The Era of the Dominate, or the Triumph of Imperial Absolutism
The Roman Empire reached its peak in the second century at a time when its dramatic territorial expansion, made sound government and administration difficult.[97] This explains why, beginning in the late second century, Rome began to suffer a series of economic and social crises (Campbell 2011, 195-215) which, from the standpoint of the history of its political constitution, caused the regime to become increasingly monarchical.[98]
From an institutional standpoint the crisis of the third century was resolved by Diocletian, when he augmented the power of the emperor, making him a “Dominus”, or absolute ruler (Boatwright et al.
2004, 438-444). This brought about the definitive demise of the republican system and an administrative centralization designed to facilitate the Empire’s governance.[99]3.6.1 From Imperator to Dominus
The crisis affecting the Roman Empire beginning in the third century, profoundly transformed its legal organization. The emperor was no longer the Republic’s protector and princeps, but gradually became the sole repository of power. The Republic finally gave way to absolute monarchy. To avoid the disintegration of the Empire the emperors reacted by securing and bolstering their absolute power, and replacing the old magistracies with a huge bureaucratic network utterly dependent upon the emperor.
The last stage of the Roman Empire, in the historiography, is expressively referred to as the “Dominate”, so named because under this regime the last vestiges of the republican constitution disappeared and the figure of the emperor was regarded in a new way, shifting from first citizen (princeps) to dominus, that is: lord and master, an Eastern-style oriental monarch, rarely appearing in public, despite having a large court. He also took on status as a divine ruler; after the formal endorsement of Christianity, the emperor came to be considered a ruler by the grace of God, and came to be exalted through a series of very strict court ceremonies (Rees 2004, 46-56), inspired by the Near Eastern monarchies and which symbolized the people’s total submission to his power.
Wearing special clothes and a distinctive crown, all visitors were to express obeisance before him.As a sacred figure, even the most important dignitaries were expected to prostrate themselves in his presence.[100]
3.6.2 The Disappearance of the Republican System
The emperor wielded all power, exercising it through a body of officials beholden to him alone. The Senate, lost even the appearance of legislative power, and became little more than the city council of Rome proper (Jones 1990, 329-333). In the other cities of the Empire, the senates also became aristocratic assemblies which, at best, managed to defend the privileges of their class, but generally had little influence on weighty political matters.
Under the Dominate, there continued to be consuls, praetors, quaestors and senators, in both the old and the new Rome (Constantinople). However, the title of consul had been reduced to but an honor, albeit one of great prestige, often adopted by the emperor himself. The year was still named for the two consuls, one of whom was appointed by the emperor of the West, and the other by the emperor of the East. The praetors and quaestors became, however, officials appointed by the emperor. The central government, in any case, fell under the exclusive purview of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus, to the point that the court and central administration travelled with the emperor (Liebeschuetz 2002, 457).[101] In the exercise of his governmental tasks the emperor was advised by a council (consistorium) composed of senior military, civil and ecclesiastical dignitaries.[102]
Local government was also totally structured. At the top, it was administrated by the praefecti praetorio, who governed the “prefectures”, which were divided into dioceses, governed by “vicars”. In turn, the dioceses were divided into provinces headed up by “presidents” (praesides). The old provinces were subdivided into smaller territorial units to increase administrative efficiency. The government of this entire territorial structure was assured by a large body of hierarchically organized officials, responsible for their administration, in general, and particularly for tax collection and judicial functions.[103]
3.7