reading

Ackerman, B. (1994). The future of liberal revolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Alexander, R. S. (2012). Europe's uncertain path, 1814-1914: State formation and civil society. Malden, MA: Wiley.

Anderson, M. S. (2003). The ascendancy of Europe: 1815-1914. London: Pearson Education.

Arblaster, A. (1986). The rise and decline of western liberalism. London: Basil & Blackwell (Reprint).

Arnold, J., & Wiener, R. (Eds.). (2009). The encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars: A political, social, and military history. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Aston, N. (2002). Christianity and revolutionary Europe: 1750-1830. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Barnes, M. (2011). The Spanish-American war and Philippine insurrection. 1898-1902: An annotated bibliography. New York: Routledge.

Barclay, D. E. (1995). Frederick William IV and the Prussian Monarchy: 1840-1861. Oxford: Clarendon.

Bayly, C. A., & Biagini, E. F. (2008). Giuseppe Mazzini and the globalisation of democratic nationalism: 1830-1920. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Blanning, T. C. W. (2011). The Romantic revolution: A history. New York: Random House.

Blackbourn, D. (1986). The politics of demagogy in imperial Germany. Past and Present, (113), 152-184.

Blumberg, A. (1991). A carefully planned accident: The Italian war of1859. London: Associated University Presses.

Brewer, D. (2001). The flame of freedom: The Greek War of Independence, 1821-1833. London: J. Murray.

Bushkovitch, P. (2011). A concise history of Russia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Burgess, M. (2013). Opening Pandora's Box: Process and Paradox in the Federalism of Political Identity. In A. Lopez Basaguren & L. Escajedo San-Epifanio (Eds.), The ways of federalism in western countries and the horizon of territorial autonomy in Spain (pp. 3-14). 1. Berlin: Springer.

Clemente, S. E. (1992). For King and Kaiser!: The making of the Prussian Army Officer, 1860­1914. New York: Greenwood.

Collingham, H. A. C., & Alexander, R. S. (1988). The July Monarchy: A political history of France, 1830-1848. London: Longman.

Congleton, R. D. (2011). Perfecting parliament: Constitutional reform, liberalism, and the rise of western democracy. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Constant, B. (1988). Principles of politics applicable to all representative governments. In B. Fontana (Ed.), Constant: Political writings (pp. 169-307). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Cullinane, M. P. (2012). Liberty and American anti-imperialism: 1898-1909. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

de Tocqueville, A. (2012). The old regime and the revolution. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. de Vooght, D. (2011). Introduction: The raison d’etre of monarchies in the western world after 1789. In The king invites: Performing power at a courtly dining table (Belgium, 1831-1909) (pp. 15-23). New York: Peter Lang.

Dudden, A. P. (2004). American empire in the Pacific: From trade to strategic balance, 1700­1922. Burlington, VT: Ashgate/Variorum.

Dynneson, T. L. (2001). Civism and the rise of the republican nation-state. In Civism: Cultivating citizenship in European history (pp. 175-190). New York: Peter Lang.

Frevert, U. (2004). A nation in barracks: Modern Germany, military conscription and civil society. New York: Berg.

Fishman, J. (1988). Diplomacy and revolution: The London conference of 1830 and the Belgian revolt. Amsterdam: CHEV.

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Grimm, J., & Grimm, W. (2012). The annotated Brothers Grimm. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Hammarlund, P. A. (2005). The decline of the state: The empirical claim. In Liberal internation­alism and the decline of the state: The thought of Richard Cobden, David Mitrany, and Kenichi Ohmae (pp. 28-51). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Judson, P. M. (1996). Exclusive revolutionaries: Liberal politics, social experience, and national identity in the Austrian Empire, 1848-1914. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Jung, M. -H. (Ed.). (2014). The rising tide of color: Race, state violence, and radical movements across the Pacific. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

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