NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. It is the privilege of every incoming president to redesign their office to suit their tastes. Donald Trump replaced the Obama rug with a rather frowsy laurel-wreath design dating from the Reagan administration.
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2. Ezra Klein, “Why Ta-Nehisi Coates Is Hopeful,” Vox, June 5, 2020.
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3. P. Schofield, ed., Rights, Representation and Reform: “Nonsense upon Stilts” and Other Writings of the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 317.
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4. See Chester James Antieau, “Natural Rights and the Founding Fathers—The Virginians,” Washington and Lee Law Review 17(1) (1960), 43–81.
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5. See Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights (New York: Norton, 2008).
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6. William Blackstone intriguingly wrote that a fetus en ventre á sa mere could indeed own property, but this was done more to ensure clean passage of title than for whatever enjoyment and use an unborn infant could derive from a freehold estate in Leeds.
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7. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Oxford: Oxford University Press reprint, 2008), 133.
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8. “Will John Bolton Bring On Armageddon, or Stave It Off?” Atlantic, March 9, 2019.
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9. See Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002).
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10. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 14, 1993.
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11. Peter N. Stearns, Human Rights in World History (New York: Routledge, 2012), 15.
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THE MIND OF JUPITER
1. “World Leaders See Washington Turmoil as Warning for Democracies Everywhere,” New York Times, January 7, 2021.
(hereafter NYT)BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
2. Tweet by the president of Zimbabwe, @edmangagwa, January 7, 2021.
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3. Lee Moran, “Fox News’ Pete Hegseth Defends Capitol Rioters: They Just Love Freedom,” Huffington Post, January 7, 2021.
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4. Jonathan Martin and Alexander Burns, “Republicans Splinter over Whether to Make a Full Break from Trump,” NYT, January 7, 2021.
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5. See Herbert J. Muller, Freedom in the Ancient World (New York: Bantam, 1961).
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6. The Overland Monthly, v. LV (January-June 1910), 524.
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7. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1993).
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8. Paul Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern: The Ancien Regime in Classical Greece (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 100.
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9. Gary Herbert, A Philosophical History of Rights (London: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 24–5.
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10. Mencius, VII, B, 14, ed. D. C. Lau (New York: Penguin Books, 1970).
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11. Ibid., I, A, 4.
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12. Ibid., VI, A, 1.
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13. The Mahabharata, Karna Parva, Chapter 69, verse (6) 58.
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14. Chakradhar Jha, History and Sources of Law in Ancient India (New Delhi: Ashish Publishing, 1987), 7.
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15. S. V. Puntambekar, “Human Rights” in Jacques Maritain, ed., Human Rights: Comments and Interpretations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), 197.
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16. A. Ezzati, Islam and Natural Law (London: ICAS Press, 2002), 85.
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17. Muhammed Shahrastani; Alfred Guillaume, ed., Kitabo Nihayat al-Iqdam fi �Ilm al-Kalam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934), 90–1.
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18.
Quran, 49:13.BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
19. Ezzati, Islam, 68.
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20. Micheline Ishay, The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 23.
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21. Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Legibus, Book II (4).
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22. Ibid., Book III (3).
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23. See Anthony Everitt, Cicero: A Turbulent Life (New York: John Murray, 2001).
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24. Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Republica, Book III (22).
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25. Cicero, De Legibus, Book II (4).
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26. Ibid., Book II (10).
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27. Ibid., Book I (10).
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28. Ibid., Book II (5).
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29. Hadley Arkes, “That Nature Herself Has Placed in Our Ears the Power of Judging: Some Reflections on Cicero’s Naturalism,” in Robert P. George, ed., Natural Law Theory: Contemporary Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 255.
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30. Quoted in A. P. d’Entreves, Natural Law: An Historical Survey (New York: Harper, 1965), 25.
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31. Ibid., 25.
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32. Ibid., 25.
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33. Jacob Giltaij and Kaius Tori, “Human Rights in Antiquity? Revisiting Anachronism and Roman Law,” in Pamela Slotte and Miia Halme-Tuomisaari, eds., Revisiting the Origins of Human Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 62.
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34. D’Entreves, Natural Law, 38.
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35. For complete analysis see Anthony Lisska, Aquinas’s Theory of Natural Law: An Analytic Reconstruction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996).
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36. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, I (91), art. 1 and 2.
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37. Ibid., I (91), art. 1 and 2.
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38. Ibid., 2ae (104).
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39. Quoted in Stearns, Human Rights, 46.
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40. R. H. Helmholz, Natural Law in Court: A History of Legal Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015), 17.
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41. See Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010).
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42. Virpi Makinen, “Medieval Natural Rights Discourse” in Revisiting the Origins of Human Rights, 68.
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43. Annabel Brett, Changes of State: Nature and the Limits of the City in Early Modern Natural Law (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 43.
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44. Ibid., 12–14.
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45. Bartolome de las Casas, In Defense of the Indians (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1970), 42–43.
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46. Quoted in Brett, Changes, 31.
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47. Quoted in Ibid., 32.
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THE TREE OF LIBERTY
1. Michael P. Zuckert, The Natural Rights Republic (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996), 148–193.
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2. Brett, Changes of State, 63.
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3. Philip Melanchthon, Philosophae moralis epitome, 2–3.
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4. Brett, Changes, 83.
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5. See Edmund S. Morgan, ed., Puritan Political Ideas (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1965).
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6. Cicero, De Legibus, I, 4.
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7. Zuckert, Republic, 118.
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8. See Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (reprint New York: Courier Corp., 2003).
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9. See C. B. MacPherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: From Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).
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10.
Brett, Changes, 69.BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
11. See M. van Ittersum, Profit and Principle: Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies, 1595–1615 (Leiden: Brill, 2006).
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12. Hugo Grotius, De Iure Belli et Pacis, I, i, x.
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13. Ibid., Prolegomena, 11.
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14. Ibid., Prolegomena, 39.
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15. Luis de Molina, De iustitia et iure, I, 2, 33, n.3.
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16. Quoted in Brett, Changes, 103.
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17. Grotius, De iure praedae, 1, Prolegomena, v. II, cap. 2.
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18. See Weber, The Protestant Ethic.
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19. Quoted in Ishay, The History of Human Rights, 92.
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20. Ronald Bosco, “Lectures on the Pillory: The Early American Execution Sermon,” American Quarterly, v. 30, 2 (Summer 1978), 156–176.
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21. Hunt, Inventing Human Rights, 30.
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22. Ibid., 81.
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23. Blackstone, Commentaries, v. IV, 3.
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24. See Annabel Brett, “Natural Right and Civil Community: The Civil Philosophy of Hugo Grotius,” Historical Journal 45 (2002), 31–51.
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25. See Katherine Gerbner, Christian Slavery: Conversion and Race in the Protestant Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018).
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26. In re Antelope, 23 U.S. 66 (1825).
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27. Cicero, De Legibus, I, 2.
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28. Ibid., II, 4.
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29. Execution Speech of Charles I (1649).
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30. Thomas Hobbes, De Corpore, 14, 3.
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31. Ibid., 1, 7.
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32. Ibid., 1, 7. See also Peter Zagorin, Hobbes and the Law of Nature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 26–28.
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33. Hobbes, Leviathan, II, XVII, 2.
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34. English Bill of Rights (1689).
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35. John Locke, Two Treatises on Government, II, ii, 7.
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36. Quoted in Zagorin, Hobbes, 27.
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37. Ibid., 26.
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38. Locke, Treatises, II, ii, 8.
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39. Ibid., II, ii, 15.
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40. Hunt, Inventing, 118.
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41. Levy and Young, “Preface,” in Morgan, ed., Puritan, v–vi.
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42. Governor Clarke to the Rhode Island Assembly, British National Archives, Colonial Series, 5, f. 1259.
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43. John Carter Brown Library, Stevens Collection, v. VIII, n. 510.
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44. Blackstone, Commentaries, I, 129.
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45. Quoted in Hunt, Inventing, 120.
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46. Quoted in Zuckert, Republic, 149.
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47. Hunt, Inventing, 122.
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48. Quoted in Michael Zuckert, “Natural Rights and Imperial Constitutionalism: The American Revolution and the Development of the American Amalgam,” in Ellen Frankel Paul et al., eds., Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 43.
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49. Board of Trade to Governor Clarke, December 29, 1697, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series 1696–1697, n. 132.
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50. William Popple to William Blathwayt, August 11, 1699. Blathwayt Papers Add. Ms. 9747, f. 19.
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51. Addington’s remarks, January 5, 1700, CSP 1700, n. 14, viii.
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52. Quoted in Zuckert, “Natural Rights,” 40.
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53. See T. J. Hochstrasser, Natural Law Theories in the Early Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
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54. Declaration of Independence (1776).
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55. Hunt, Inventing, 17.
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56. Ibid., 24–25.
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57. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789).
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THE CIVILIZATION GAME
1. “Mark Twain Home, an Anti-Imperialist,” New York Herald, October 16, 1900.
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2. Mark Twain, “To the Person Sitting in Darkness” (New York: Anti-Imperialist League, 1901).
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3. Stearns, Human Rights, 89.
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4. General Law Code for the Prussian States, proclaimed on February 5, 1794, effective June 7, 1794 (1794).
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5. The French Civil Code Translated (London: William Benning, 1827), 3.
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6. “Chartist Petition Agreed to at the Crown and Anchor Tavern Meeting in London, February 28, 1837” (1837).
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7. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology, Including the Theses of Feurbach [Feuerbach?] and the Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy (New York: Progress Publisher, 1968), 35.
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8. Friedrich Engels, “Herr Eugen Duhring’s Revolution in Science” in Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy (Garden City: Doubleday, 1959), 270.
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9. Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, The Marx-Engels Reader (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972), 726.
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10. Geoffrey Marcus, The Maiden Voyage (New York: Viking Press, 1969), 94.
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11. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What Is Property? Or an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government (London: New Temple Press, 1902), 179.
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12. See Douglas Hay, et al. Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in 18th Century England (New York: Pantheon, 1976).
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13. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, “The Declaration of Sentiments” (Seneca Falls, 1848) in Ishay, Human Rights, 164.
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14. See Jenny S. Martinez, The Slave Trade and the Origins of International Human Rights Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
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15. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999), 485.
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16. Somerset v. Stewart (1772), 98 Eng. Rep. 499 (K.B.).
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17. Martinez, Slave Trade, 23–29.
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18. Thomas Jefferson, Sixth Annual Presidential Message to Congress, December 2, 1806, in Julius W. Muller, ed. Presidential Messages and State Papers v. 2 (New York: Review of Reviews, 1917), 390.
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19. In re Antelope, 23 U.S. 66 (1825).
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20. Gerald S. Graham, A Concise History of the British Empire (New York: Viking, 1978), 132.
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21. G. M. Trevelyan, A History of England (London: Longman, 1946), 342.
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22. Graham, Empire, 140.
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23. Ibid., 128–129.
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24. See Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Penguin, 1999).
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25. Quoted in Graham, Empire, 142.
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26. John Stuart Mill, Three Essays (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 401.
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27. Ibid., 408.
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28. Quoted in Ishay, Human Rights, 153.
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29. George Bernard Shaw, Fabianism and the Empire (London: Fabian Society, 1900), 22–39.
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30. Records of the Delhi Residency and Agency (Lahore: 1911), 2.
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31. Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (New York: Little, Brown, 1998), 201.
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32. Ibid., 151.
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33. Archibald Primrose, Lord Rosebery, “Speech before the Colonial Institute,” March 1, 1893.
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34. Lord Rosebery, “Glasgow Rectorial Address,” November 23, 1900.
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35. Thomas R. Metcalf, An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain’s Raj (London: Faber and Faber, 2002), 225.
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36. British Parliamentary Papers: Colonies and East Indies 1804–1874 (Shannon: 1970), v. 15, 205.
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37. See Douglas Burgess, Engines of Empire: Steamships and the Victorian Imagination (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016).
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38. Abdul Hamid, A Chronicle of British Indian Legal History (Jaipur: RBSA Publishers, 1991), 129.
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39. M. P. Jain, Outlines of Indian Legal History (Delhi: Wadhwa International, 1999), 230.
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40. Quoted in Hamid, Chronicle, 150.
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41. Quoted in Ibid., 151.
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42. G. S. Chhabra, Advance Study in the History of Modern India, Volume 2 (Delhi: Lotus Press, 2005), 265.
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43. Neier, Rights, 48.
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44. Quoted in James, Raj, 158.
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45. Quoted in Graham, Empire, 208.
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46. James, Raj, 178.
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THE GREAT ADVENTURE
1. John Malcolm Brinnin, The Sway of the Grand Saloon (New York: Delacorte Press, 1971), 333–334.
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2. See Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998).
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3. Ibid., 243.
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4. Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), 243.
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5. Power, A Problem from Hell, 5.
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6. Ibid., 7.
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7. See Taner Akcam, The Young Turks’ Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).
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8. Power, Problem from Hell, 11.
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9. Albert Fried, ed., A Day of Dedication: The Essential Writings & Speeches of Woodrow Wilson (New York: Macmillan, 1965), 301.
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10. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2001), 18.
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11. Ibid., 91.
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12. Ibid., 5.
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13. Patricia O’Toole, The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and the World He Made (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018), 141.
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14. E. David Cronon, ed., The Political Thought of Woodrow Wilson (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), 269.
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15. Ibid., 275.
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16. Ibid., 269.
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17. Ibid., 275.
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18. Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality, 1914–1915 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 512–514.
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19. Cronon, Thought, 294–295.
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20. O’Toole, The Moralist, 112–113.
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21. Ibid., 113.
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22. Ibid., 205.
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23. Ibid., 241.
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24. Fried, Day of Dedication, 305.
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25. Cronon, Thought, 269.
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26. Edwin Rozwenc and Thomas Lyons, eds., Realism and Idealism in Wilson’s Peace Program (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1965), 33.
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27. Cronon, Thought, 433.
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28. Fried, Day of Dedication, 322.
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29. Rozwenc and Lyons, Realism and Idealism, 13.
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30. Fried, Day of Dedication, 360.
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31. O’Toole, The Moralist, 343.
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32. Rozwenc and Lyons, Realism and Idealism, 44.
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33. Macmillan, Paris 1919, 92–93.
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34. Ibid., 317–318.
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35. Ibid., 318.
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36. Ibid., 7.
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37. O’Toole, The Moralist, 358.
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38. Ibid., 360.
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39. Ibid., 395.
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40. Ibid., 409.
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41. Fried, Day of Dedication, 400.
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42. Ibid., 408.
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43. Ibid., 417.
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44. Ibid., 453.
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45. Ibid., 459.
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46. Ibid., 472.
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THE PRESIDENT’S GHOST
1. Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt—the Home Front in World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster), 1994, 39.
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2. Michael Dobbs, Six Months in 1945: FDR, Stalin, Churchill and Truman—From World War to Cold War (New York: Vintage, 2013), 78.
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3. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 573.
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4. Walter White, A Man Called White (New York: Viking Press, 1948), 179.
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5. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 193.
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6. See Mary Ann Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York: Random House, 2001).
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7. Glen M. Johnson, “The Contributions of Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt to the Development of International Protection for Human Rights,” Human Rights Quarterly 9 (February 1987), 19–48.
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8. See Allida Black, Casting Her Own Shadow: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Shaping of Postwar Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
9. Brian Bix, “Natural Law Theory,” in Dennis Patterson, ed., A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996), 223–40.
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10. See Elmer Bendiner, A Time for Angels: The Tragicomic History of the League of Nations (New York: Knopf, 1975).
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11. See Antony Alcock, A History of the International Labor Organization (New York: Octagon Books, 1971).
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12. “TraitĂ© gĂ©nĂ©ral de rĂ©nonciation à la guerre…” League of Nations Treaty Series 94 (no. 2137), 57.
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13. Speech before the League of Free Nations Association, March 1, 1919, found in the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, Speech File, Box 1, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. Summary of remarks given in NYT, March 2, 1919. (Hereafter Roosevelt MSS)
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14. Speech at the League to Enforce Peace, July 18, 1919, reported in Poughkeepsie Evening Star and Enterprise, July 19, 1919.
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15. Roosevelt explicitly references the league as the basis of a “new international law” in a speech given in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, August 20, 1920, Roosevelt MSS.
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16. Speech accepting the Democratic nomination for vice president, August 9, 1920, Roosevelt MSS.
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17. Draft of Jefferson Day Dinner Speech, April 13, 1945, Roosevelt MSS.
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18. Robert Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper, 1948), 9.
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19. See Clifford Putney, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
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20. Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember (New York: Harper, 1949), 69.
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21. Quoted in Rowland Brucken, A Most Uncertain Crusade: The United States, the United Nations, and Human Rights 1941–1953 (De Kalb: NIU Press, 2014), 42.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
22. Susan Dimock, “The Natural Law Theory of St. Thomas Aquinas” in Joel Feinberg and Jules Coleman, Philosophy of Law (Belmont: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning, 2000), 19–32. See also Rev. John Jenkins, “Aquinas, Natural Law and the Challenges of Diversity” in Edward B. McLean, Common Truths: New Perspectives on Natural Law (Wilmington: ISI Books, 2000), 57–72.
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23. Fourth Inaugural Address, January 25, 1945, Roosevelt MSS.
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24. Speech in Mitchell, South Dakota, August 14, 1920, Roosevelt MSS.
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25. Speech before the Old Town Merchants and Manufacturers’ Association, reported in Baltimore American, March 7, 1919.
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26. Speech given at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, June 25, 1919, Roosevelt MSS.
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27. John Gunther, Roosevelt in Retrospect (New York: Harper, 1950), 216.
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28. Josephus Daniels, The Wilson Era: 1917–1923 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1946), 273.
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29. Emil Ludwig, Roosevelt: A Study in Fortune and Power (New York: Viking Press, 1938), 71.
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30. The full draft of Roosevelt’s “A Plan to Preserve World Peace” may be found in the appendices of Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember, 353–366.
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31. Ibid., 34.
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32. Statement prepared for Esther Lape of the American Peace Award Committee, July 1923, Roosevelt MSS.
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33. Roosevelt to Edward Bok, August 12, 1923, Roosevelt MSS.
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34. See Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
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35. For a comprehensive history of international response to the Congo atrocities, see Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost.
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36. Speech given in Chicago on October 5, 1937, Roosevelt MSS.
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37. Frederick Pollack, “The King’s Peace in the Middle Ages” in Select Essays of Anglo-American Legal History v. 2 (Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1907), 334; see also F. W. Maitland, The Constitutional History of England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1919).
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38. Originally published in Reichsgesetzblatt I, 1935, 1146.
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39. See Richard Lawrence Miller, Nazi Justiz: Law of the Holocaust (Westport: Praeger, 1995).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 39
40. For multiple accounts see Erik Larson, In the Garden of Beasts: Love, Terror and an American Family in Hitler’s Berlin (New York: Broadway Paperbacks, 2011).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 40
41. Brendan F. Brown, “Natural Law and the Law-Making Function in American Jurisprudence,” Notre Dame Law Review 9 (1939), 9–25.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 41
42. Clarence Streit, Union Now: A Proposal for a Federal Union of the Democracies of the North Atlantic (New York: Harper, 1939).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 42
43. Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” January 1, 1941.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 43
44. Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (New York: Harper, 1952), 263.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 44
45. State of the Union Address, January 6, 1941, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 45
46. For analysis of the text and its impact, see Frank Donovan, Mr. Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms: The Story behind the United Nations Charter (New York: Dodd Mead, 1966).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 46
47. Brucken, Crusade, 11–16. See also Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 47
48. Sumner Welles, The World of the Four Freedoms (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 30.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 48
49. Jane H. Pease, “The Road to the Higher Law,” New York History 40, 2 (April 1959), 117–136.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 49
50. See Jo Renee Formicola, The Catholic Church and Human Rights (New York: Garland Publishing, 1988).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 50
51. Brucken, 27.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 51
52. Richard H. Immerman, John Foster Dulles: Piety, Pragmatism, and Power in U.S. Foreign Policy (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1999); see also Ronald Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power (New York: Free Press, 1982).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 52
53. “ �Six Pillars Peace Program’ of Federal Council of Churches,” NYT, June 6, 1943.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 53
54. See Douglas Brinkley and David R. Facey-Crowther, eds., The Atlantic Charter (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 54
55. Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 36–40; see also Theodore Wilson, The First Summit: Roosevelt and Churchill at Placentia Bay, 1941 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 55
56. Quoted in Quincy Wright, “Human Rights and the World Order,” International Conciliation (April, 1943), 238.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 56
57. Hoopes and Brinkley, Creation of the U.N., 45–47.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 57
58. See Tony Evans, U.S. Hegemony and the Project of Universal Human Rights (New York: St. Martin’s, 1996).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 58
59. Catherine Grollman, “Cordell Hull and His Concept of a World Organization,” PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1965.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 59
60. Cordell Hull, “The War and Human Freedom,” radio address delivered July 23, 1942 (New York: Literary Licensing LLC, 2013).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 60
61. Third Inaugural Address, January 20, 1941, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 61
62. For Berle’s account of the committee proceedings, see Beatrice B. Berle and Francis Jacobs, eds., Navigating the Rapids, 1918–1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 62
63. Quoted in Brucken, Crusade, 27.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 63
64. Percy Bordwell to Franklin Roosevelt, January 18, 1943, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 64
65. Brucken, Crusade, 49.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 65
66. Harley Notter, Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, 1939–1945 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1950), 526–32.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 66
67. Quincy Wright, “Human Rights and the World Order,” International Conciliation 389 (April 1943), 238–62.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 67
68. Daniel Gorman, “International Law and the International Thought of Quincy Wright, 1918–1945,” Diplomatic History 41, 2 (April 2017), 336–361.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 68
69. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, 363.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 69
70. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 211.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 70
71. Clark Eichelberger, Organizing for Peace: A Personal History of the Founding of the United Nations (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 193.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 71
72. Quoted in Brucken, Crusade, 37.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 72
73. William D. Hassett, Off the Record with F.D.R. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1958), 166–7.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 73
74. Ruth B. Russell, A History of the United Nations Charter: The Role of the United States, 1940–1945 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1958), 219–20.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 74
75. Brucken, Crusade, 55.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 75
76. See, generally, Hoopes and Brinkley, Creation.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 76
77. Brucken, Crusade, 11.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 77
78. Jim Bishop, FDR’s Last Year (New York: William Morrow, 1974), 419.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 78
79. Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America during World War II (New York: Atheneum, 1967), 132–3. For a complete account of Vandenberg’s political transformation, see David C. Tompkins, Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg: The Evolution of a Modern Republican, 1884–1945 (Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1970).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 79
80. Ibid., 150–153.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 80
81. Quoted in Bishop, Last Year, 56–7.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 81
82. Robert C. Hilderbrand, Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 105.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 82
83. Hoopes and Brinkley, Creation, 143.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 83
84. Diary of Edward Stettinius, September 21, 1944, Thomas Campbell and George Herring, eds., The Diaries of George Stettinius, Jr. (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 84
85. Speech given in Chicago, October 28, 1944, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 85
86. Robert Summers, ed. Dumbarton Oaks (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1945), 138–9; see also “Davis Sees Dark Future if Present Efforts Fail,” Changing World 17 (January 1945), 5.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 86
87. Quincy Wright, review, “The World of the Four Freedoms, Sumner Welles,” Journal of Political Economy 52, 1 (March 1944), 95.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 87
88. Department of State, Report on the Delegation of the United States of America to the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946); see also “Resolution 30 of the Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace,” US Department of State Bulletin 12 (March 18, 1945), 449; US Department of State, The United Nations Conference on International Organization: Selected Documents (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946), 92.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 88
89. State of the Union, January 6, 1945, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 89
90. Address to Congress, March 1, 1945, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 90
91. David B. Woolner, The Last 100 Days: FDR at War and Peace (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 224.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 91
92. US Department of State, The United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, April 25 to June 26, 1945. Selected Documents (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 92
93. Johnson, “Contributions,” 19–32.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 93
94. Diary of Margaret Suckley, March 31, 1945, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 94
95. Bishop, Last Year, 551.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 95
96. Diary of Margaret Suckley, April 6, 1945, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 96
97. Hassett, Off the Record, 335.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 97
98. New Republic, April 23, 1945.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 98
99. Address to the United Nations Conference, San Francisco, April 25, 1945, Public Papers Harry S. Truman, 1945–1953, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 99
100. Robert Schlesinger, White House Ghosts: Presidents and Their Speechwriters (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 31.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 100
101. Leland M. Goodrich and Edvard Hambro, Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (Boston: World Peace Federation, 1949).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 101
102. Divine, Second Chance, 296.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 102
103. See Dorothy B. Robins, Experiment in Democracy: The Story of U.S. Citizen Organizations in Forging the Charter of the United Nations (New York: Parkside Press, 1971).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 103
104. See Stuart Murray and James McCabe, eds., Norman Rockwell’s Four Freedoms: Images that Inspire a Nation (Stockbridge: Berkshire House, 1993).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 104
105. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt, 167.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 105
106. Justice Robert Jackson’s Address for the Prosecution at Nuremberg, November 21, 1945, Speeches-Nuremberg Prosecutor, Robert H. Jackson Center.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 106
107. Speech before the Foreign Policy Association, October 21, 1944, Roosevelt MSS.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 107
THE ADVANTAGE OF THE STRONGER
1. Quoted in Telford Taylor, Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1992), 44–45.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
2. See Varkhan Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide (New York: Bergahn Books, 2003).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
3. See Douglas Kelley, 22 Cells at Nuremberg (New York: McFadden, 1961).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
4. Eden war criminals memorandum, June 22, 1942, in British National Archives Cabinet Papers 66/25.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
5. Hannah Arendt to Karl Jaspers, August 17, 1946, in Correspondence, 1926–1949 (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1992), 54.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
6. In retrospect we now recognize that the tribunal proceedings that began in November 1945 were the first of numerous such tribunals both in Germany and Japan. That was not, however, universally envisioned at the time of planning.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
7. Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials: London, 1945 (Washington, DC: US Department of State, 1947), 48–50.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
8. Robert Jackson, “Nuremberg in Retrospect: Legal Answer to International Lawlessness,” XXXC American Bar Association Journal (October 1949), 813–887.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
9. Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1947), v. 2, 101.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
10. Harold Nicholson, Spectator, May 10, 1946.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
11. Airey Neave, On Trial at Nuremberg (Boston: Little Brown, 1978), 230–231.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
12. Plato, Republic (New York: Basic Books, 1968), 16.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
13. Michael Stolleis, The Law under the Swastika (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 15.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
14. Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York: Putnam’s, 1940), 223.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
15. Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, Supplementary Despatches and Memoranda of Field Marshal Arthur, Duke of Wellington, K.G. (London: John Murray, 1863), v. 10, 631.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
16. Ibid., v. 11, 95.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
17. Quoted in Gary Jonathan Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 50.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
18. Imperial War Cabinet minutes, British National Archive Cabinet Papers, 23/43.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
19. Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson: War and Peace, Presidential Messages, Addresses and Public Papers 1917–1924 (New York: Harper, 1925), v. 5, 11.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
20. Quoted in James F. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg: The Politics and Diplomacy of Punishing War Criminals of the First World War (Westport: Greenwood, 1982), 25.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
21. Committee on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties, British National Archives Foreign Office Papers, 1201/3.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
22. This is not to say that Napoleon was an ideal candidate either. In fact the history of his political rise was long and convoluted, and it is not at all clear whether it could be termed “usurpation” by even the most liberal understanding of the term. What is clear is that, had it been so, the legitimacies of a great many of Europe’s monarchies—including Britain herself—would fall into question. So perhaps it was best they sent him to St. Helena.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
23. Quoted in Egon Schwelb, “Crimes against Humanity,” 23 British Year Book of International Law (1946), 178–226.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23
24. Punishment for War Crimes: The Inter-Allied Declaration Signed at St. James’ Palace, London, January 13, 1942 (London: Inter-Allied Information Committee, 1942), 3–4.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24
25. See Leonard Baker, Brahmin in Revolt: A Biography of Herbert C. Pell (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1972).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25
26. Taylor, Anatomy, 28.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26
27. International Conference on Military Trials (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1949), 9.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 27
28. Ibid., 9.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28
29. Taylor, Anatomy, 29.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 29
30. History of the United States War Crime Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (London: United States War Crimes Commission, 1948), 107–108.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 30
31. Taylor, Anatomy, 29.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 31
32. Bass, Hand of Vengeance, 147.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 32
33. Eden memorandum, June 22, 1942, British National Archives Cabinet Papers 66/25.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 33
34. Drexel A. Sprecher, Inside the Nuremberg Tribunal: A Prosecutor’s Comprehensive Account (New York: University Press of America, 1999), 27.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 34
35. See Power, A Problem from Hell.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 35
36. Michael B. Oren, Power, Faith and Fantasy: Americans in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 334.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 36
37. John Morton Blum, Roosevelt and Morgenthau (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), xvi.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 37
38. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 299.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 38
39. Henry Morgenthau, Diaries of Henry Morgenthau Jr., September 22, 1944, FDR Library.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 39
40. “Post Surrender Germany Program,” September 4, 1944, in Ibid.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 40
41. Ibid., September 4, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 41
42. Ibid., September 4, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 42
43. Ibid., September 4, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 43
44. Henry L. Stimson, August 25, 1944, The Politics of Integrity: The Diaries of Henry L. Stimson (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); see also “Diary of Henry L. Stimson, 1923–1945, Yale University Archives.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 44
45. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 543–544.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 45
46. Ibid., 234.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 46
47. Stimson, Diary, September 27, 1940.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 47
48. Ibid., September 16, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 48
49. Ibid., October 25, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 49
50. Gary Jonathan Bass writes, “Stimson’s approach is the kind of legal reasoning that would not have considered it a murder when Cain slew Abel, because such a crime had not been committed before.” Bass, Stay, 175.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 50
51. Stimson to FDR, Diary, September 9, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 51
52. Bass, Stay, 155–156.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 52
53. Stimson to FDR, Diary, September 9, 1944.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 53
54. Journal of the United Nations, No. 58. Supp. A-A/P.V./55, 185.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 54
55. Taylor, Anatomy, 4.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 55
56. Conot, Justice, 11.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 56
57. Bradley F. Smith, Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg (New York: Basic Books, 1977), 27.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 57
58. Quoted in Taylor, Anatomy, 38.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 58
59. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt, 472.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 59
60. International Conference on Military Trials (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1949), 3–17.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 60
61. Robert C. Jackson, “The Challenge of International Lawlessness,” 374 International Conciliation (1940–1941), 683–691.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 61
62. Speech by Robert Jackson, 35 American Journal of International Law (1941), 355–356.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 62
63. Telford Taylor, “The Nuremberg Trials,” International Reconciliation 450 (1949), 241–372.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 63
64. Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1947), v. 2, 103.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 64
65. Sprecher, Inside, 65.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 65
66. Trial, v. 2, 109.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 66
67. Ibid., 113.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 67
68. Ibid., 115.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 68
69. Ibid., 123.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 69
70. Ibid., 103.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 70
71. Quincy Wright, “The Law of the Nuremberg Tribunal,” 41 American Journal of International Law (1947), 38–72.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 71
72. Thomas J. Dodd, “The Nuremberg Trials,” 37 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (January 1947), 357–367.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 72
73. Trial, v. 17, 553.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 73
74. Ibid., 514.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 74
75. Ibid., v. 2, 125.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 75
THE CAROUSEL OF PROGRESS
1. See Lawrence Samuel, The End of the Innocence: The 1964–1965 New York World’s Fair (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2007).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
2. Preamble to the Charter of the United Nations, June 26, 1945.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
3. Glendon, A World Made New, 21.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
4. Eleanor Roosevelt, “The Promise of Human Rights,” Foreign Affairs (April 1948), 473.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
5. Glendon, World, 72.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
6. Martain, Human Rights: Comments and Interpretations, 186.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
7. Mohandas Gandhi, “Letter Addressed to the Director-General of UNESCO” in Ibid., 18.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
8. Humayun Kabir, “Human Rights: The Islamic Tradition and the Problems of the World Today” in Ibid., 191.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
9. Human Rights Commission, First Session, Summary Records, quoted in Glendon, World, 37.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
10. Ibid., 37.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
11. Ibid., 146.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
12. Eleanor Roosevelt, “Making Human Rights Come Alive,” in Allida Black, ed., What I Hope to Leave Behind: The Essential Essays of Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: Carlson Press, 1995), 559.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
13. Eleanor Roosevelt, On My Own (New York: Harper Publishing, 1958), 77.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
14. Glendon, World, 37–8.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
15. Ibid., 166.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
16. See, for example, Henry Steiner and Philip Alston, International Human Rights in Context (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996). For an alternative view, see Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
17. “Statement by Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt,” Department of State Bulletin, December 19, 1948, 751–2.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
18. See, generally, Borgwardt, New Deal.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
19. US Department of State, The United Nations: Four Years of Achievement, Department of State Publication 3624 (September 1949), 1–2.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
20. Elizabeth Borgwardt, “Constitutionalizing Human Rights: The Rise and Rise of the Nuremberg Principles” in Akira Iriye, et al., eds., The Human Rights Revolution: An International History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 78.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
21. See Mark Bradley, “The Ambiguities of Sovereignty: The United States and the Global Rights Cases of the 1940’s” in Douglas Howland and Luise White, eds., Art of the State: Sovereignty Past and Present (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
22. Richard Davies, Defender of the Old Guard: John Bricker and American Politics (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993), 155.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
23. Duane Tananbaum, The Bricker Amendment Controversy: A Test of Eisenhower’s Political Leadership (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 35.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23
24. Department of State, Bulletin, 28, no. 721 (April 20, 1953), 591.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24
25. Borgwardt, “Constitutionalizing,” 79.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25
26. Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, 343.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26
27. Dixie Bartholomew-Frees, The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the War against Japan (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006), 243. See also Samuel Moyn, “Imperialism, Self-Determination and the Rise of Human Rights” in Iriye, Human Rights, 159–160.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 27
28. Moyn, “Imperialism,” 160.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28
29. Stearns, Human Rights, 129.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 29
30. Ibid., 130–1.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 30
31. See Bonny Ibhawoh, Imperialism and Human Rights: Colonial Discourses of [on?] Rights and Liberties in African History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 31
32. Moyn, “Imperialism,” 163.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 32
33. Amilcar Cabral, “Anonymous Soldiers for the United Nations” in Richard Handyside, ed., Revolution in Guinea: Selected Texts (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969), 50–1.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 33
34. Blackstone, Commentaries, I, 129.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 34
THE LAST CRUSADE
1. Jamie Metzl, Western Responses to Human Rights Abuses in Cambodia, 1975–1980 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1996), 11.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
2. Power, A Problem from Hell, 103.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
3. Ibid., 89–90.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
4. Joan Criddle and Teeda Butt Mam, To Destroy You Is No Loss: The Odyssey of a Cambodian Family (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1987), 105.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
5. “Human Rights Violations in Cambodia,” April 21, 1978, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1978, v. 2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1979), 767–768.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
6. Power, Problem, 133–134.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
7. Moyn, The Last Utopia, 3.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
8. Stephen Hopgood, The Endtimes of Human Rights (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2013), 98.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
9. Aryeh Neier, The International Human Rights Movement: A History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012), 169.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
10. Mission statement available on www.cartercenter.org.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 10
11. Neier, International, 171–175.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
12. Ibid., 174.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 12
13. Ronald Reagan, “Farewell Address to the Nation,” January 11, 1989.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 13
14. Nicolas Guilhot, The Democracy Makers: Human Rights and International Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 75.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 14
15. Ronald Reagan, “Speech Commemorating the Statue of Liberty Restoration,” July 3, 1986.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 15
16. Stearns, Human Rights, 147.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 16
17. Bilahari Kausikan, “Asia’s Different Standard,” Foreign Policy (Fall 1993), 24–41.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 17
18. Ibid., 41.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 18
19. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, June 25, 1993.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 19
20. Ibid.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 20
21. Quoted in Ishay, Human Rights, 289.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 21
22. www.icty.org.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 22
23. “ �My soul is still in Rwanda’: 25 years after the genocide, Roméo Dallaire still grapples with guilt,” CBC Radio, April 7, 2019.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 23
24. M. Cherif Bassiouni, “From Versailles to Rwanda in Seventy-Five Years: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court,” Harvard Human Rights Journal 10 (1997), 12–13.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 24
25. Aryeh Neier, Taking Liberties: Four Decades of the Struggle for Rights (New York: Public Affairs, 2003), 363.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25
26. Hopgood, Endtimes, 126.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26
27. Tim Kelsall, Culture under Cross Examination: International Justice and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 36.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 27
28. See my own study, Douglas Burgess, World for Ransom: Piracy Is Terrorism, Terrorism Is Piracy (New York: Prometheus Books, 2010).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28
29. Vice President Dick Cheney on Meet the Press, September 16, 2001.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 29
30. Jameel Jaffer and Amrit Singh, Administration of Torture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 29–30.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 30
31. G. John Ikenberry and Anne-Marie Slaughter, “Forging a World of Liberty under Law: US National Security in the 21st Century,” Princeton Project on National Security, September 2006.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 31
32. Geoffrey Robertson, “Why It’s Absurd to Claim that Justice Has Been Done,” Independent, May 3, 2011.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 32
33. Hopgood, Endtimes, 164.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 33
34. Neier, International, 311.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 34
35. Hopgood, Endtimes, 142.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 35
36. Ibid., 165.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 36
37. “Chic-fil-A’s Ties to a Controversial Christian Charity Are Going Viral,” Business Insider, October 17, 2019.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 37
38. Ben Rhodes, “Inside the White House during the Syrian �Red Line’ Crisis,” Atlantic, June 3, 2018.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 38
39. Ibid.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 39
AMERICAN CARNAGE
1. Robert Graves, I, Claudius (New York: Harrison Smith, 1934), 395.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 1
2. Jorge Ramos, “What I Learned from My Brush with Trump,” NYT, December 4, 2020.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 2
3. Mary Druziak, “Donald Trump and America’s Moral Authority,” NYT, July 22, 2016.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 3
4. Somini Sengupta, “Nikki Haley Calls United Nations Human Rights Council �So Corrupt,’ ” NYT, March 29, 2017.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 4
5. Jorge D. Castaneda, “The Cost of Trump’s Retreat from Rights,” NYT, April 26, 2017.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 5
6. Pippa Norris, “Trump’s Global Democracy Retreat,” NYT, September 17, 2017.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 6
7. “To Trump, Human Rights Concerns Are Often a Barrier to Trade,” NYT, May 20, 2017.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 7
8. “ �Fake News,’ Trump’s Obsession, Is Now a Cudgel for Strongmen,” NYT, December 12, 2017.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 8
9. “Trump Takes Incoherence and Inhumanity and Calls It Foreign Policy,” NYT, October 19, 2019.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 9
10. “Trump’s World and the Retreat of Shame,” NYT, March 9, 2018.
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11. “Trump to Dictators: Have a Nice Day,” NYT, June 19, 2018.
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12. Gary J. Bass, “Trump’s Cynical Use of Human Rights,” NYT, February 12, 2018.
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13. “Trump Uses Kids Sold into Sex Slavery to Score Political Points,” NYT, February 26, 2020.
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14. Ibid.
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15. “The Trump Musical: Anything Goes,” NYT, March 5, 2019.
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16. “Trump’s World,” op. cit.
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17. “Trump’s �Concentration Camps.’ ” NYT, June 23, 2019.
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18. “U.N. Rights Chief Tells U.S. to Stop Taking Children from Parents,” NYT, June 18, 2018.
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19. “Trump Withdraws U.S. from U.N. Human Rights Council,” NYT, June 19, 2018.
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20. “Commission on Unalienable Rights,” Federal Register, May 30, 2019.
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21. Michael Pompeo, “Unalienable Rights and U.S. Foreign Policy,” Wall Street Journal, July 7, 2019.
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22. US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, June 12, 2019.
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23. Roger Cohen, “Trump’s Ominous Attempt to Redefine Human Rights,” New York Times, July 12, 2019.
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24. Michael Fuchs, “Donald Trump Is on an Orwellian Mission to Redefine Human Rights,” The Guardian, July 18, 2019.
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25. Pranshu Verma, “Pompeo’s Quest to Redefine Human Rights Draws Concern at UN,” NYT, September 20, 2020.
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26. “A New Trump Battleground: Defining Human Rights,” NYT, June 17, 2019.
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27. “Pompeo Says Human Rights Policy Must Prioritize Property Rights and Religious Liberty,” NYT, July 16, 2020.
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28. Ibid.
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29. “Pompeo’s Quest,” op. cit.
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30. “At the State Dept., Calling for Alliances and Acting as a Coalition of One,” NYT, November 2, 2020.
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31. “Trump’s Sanctions May Do Little Beyond Alienating Allies,” NYT, October 18, 2020.
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32. Chile Eboe-Osuji, “All We Want Is Justice for Victims, Says the I.C.C.,” NYT, June 18, 2020.
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33. Joe Biden, “Why America Must Lead Again,” Foreign Affairs, March/April, 2020.
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34. “Britain, Charting Its Own Course on Human Rights, Imposes New Sanctions,” NYT, July, 6, 2020.
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35. “Biden Wants America to Lead the World. It Shouldn’t.” NYT, December 2, 2020.
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36. “Feeling Spurned by Trump, UN Sees Redemption in Biden and His Team,” NYT, December 3, 2020.
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PROGRESSLAND
1. F. W. Maitland and Francis C. Montague, A Sketch of English Legal History (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1915), 2.
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2. Henkin, The Age of Rights.
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3. See Power, A Problem from Hell.
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4. Quoted in Susan Dimock, “The Natural Law Theory of St. Thomas Aquinas” in Joel Feinberg and Jules Coleman, Philosophy of Law (New York: Wadsworth, 1999), 19–33.
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5. Maitland, Constitutional History of England, 539.
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6. Maitland and Montague, A Sketch of English Legal History, 1.
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7. Robert Jackson, “Opening Statement for the Prosecution at the International Military Tribunal,” November 21, 1945.
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