The Constitutional History of France After Napoleon: From Monarchy to Republic
After the “100 Days” following his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon finally fell from power (June 18, 1815), for good. In the wake of his downfall, France would repeatedly swing back and forth between monarchism and republicanism.
15.4.1 From Absolutist Restoration to the July Monarchy
Initially Louis XVIII brought back absolute, divine right monarchy (1814-1824), although with the important addition of the “Charter” (La Charte), a constitution “granted” in 1814[809] which, paradoxically, allowed for the establishment of a parliamentary regime in France (Alexander 2000, 29-48), theoretically under the absolute monarchy.[810] This disappeared when Charles X was toppled by the Revolution of July 1830 (Pinkney 1973), a popular movement (Newman 1974, 26-59) which ushered in a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe I on the throne and Guizot as its most representative minister. The 1830 Revolution, however, did not mark a radical constitutional break with the previous regime,[811] as the new constitution retained most of the features of the 1814 Charter (Alexander 2003, 295). Moreover, the new regime was a conservative one, dominated by doctrinaire liberals such as Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who became the most influential political force in France (Pilbeam 1982, 351-366). This is why, for instance, the government sought to check the power of the legislature’s lower house[812] by maintaining the Chamber of Peers (La Chambre des Pairs), a French version of the British House of Lords.[813]
15.4.2 From the Second Republic to the Second Empire
The “July Monarchy”, meanwhile, disappeared as a result of the revolution of February 1848 (Rude 2005, 164-179), a movement that spread from Paris all over Europe and led to the establishment of the Second French Republic.
This revolution was the first in French history to be driven by what today we might call “socialist” aspirations for greater social justice and equality, as the new regime at first aspired to usher in a “social republic” headed up by revolutionaries like Armand Barbes (1809-1870), who that believed that political reform was the only means to social reform (Meszaros 2000, 43). This explains why for the first time social rights were recognized as fundamental liberties in the new constitution, despite the fierce opposition offered by Alexis de Tocqueville in his famous speech on the Right to Work on September 12, 1848 (Tocqueville and de Beaumont 1968, 179-187).[814]Concerning the form of government, the 1848 French constitution marked a return to a unicameral assembly-based system, and the consolidation of male universal suffrage. The Second Republic sought to avoid the flaws of the First Republic, particularly its lack of a strong executive power, which had paved the way for Napoleon’s regime. Thus, following the example of the American Republic,[815] the members of the National Constituent Assembly decided that the new republic was to have an elected president. The constitution was approved on November 4, 1848, and on the following December 10, Prince Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Napoleon I, became the first president of a French republic elected by universal suffrage,[816] as the candidate supported by the conservative bourgeoisie.[817]
The new French republic proved fleeting. After being elected president, Louis Napoleon did not hesitate to launch a coup and establish a Second Empire,[818] a “restoration” of the Bonaparte monarchy that would last nearly two decades. The new regime constitutionally marked a return to the Napoleonic, monarchic model of the state, with a very strong Executive and a weakened Legislative power. In the January 1852 constitution Napoleon III created a Legislative Corps, elected by universal male suffrage, and a Senate, entirely controlled by the emperor, who had free rein to appoint all of its members, a second chamber that acted as a forceful brake.[819] The legislature was further restricted by a decree that limited its power to accept or reject proposals produced by the Council of State, whose members were also appointed by the president (van Caenegem 2003, 208-209).
The Second Empire regime, nevertheless, saw an evolution from despotism towards greater democracy. From 1852 to 1860 France operated under a dictatorship in what historians call the Authoritarian Empire (Price 2001, 25). Beginning in 1860, Napoleon III began to liberalize his regime (Corley 1974), to the point that in May 1870 the opposition forced him to organize a plebiscite, which was, ironically, overwhelmingly won by the government, with the emperor garnering 7,538,000 votes of support versus 1,572,000 negative votes and 1,900,000 abstentions (Zeldin 1963 153-167). It is interesting to note that the emperor considered the plebiscite as an alternative to liberal parliamentary institutions, as he believed it to be the best instrument for the verification of the popular will. Consequently, he did his best to extend the use of this type of consultations (Woodward 1963, 50).[820]
15.4.3 From the Commune to the Third Republic
The Second French Empire would come crashing down, however, upon France’s defeat in the war waged against Bismarck’s Prussia.[821] Three days after Napoleon’s III surrender at Sedan, Leon Gambetta proclaimed the Third Republic in Paris on September 4, 1870. Followed a provisional government named Government of National Defense and presided over by General Trochu (Wawro 2003, 231-234). This ruled during the Siege of Paris (September 1870-January 1871). After France’s surrender national elections were held. The New National Assembly, as a “depository of the sovereign authority”, in its session of February 19, 1871, elected the conservative Adolphe Thiers as provisional “head of the executive power of the Republic”, until the new French institutions were created, under the supervision of the National Assembly.[822] One month later provisional government authority was contested by Paris’s City Council, (Commune), which proceeded to launch the first socialist revolution in Western history.
The Paris Commune (also called the Fourth French Revolution), aspired to extend its authority throughout France, but lasted just 3 months before being brutally crushed by the French National Guard, sent from Versailles where the provisional government was established.[823]For 5 years uncertainty would reign, as the National Assembly was split between republicans and monarchists. In the end republicanism would prevail, by a single vote (the Wallon Amendment, on January 30, 1875).[824] Thus arose the Third French Republic (1875-1940), notable for its lack of a formal Constitution, as it was based on three “constitutional laws”.[825] This would be the most long-lasting French regime, even down to the present day, as despite the turmoil of the Dreyfus Affair,[826] it would endure for 65 years.
The new Republic, consolidated by Jules Ferry (Fortescue 2013, 36-48), was unquestionably a secular, democratic, assembly-based regime, with a strong legislature and a weak executive branch. The constitutional laws of 1875 also considerably limited the power of the president of the Republic, who was elected indirectly by the two chambers—the Chamber of Deputies of Representatives (Chambre des deputes) and the Senate, which together formed the National Assembly. Each of the presidential acts was to be endorsed by a minister, and the government was to enjoy the confidence of both chambers. The only thing the president of the Republic could do was dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, though for this he required the Senate’s approval. This is what de Malafosse (1975, 156) called the “erasure” of the Executive.
Another peculiarity of the new republican regime was that, as an assembly-based regime, it featured a Senate to counterbalance the political power of the Chamber of Deputies, which was elected by universal suffrage. The Senate, theoretically, was to be a conservative chamber, not only because one had to be 40 years of age to be a senator, but because its members were essentially elected by the representatives of rural France, in the main traditionalists.
Even more important was what W.H.C. Smith (2005, 377) calls “absolute bicameralism”: for the first time the Senate under the Third Republic had the same powers as the directly-elected lower chamber.[827]Despite the fact that Third French Republic was an assembly-based regime, the state survived thanks to the solid administrative structure established by Napoleon. It is interesting to note that, despite featuring a government with a weak executive, the French Republic won the war of 1914-1918 against the authoritarian Prussian monarchy, thanks in large measure to the impetus and leadership of Georges Clemenceau.[828]
15.4.4 From Petain's “French State” to De Gaulle's
Presidential Republic
The Third Republic fell when Nazi troops invaded France in May of 1940. After the partitioning of France under the Armistice signed on June 22, the two chambers, the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, convened as the National Assembly and decided to liquidate the Third Republic. Of the 666 members of Parliament present on July 10,1940, only 80 voted against granting full powers to Marshal Petain to reform the constitution (Shirer 1994, 942-944). Thus arose a new French state (I’Etat frangais), authoritarian and autocratic (de Malafosse 1975, 313),[829] governed from Vichy, marking the start to one of the most maligned and regretted chapters in French history.[830] Petain’s regime was not, however, the only government of France, as on June 18, 1940, General Charles De Gaulle, exiled in London, issued his “call to honour” (Vinen 2007, 30) in which he exhorted the French not to accept their defeat and form a government for a free France.
Petain’s regime collapsed when Hitler was defeated in 1944, and De Gaulle, who had been promoting a Provisional Consultative Assembly (Assemblee consultative provisoire) since September of 1943, began to issue decrees to establish a new French government and regime.[831]
However, the head of liberated France would end up stepping down, as he did not agree with the re-establishment of an assembly-based government similar to that of the Third Republic, the formula proposed by the majority of the politicians elaborating the new constitutional framework.[832] The new republic’s charter was a full-fledged constitution, as opposed to the three constitutional laws upon which the Third Republic had rested.
It even included in its preamble a concrete reference to the fundamental rights recognized in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man, enriched by new social and economic rights “particularly necessary to our times”. Democracy was fully established in France, as the 1946 constitution was the first one to recognize the right of French women to vote (article 4).[833]The 1946 document marked another return to the parliamentary model, with a strong lower house and a weak executive. Under the new regime, the Senate disappeared and the upper house, called The Republic’s Council (Conseil de la Republique), was so irrelevant that in practice it was a unicameral regime.[834]
The Fourth Republic (1946-1958), would prove to be an era of ephemeral governments, such as that of Pierre Mendes France, one of the most emblematic politicians of period and one of the regime’s few real statesmen (Hanley et al. 2005, 27). Mendes became President of the Council of Ministers on June 18, 1954, going on to serve for only seven and a half months (Werth 1957,168-177).[835] This was the order of the day for the different governments under France’s short-lived Fourth Republic.
The crisis in Algeria, a territory integrated into the French State since its conquest in the mid-nineteenth century, which groups of Muslims were struggling to make an independent country, precipitated De Gaulle’s return to power in 1958. The new leader began by initiating a process for the drafting of a new constitution, which would result in the adoption of the one still in effect in France today: that of the Fifth Republic.[836] The Gaullist regime was, of course, republican, but unlike the previous one it was markedly presidential, as the Constitution of 1958 conferred major powers upon the president (Lascombe 2010, 30-31), at the expense of the legislature. Under the new system the Senate recovered a significant institutional role,[837] while the executive became the primary legislative power.[838]
Presidential power was consolidated after De Gaulle miraculously survived an assassination attempt in the Paris suburb of Petit Clamart on August 22, 1962.[839] As a result of this, fearing that if he disappeared the French Republic could become a Parliamentary regime again, he asked the French people to modify the 1958 Constitution by introducing the direct election of the President via universal suffrage. In the referendum held on October 28, 1962, he won a resounding personal victory against the political parties, as the French people accepted the principle that the President of the Republic ought to receive direct legitimacy from a direct election (Bernstein 1993, 71-82). Since then, the French have elected their President by universal and direct vote and not, as was traditionally done, indirectly via designation by both chambers of the legislature.
15.4.5 French Semi-presidentialism: A Return
of the Napoleonic Model of State?
After the reform of 1962, France’s constitutional regime (still in place today) found itself somewhere between Bonapartist republicanism and American presidentialism (Cambadelis 1987). Under it when presidents enjoy majority support in the National Assembly the regime becomes “presidential”, as it is the president who holds and exercises power, while when the legislature is controlled by an opposition party, the “parliamentary” system prevails, as executive power is actually wielded by the prime minister. This system, dubbed “cohabitation”, (Bell 2000, 31) has prompted some constitutionalists to brand the French regime “semi-presidential” (Marrani 2013, 11-14).
That said, it is necessary to emphasize that the president of the French Republic, provided that he enjoys a political majority in the National Assembly, holds greater constitutional powers than the President of the United States. His term lasts 5 years (formerly seven), and he may be re-elected several times, with the caveat that he may not serve more than two consecutive terms, this last limitation approved in 2008 after being advanced by Nicolas Sarkozy,[840] even though no previous president ever did serve more than two terms in a row under the current constitution.
Mitterrand (1981 and 1988) and Chirac (1995 and 2002) are the only ones to have been elected twice and served out their second terms.[841]
The power of the president of the Republic has been mitigated, however, by the introduction by President Sarkozy of the question prioritaire de constitutionalite (priority preliminary ruling on the issue of constitutionality), a constitutional reform measure passed on July 23, 2008, which strengthens the role of the Constitutional Council and introduces the principle of “judicial review”[842] for the first time in French history.
TIMELINE
The Napoleonic Stage (1799-1815)
1769 August 15. Birth of Napoleon Bonaparte in Ajaccio (Corsica).
1785 Napoleon graduates as a 2nd Lieutenant of Artillery.
1792 Bonaparte is promoted to captain.
1793 December 22. Napoleon is promoted to brigadier general because of his decisive action in the taking of Toulon from the British.
1794 July. Napoleon is arrested for his Jacobin ideas and his ties to Robespierre.
1795 October 5. Napoleon saves the Government of the Convention by quelling a monarchist uprising. As a result, he is promoted to division general (general Vendemiaire) and is assigned command of the Army of the Interior.
1796 March 8. Napoleon marries Josephine de Beauharnais. March 27. Napoleon takes control of the Army of Italy.
1797 November 16. End of the Italian Campaign. His victories make Napoleon France’s most popular military figure.
1798 July 21. Battle of the Pyramids (Egyptian Campaign).
August 2. The French war fleet is annihilated at Aboukir Bay by Admiral Nelson.
1799 October 9. After a 47-day voyage in which he manages to evade English warships, Napoleon reaches France.
November 9. Napoleon seizes power through a coup d’etat. December 25. The Year VII Constitution (1799) enters into force.
1802 August 2. French electors approve of Napoleon becoming Sole Consul, for life. Two days later the Constitution of the Year X is approved (August 4, 1802).
1804 May 18. (28 Floreal, An XII). The Senate approves a new constitution under which the government of the Republic is handed over to Napoleon as “Emperor of the French”. The Constitution is ratified by plebiscite on November 6, 1804.
1805 October 21. Defeat at Trafalgar.
December 2. Battle of Austerlitz. This victory marks the zenith of Napoleon’s military glory.
1812 June. Napoleon invades Russia in command of 700,000 men. December. Napoleon withdraws from Russia in defeat.
1814 March 31. Marshals force Napoleon to abdicate.
April 3. The Senate removes Napoleon from office.
June 4. Louis XVIII grants the French a charte.
1815 March 1. Napoleon disembarks in France.
March 20. The flight of Louis XVIII. Napoleon at the Tuileries Palace. April 22. Additional Act to the constitutions of the Empire.
June 18. Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo.
June 22. Napoleon’s second abdication. October 14. Napoleon reaches St. Helena on the English warship Northumberland.
The Restoration (1815-1830)
1815 August 14 and 22. Legislative elections. The legislature strongly supports Louis XVIII (Chambre introuvable).
1821 May 5. Napoleon dies on St. Helena.
1824 September 16. Death of Louis XVIII. He is succeeded by his brother Charles X (1824-1830).
The July Monarchy (1830-1848)
1830 July 27, 28, and 29. “July Revolution”. Fall of Charles X.
August 9. Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, rises to the throne. Absolute monarchy gives way to constitutional monarchy (“July Monarchy”). The Chamber of Deputies thoroughly revises the Charte of 1815.
The Second Republic (1848-1852)
1848 February 22. The people of Paris rise up against Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Barricades.
February 25. Restoration of universal male suffrage.
November 4. Adoption of the Constitution of the Second Republic.
The Second Empire (1852-1870)
1852 December 2. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte proclaims the Second Empire.
1870 September 1. Napoleon III is taken prisoner by the Prussians at Sedan. The Second Empire comes to an end.
September 4. Proclamation of the Third Republic in Paris.
The Third Republic (1870-1940)
1871 March 18-May 28. Paris Commune insurrection. The first “proletarian” revolution in Western history.
1875 January 30. The Wallon Amendment.
February 24. The National Assembly passes a law on the Organization of the Senate. This is the first “constitutional law”.
February 25. Adoption of the “second constitutional law” on the organization of public powers.
July 16. Third and last constitutional law on the relationships between the public powers. The three constitutional laws underpin the “Constitution of the Third French Republic”.
1905 Church and State Separation Law (Loi de separation des Eglises et de I'Etat).
World War II
1940 June 17. Petain accepts French surrender to Germany.
June 18. De Gaulle from London calls French people to resist the German occupation.
July 10. The French National Assembly and the Senate grant full powers to General Petain to promulgate a new Constitution of the French State. End of the Third Republic.
1943 September 17. De Gaulle creates a Provisional Consultative Assembly in exile.
1944 April 21. De Gaulle issues an ordonnance amounting to a provisional constitution organizing public powers in liberated France.
June 3. Creation of the Provisional Government of the Republic, headed by De Gaulle. June 6. D-Day. Normandy Landing (Operation Overlord).
June 14. De Gaulle delivers a speech in Bayeux, the first city liberated by the Allies.
August 9. Through an ordonnance republican legality in France is reestablished and the Vichy regime is declared null and void. August 25. Surrender of the German garrison occupying Paris.
1945 October 21. Elections to choose a Constitutional Assembly. The same elections approve, via referendum, a provisional “constitutional law”.
The Fourth Republic
1946 January 20. De Gaulle resigns as head of the Provisional Government out of disagreement with the terms of the new constitution.
May 5. The April 19, 1946 draft of the constitution is rejected by the French in a referendum.
June 2. A new Constituent Assembly is elected.
June 16, 1946. De Gaulle delivers a speech at Bayeux articulating his constitutional ideas for a republic with a strong executive.
October 13. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic is approved in a referendum.
October 27. The Constitution enters into force.
The Fifth Republic
1958 May 29. The President of the Republic, Rene Coty, asks Charles de
Gaulle to form a government. The National Assembly confirms De Gaulle as the head of the government on June 1.
June 3. The National Assembly approves a new constitutional law. September 28. The new Constitution is approved in a referendum by 79.25 % of the votes.
October 4. The Constitution is promulgated.
November. De Gaulle wins the legislative elections in a landslide. December. De Gaulle is elected President of the Republic with 78 % of the votes cast by 80,000 “great electors” (indirect suffrage).
1962 August 22. Assassination attempt on De Gaulle in Petit Clamart. September. General De Gaulle proposes amending the Constitution to allow the President of the Republic to be elected by a direct vote. October. In a referendum 62.25 % approve the modification of the Constitution.
1965 December 19. General de Gaulle is elected in a second round of
voting with 55.20 % of the votes. President of the Republic. The first French presidential election by direct vote.
1969 April 27. De Gaulle loses a referendum on territorial reform (52.41 % of votes against). He resigns the next day.
June 15. Georges Pompidou, President.
1970 November 9. Death of Charles de Gaulle.
1974 April 2. Death of Georges Pompidou.
May 19. Valery Giscard d’Estaing, President.
1981 May 10. Francois Mitterrand is elected President of the Republic.
(51.76 %). The Fifth Republic’s first leftist president.
1986-1988 First “cohabitation”. Jacques Chirac, Prime Minister.
1988 May 8. Mitterrand is re-elected President of the Republic (54.02 %).
1993-1995 Second cohabitation. Edouard Balladur, Prime Minister.
| 1995 | May 7. Jacques Chirac is elected President of the Republic. Re-elected in 2002. |
| 1996 1997-2002 | January 8. Francois Mitterrand dies of cancer. Third cohabitation. Socialist Lionel Jospin, Prime Minister. Conservative President Jacques Chirac. |
| 2002 | Jacques Chirac is reelected, but for the first time the presidential term is of 5 years (quinquennat, approved in the 2000 referendum). |
| 2007 | May 6. Nicolas Sarkozy is elected the sixth president of the Fifth Republic (53.06 %). |
| 2008 | July 23. A reform measure introduces the principle of “judicial review” into the French constitutional system. |
| 2012 | May 6. Socialist leader Francois Hollande becomes the seventh president of the Fifth Republic (51.64 %). |
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Further Reading
Abbott, J. S. (2006). The life of Napoleon Bonaparte. Teddington, UK: The Echo Library. Agulhon, M. (2002). 1848 ou l’apprentissage de la Republique: 1848-1852. Paris: Seuil.
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Aron, R. (2004). De Gaulle, Israel and the Jews. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
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Begley, L. (2009). Why the Dreyfus affair matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Beik, P. (1965). Louis Philippe and the July monarchy. New York: Van Nostrand.
Bernard, P., & Dubief, H. (1988). The decline of the Third Republic, 1914-1938. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Black, J. (2009). The war of 1812 in the age of Napoleon. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
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