The Survival of the Imperial Idea
The end of Christian universalism would not, however, spell the end of the imperial idea in Europe. The Holy Roman Empire enjoyed another moment of splendor under Charles V (1519-1558), because of the fact that he inherited Spain’s immense dominions and possessed the financial means to stand as the premier political arbiter of his time.
Mercurino Gattinara, a key advisor to Charles, encouraged him to realize the vision of a universal monarchy, as proposed by Dante in his De Monarchia (Yates 1999, 21).[248] His son, Phillip II, despite the fact that he headed the Spanish Empire, then the world’s most powerful political entity, was not elected German Emperor and could not aspire to the imperial title. He was, however, honored with the title of “universal monarch”. What Germans call the First Reich would endure until 1806 (Wilson 2009, 22-41), when it was abolished by Francis IIin response to pressure by Napoleon,[249] who in 1804, had crowned himself “Emperor of the French” in the pope’s presence to avoid the “humiliation” suffered by Charlemagne.[250]
With Napoleon things changed, as the imperial idea no longer relied on tradition but on brute power (Sanmartin 2009, 177-197). In fact, Napoleon created a brand new kind of monarchy. Heir to the French Revolution, formally he did not become the French Emperor but rather the “Emperor of the French” (Empereur des Frangais).[251] After Napoleon’s resignation in 1815, the imperial idea would reappear in France between 1852 and 1870, with Napoleon III.[252]
It is interesting to note that although Queen Victoria was formally named “Empress of India”, the British Crown was never “constitutionally” an empire. In fact, after the French interlude, the imperial idea resurfaced in Germany.
After the Congress of Vienna (1815), the emperor of Austria, once again, headed the confederation of the Germanic states, at least until 1867,[253] when Bismarck brought about the establishment of the North German Confederation, which in 1871, became the Second Reich at the Palace of Versailles, following his crushing defeat of Napoleon III. Wilhelmine Germany would last until 1918, but did not survive Prussia’s defeat in the First World War.[254] After the humiliation suffered by Germany in the Versailles Treaty (1919), from 1933 to 1945, Hitler would later head the Third Reich[255]—which may be considered the last attempt at a European “empire”.[256]TIMELINE
Ostrogoths, Byzantines and Lombards
493-526 Reign of Theodoric the Great. Peak of the Ostrogoths ’ presence in Italy. 527-565 Justinian
552 The Byzantines occupy Italy following a devastating war against the Ostrogoths.
568 The Lombards, led by Alboin, invade Italy.
572 The Byzantines lose control of northern Italy (Lombardy), where the Lombards found a kingdom with its capital at Pavia.
590-604 The Pontificate of Gregory I.
The Popes vs. the Byzantine Emperors
653 Byzantine Emperor Constans II orders the arrest of Pope Martin I, who dies in exile.
681 Emperor Constantine IV condemns Monothelitism (third council of Constantinople, Sixth Ecumenical) to reconcile with Rome.
695 An anti-Byzantine rebellion breaks out in Ravenna.
715-731 Pontificate of Gregory II, who condemns the iconoclasts and confronts Emperor Leo III the Isaurian and all Byzantium.
The Papacy’s Alliance with the Frankish Monarchy
732 Charles Martel defeats the Muslims at Poitiers and wields de facto power in the kingdom of the Franks.
741-752 The papacy of Zacharias, who signs a truce with the Lombard king Liutprand.
751 Pope Zacharias authorizes St. Boniface to crown Pepin the Short (Charles Martel’s son) as the King of the Franks at Soissons, which means dethroning Childeric III, the last Merovingian king.
754 Promissio carisiaca. Under this treaty Pope Stephen II commits to anointing Pepin the Short as the king of the Franks and “Patrician of the Romans”. The Frankish monarch recognizes the Pope’s territorial domain over the Duchy of Rome, Exarchate and Pentapolis—the legal/ territorial title making possible the emergence of the Papal States.
774 Charlemagne (son of Pepin the Short), King of the Franks since 768, after defeating the Lombard king Desiderius and occupying Pavia, is acknowledged as King of the Lombards. The Kingdom of Italy appears.
The Empire of Charlemagne
800 September 24. Charlemagne is crowned emperor by Pope Leo III. 814-840 After Charlemagne’s death he is succeeded by his son Louis the Pious.
841 June 25. The Battle of Fontenoy in Puisaye. The defeat of Lothair, the eldest son of Louis the Pious, by his brothers Charles and Louis.
843 Treaty of Verdun. The Empire of Charlemagne is divided.
875 Charles the Bald is crowned emperor by Pope John VIII in exchange for relinquishing imperial authority over Rome and part of southern Italy, in favor of the papacy.
911 Conrad I is elected the first king of Germany.
923 Dethronement of the Carolingian king Charles the Simple by Hugo the Great.
Foundation of the German Holy Roman Empire
962 Otto I, Duke of Saxony, is crowned Emperor. He is the founder of the German Holy Roman Empire (First Reich), which would last until 1806.
987-996 Hugh Capet succeeds in leaving his throne to his son. Consolidation of the hereditary dynasty in the Kingdom of the Franks and separation from of the Empire.
1054 July 16. The Eastern Schism. Michael Cerularius and Pope Leo IX excommunicate each other. Separation of the Orthodox and Roman Churches.
The Era of Papal Theocracy
| 1075 | Gregory VII (1073-1085) promulgates the Dictatus Papae, 27 statements in which he asserts the pope’s supremacy over secular authorities. This document was not published in the German Holy Roman Empire, in the Iberian kingdoms, or in England. |
| 1077 1083 1093 1096-1099 1122 1155-1190 1198-1216 1220-1250 1291-1293 1274 | Henry IV humbles himself before Gregory VII at Canossa. Emperor Henry IV conquers Rome. Pope Urban II retakes Rome. First Crusade. Concordat of Worms. End of the Investiture Controversy. Reign of Frederick I Barbarossa. Papacy of Innocent III, the chief exponent of papal theocracy. Reign of Frederick II Hohenstaufen. Reign of Rudolph I of Habsburg. Death of Thomas Aquinas (b. 1224). |
The Decline of the Papacy
| 1303 | September 7. The attack at Anagni. Philip IV of France’s troops seize Pope Boniface VII. |
| 1309-1377 1378-1417 | The Avignon Papacy. The popes reside outside Rome, in Avignon. The Western Schism. Multiple popes vie for St. Peter’s throne. |
Reformation and Counterreformation
| 1519 1521 | Charles V is elected Emperor. Diet of Worms. Luther explains the principles of the “Reformation” to Charles V. |
| 1527 | May 6. The troops of Charles V, sharply at odds with Clement VII, occupy and sack Rome (Sacco di Roma). The popes will never again meddle in civil political affairs. |
| 1529 | Diet of Spires. The Lutheran princes “protest” against Charles V’s request for them to submit to the Pope’s authority. They come to call themselves “Protestants”. |
| 1536 | Henry VIII breaks with Rome when Clement VII refuses to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon (Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughter). The king declares himself the head of the Church of England. The Anglican Church is born. |
| 1540 | September 27. Pope Paul III accepts the creation of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola. The Jesuits become Catholicism’s quintessential advocates and defenders. |
| 1545 | The Council of Trent begins. It would not close until 1563 (Counterreformation). |
| 1555 | Peace of Augsburg. Each German prince may profess the religion he desires, and has the right to impose it upon his subjects (cuis regio eius religio). |
| 1572 | August 24. Massacre of Protestants in Paris (St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre). The most dramatic episode of France’s Wars of Religion (1562-1598). |
| 1618-1648 | Thirty Years War. At its close Europe is divided into Catholic and Protestant kingdoms. |
Papacy and Empire: From the French Revolution to the Third Reich
| 1790 | July 12. Civil constitution of the clergy. The French revolutionaries seek to convert the Catholic priests into government officials of the new French state, prompting a break with Rome. |
| 1793 | October. Publication of the French revolutionary calendar, with no reference to the traditional church calendar (Gregorian). |
| 1794 1801 | June 8. Robespierre celebrates the Festival of the Supreme Being. Napoleon signs a Concordat with the Pope and reconciles with French Catholics. |
| 1804 | December 2. Napoleon is crowned Emperor of the French in the presence of Pope Pius VII in the Cathedral of Notre Dame (Paris). |
| 1806 1852-1870 1870 | Napoleon abolishes the German Holy Roman Empire. Second French Empire (Napoleon III). September 20. Rome becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, after its military occupation. After the demise of the Papal States, dating back to 754, Pope Pius IX describes himself as a prisoner of the Italian State. |
| 1871-1918 1905 | Second German Reich. French Law of separation of the Church and the State (Loi de separation des Eglises et de l’Etat). |
| 1929 | February 11. Lateran Pacts. Mussolini and Pius XI agree to the founding of the Vatican State. |
| 1933-1945 | Hitler's Third Reich. |
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Further Reading
Alighieri, D. (2013). The De Monarchia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Andersen, P., Vogt, H., & Munster-Swendsen, M. (2007). Law before Gratian: Law in Western Europe c. 500-1100: Proceedings of the third Carlsberg academy conference on medieval legal history 2006. Copenhagen: DJ0F Pub.
Appold, K. G. (1976). The crucible of Europe: The ninth and tenth centuries in European history. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Barnard, L. W. (1974). The Graeco-Roman and oriental background of the iconoclastic controversy. Brill: Leiden.
Barraclough, G. (1979). The Medieval Papacy. New York: Norton.
Booker, C. M. (2009). Past convictions: The penance of Louis the Pious and the decline of the Carolingians. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Bradbury, J. (2007). The Capetians: Kings of France, 987-1328. New York: Hambledon Continuum.
Brown, P. (2003). The rise of western Christendom: Triumph and diversity, AD 200-1000 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Brubaker, L., & Haldon, J. (2001). Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era (ca. 680-850): The sources: An annotated survey. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Copleston, F. C. (1991). Aquinas. An introduction to the life andwork of the great medieval thinker. London: Penguin.
Cowdrey, H. E. J. (1970). Cluniacs and the Gregorian reform. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cowdrey, H. E. J. (2000). Popes and Church reform in the 11th century. Aldershot: Ashgate.
De Jong, M. (2011). The penitential state: Authority and atonement in the age of Louis the Pious, 814-840 (Reissued ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Duffy, E. (2006). Between two empires: 461-1000. In Saints and sinners: A history of the popes (2nd ed., pp. 48-108). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Dunbabin, J. (2000). France in the making: 843-1180 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dutton, P. E. (2004). Carolingian civilization: A reader (2nd ed.). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
Einhard. (2004). The life of Charlemagne (Vita Karoli Magni). Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing.
Evans, R. J. W. (2012). The Holy Roman Empire, 1495-1806: A European perspective. Leiden: Brill.
Fischer, F. (1991). From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of continuity in German history, 1871-1945. London: Routledge.
Godman, P., & Collins, R. (Eds.). (1990). Charlemagne’s heir. New perspectives on the reign of Louis the Pious: (814-840). Oxford, UK: Clarendon.
Guillot, O. (2002). Hugues Capet et les premiers capetiens: 987-1180. Paris: Tallandier.
Gutmann, J. (1977). The image and the word: Confrontations in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion.
Hallam, E. M. (2001). Capetian France: 987-1328 (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
Hallenbeck, J. T. (1982). Pavia and Rome: The Lombard monarchy and the papacy in the eighth century. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society New Series, 72(4), 1-186.
Hamilton, B. (2003). The Christian world of the Middle Ages. Stroud, Glos: Sutton.
Hartmann, W., & Pennington, K. (Eds.). (2008). The history of medieval canon law in the classical period, 1140-1234: From Gratian to the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press.
Headley, J. M. (1997). Church, empire, and world: The quest for universal order, 1520-1640. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate.
Karlin-Hayter, P. (2002). Iconoclasm. In C. Mango (Ed.), The Oxford history of Byzantium (pp. 153-162). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, A. W. (1981). Royal succession in Capetian France: Studies on familial order and the state. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Leyser, K. (1994). Communications and power in medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottoman centuries. London: Hambledon Press.
Marsilius of Padua. (2005). Defensor pacis: The defender of peace. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Mastnak, T. (2002). Crusading peace: Christendom, the Muslim world, and western political order. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
McKitterick, R. (1979). The Frankish Church and the Carolingians reforms: 789-895. London: Royal Historical Society.
Morrison, K. F. (1969). Tradition and authority in the western Church: 300-1140. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Muller, W. P., & Sommar, M. E. (Eds.). (2006). Medieval Church law and the origins of the western legal tradition: A tribute to Kenneth Pennington. Washington, DC: CUA Press.
Mullins, E. (2006). Cluny: In search of god's lost empire. New York: BlueBridge.
Noble, T. F. X. (2011). Images, iconoclasm and the Carolingians. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
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Pentcheva, B. V. (2006). Origins of the civic cult. In Icons and power: The mother of god in Byzantium (pp. 11-36). University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Robinson, I. S. (Ed.). (2004). The papal reform of the eleventh century: Lives of Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
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Strayer, J. R. (2005). On the medieval origins of the modern state (New ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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Ullmann, W. (1966). The relevance of medieval ecclesiastical history: An inaugural lecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ullman, W. (2010). The Carolingian renaissance and the idea of kingship. New York: Routledge.
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