Notes

Except where otherwise indicated, all translations to English are mine.

Introduction

1. For example, Marcelo D’Salete comic books, originally published in Portuguese in Brazil, then translated and published in several languages, including English.

2. The book was years in the making and was initially self-published. See Gayl Jones, Palmares (New York: Beacon Press, 2021).

3. See Vincent Carretta, Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (New York: Penguin, 2005); James H. Sweet, Domingos Álvares: African Healing and the Intellectual History of the Atlantic World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); João José Reis, Divining Slavery and Freedom: The Story of Domingos Sodré, an African Priest in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015); David Blight, Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2018); and João José Reis, Flávio dos Santos Gomes, and Marcus J. M. de Carvalho, The Story of Rufino: Slavery, Freedom, and Islam in the Black Atlantic (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020).

4. On the statuses of these first Africans and the birth of slavery in the English colonies of the Americas, and in Virginia, see Michael Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 1–79.

5. Nikole Hannah-Jones and Jake Silverstein, eds., “The 1619 Project,” New York Times Magazine, August 14, 2019, 1–93. A revised version of the project was also released as a book; see Nikole Hannah-Jones, The 1619 Project: A New Origin Story (New York: One World, 2021).

6. On its academic critics, see Sean Wilentz, “A Matter of Facts,” Atlantic, January 22, 2020. In 2020, Donald Trump’s administration created the 1776 Commission along with a report in part as a response to the project; see President’s Advisory 1776 Commission, 1776 Report, January 2021, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/The-Presidents-Advisory-1776-Commission-Final-Report.pdf. A few days later, on January 20, 2021, the commission was terminated by President Joe Biden. See also Annette Gordon-Reed et al., “The 1619 Project Forum,” American Historical Review 127, no. 4 (2022): 1792–873.

7. See, for example, Ana Lucia Araujo, Slavery in the Age of Memory: Engaging the Past (London: Academic Bloomsbury, 2021).

8. See Ana Lucia Araujo, Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2023).

9. See Ana Lucia Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery: Victims and Perpetrators in the South Atlantic (Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2010), and Ana Lucia Araujo, Shadows of the Slave Past: Memory, Heritage, and Slavery (New York: Routledge, 2014).

10. See Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Penguin, 2007), and Jennifer Morgan, Reckoning with Slavery: Gender, Kinship, and Capitalism in the Early Atlantic (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021).

11. See Michael A. Gomez, Reversing Sail: A History of the African Diaspora (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020); Herman L. Bennett, African Kings and Black Slaves: Sovereignty and Dispossession in the Early Modern Atlantic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019); and Toby Green, A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise of the Slave Trade to the Age of Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019). More recently, in a very accessible book, another historian makes a similar call; see Christopher Ehret, Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 BCE (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2023).

12. These estimates cover the voyages from Africa to the Americas, and they are based on the number of the enslaved Africans who effectively disembarked in the Americas. See “Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade—Estimates,” in Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, https://slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates. These numbers are constantly readjusted and do not include imports from other parts of the Americas. For estimates of enslaved people transported within the Western Hemisphere, which now includes more than 28,000 voyages, see Intra-American Slave Trade Database, https://www.slavevoyages.org/american/database.

13. As this book went into production, historian Sean M. Kelley published a new synthesis of the history of the US slave trade. Despite the focus on US slave traders, including those who led voyages to regions other than the United States in the Americas, Kelley pays some attention to the African continent. See Sean M. Kelley, American Slavers: Merchants, Mariners, and the Transatlantic Commerce in Captives, 1644–1865 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2023).

14. Among these books centering on economic dimensions are David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), and Herbert S. Klein and Ben Vinson III, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

15. See, for example, Eugene D. Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy and Society of the Slave South (New York: Vintage Books, 1965); Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (New York: Norton, 1974); and Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Vintage Books, 1976). Later books confirmed the trend centering on the United States. See Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), and Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000).

16. Among the exceptions is Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture in America: The Foundations of Black America and Nationalist Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

17. See, for example, Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (New York: Harper, 1941), and Sidney W. Mintz and Richard Price, The Birth of African-American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), originally published as Sidney Wilfred Mintz and Richard Price, An Anthropological Approach to the Afro-American Past (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1976).

18. Here I refer to the works of historians such as Eric Foner and David W. Blight. See Eric Foner, Slavery and Freedom in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), and David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

19. The first book fully dedicated to the history of enslaved women in the United States is Deborah G. White, Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985). Especially since 2010, African American women historians have published many monographs focusing on enslaved women both in the United States and in Brazil, even though there are very few overviews. Most existing syntheses also encompass the postemancipation period, including the twentieth century, and sometimes explore individual biographies. See, for example, Darlene Clark Hine and Kathleen Thompson, A Shining Thread of Hope: The History of Black Women in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1998), and Daina Ramey Berry and Kali N Gross, A Black Women’s History of the United States: Revisioning American History (Boston: Beacon Press, 2019). Never translated into English, the first book examining the history of enslaved women in Brazil is a very short study focusing on the second half of the nineteenth century and published by anthropologist Sonia Maria Giacomini; see Sonia Maria Giacomini, Mulher e escrava: Uma introdução histórica ao estudo da mulher negra no Brasil (São Paulo: Vozes, 1988).

20. Claude Meillassoux, introduction, to L’esclavage en Afrique précoloniale: Dix-sept études présentées par Claude Meillassoux (Paris: François Mapero, 1975), 21.

21. See Moses I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York: Viking, 1980), 77.

22. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study; With a New Preface (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 13. Patterson’s study was originally published in 1982.

23. Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 2–3. Lovejoy’s volume was first published in 1983.

24. Claude Meillassoux, Anthropologie de l’esclavage: Le Ventre de fer et d’argent (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1986), 68. For the English translation, see Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 67.

25. See Finley, Ancient Slavery, 9, 67–92.

26. See Noel Lenski, “Framing the Question: What Is a Slave Society?” in What Is a Slave Society? The Practice of Slavery in Global Perspective, ed. Noel Lenski and Catherine M. Cameron (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 15–57.

27. There are few books focusing either on each of these slave trades or comparing them, and most existing studies are articles. For a brief and accessible overview, see Gomez, Reversing Sail, 36. See also Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Among the earliest book-length studies about the African presence in Asia, see Joseph E. Harris, The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the East African Slave Trade (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1971). Other overviews include Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, Les traites négrières: Essai d’histoire globale (Paris: Gallimard, 2004), and Paulin Ismard, Benedetta Rossi, and Cécile Vidal, eds., Les mondes de l’esclavage: Une histoire comparée (Paris: Seuil, 2021).

28. See Christina Snyder, “Native American Slavery in Global Context,” in Lenski and Cameron, What Is a Slave Society? 169–90.

29. On this call to include Indigenous slavery in the analysis of African slavery in the Americas, see Rebecca Anne Goetz, “�?Unthinking Decision’: Old Questions and New Problems in the History of Slavery and Race in the Colonial South,” Journal of Southern History 75, no. 3 (2009): 599–612; and Nancy E. van Deusen, “In the Tethered Shadow: Native American Slavery, African Slavery, and the Disappearance of the Past,” William and Mary Quarterly 80, no. 2 (2023): 355–88. On the persistent enslavement of Indigenous peoples in the United States, see Andrés Reséndez, The Other Slavery (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), and in São Paulo, Brazil, see John Manuel Monteiro, Blacks of the Land: Indian Slavery, Settler Society, and the Portuguese Colonial Enterprise in South America, ed. and trans. James P. Woodard and Barbara Weinstein, Cambridge Latin American Studies 112 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), which was originally published in Portuguese as John Manuel Monteiro, Negros da terra: Índios e bandeirantes nas origens de São Paulo (São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 1994).

30. Among these books centering on economic dimensions are Eltis, Rise of African Slavery in the Americas, and H. Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. Finally, for a new history of the United States focusing on Indigenous populations, see Ned Blackhawk, The Rediscovery of America: Native Peoples and the Unmaking of U.S. History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2023).

31. My work stands on the shoulders of several historians who examined the South Atlantic system, especially Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de Todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968); Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1740–1830 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Roquinaldo Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil during the Era of the Slave Trade (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Mariana P. Candido, An African Slaving Port and the Atlantic World: Benguela and Its Hinterland (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013); and Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, Trade in the Living: The Formation of Brazil in the South Atlantic, Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2019), originally published as O trato dos viventes: Formação do Brasil no Atlântico Sul (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2000).

32. Dale Tomich and Michael Zeuske, “Introduction, the Second Slavery: Mass Slavery, World-Economy, and Comparative Microhistories,” Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 31, no. 2 (2008): 91–100.

33. See, for example, Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1880 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), and the trilogy Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern 1492–1800 (London: Verso, 1997), Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery: 1776–1848 (London: Verso, 2011), and Robin Blackburn, The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation and Human Rights (London: Verso, 2011). See also David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). Davis also authored a trilogy that attempted to address the problem of slavery in transnational terms, even though he never conducted primary research in any language other than English; see David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966); David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975); and David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation (New York: Vintage Books, 2015).

34. For the first proponents of this model, see Joseph E. Harris, introduction to Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, ed. Joseph E. Harris (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1982), 3–8. See also Colin A. Palmer, “Defining and Studying the Modern African Diaspora,” Journal of Negro History 85 (2000): 27–32; Kim D. Butler, “Defining Diaspora, Refining a Discourse,” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 10, no. 2 (2001): 189–219; Kristin Mann, “Shifting Paradigms in the Study of the African Diaspora and of Atlantic History and Culture,” Slavery and Abolition 22, no. 1 (2001): 3–21; and Paul Tiyambe Zeleza, “Diaspora Dialogues: Engagements between Africa and its Diasporas,” African Studies Review 53, no. 1 (2010): 1–19.

Chapter 1

1. Johannes Leo Africanus [al-Hasan Ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan], The Cosmography and Geography of Africa (Dublin: Penguin Random House, 2023), 375. The author was captured by pirates in 1518 and brought to the Vatican, where he was baptized as Johannes Leo Africanus. He completed the book in Italian in 1526 and published it in 1550.

2. Several recent studies explain how Africa was connected to global exchanges centuries before the rise of the Atlantic slave trade. See François-Xavier Fauvelle, Le rhinocéros d’or: Histoires du Moyen Âge africain (Paris: Alma Éditeur, Paris, 2013), translated into English as The Golden Rhinoceros: Histories of the African Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018); Michael A. Gomez, African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018); Green, Fistful of Shells; and Ehret, Ancient Africa.

3. Mary Kingsley, West African Studies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 226.

4. Gomez, Reversing Sail, 18.

5. John K. Thornton, A Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 1250–1820 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 12.

6. On the diplomatic mission, see J. Thornton, Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 17, and John K. Thornton, “The Portuguese in Africa,” in Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800, ed. Francisco Bethencourt and Diogo Ramada Curto (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 139. Recent research has contested the existence of this embassy. See Verena Krebs, “Re-Examining Foresti’s Supplementum Chronicarum and the �?Ethiopian’ Embassy to Europe of 1306,” Bulletin of SOAS 82, no. 3 (2019): 493–515.

7. Verena Krebs, Medieval Ethiopian Kingship, Craft, and Diplomacy with Latin Europe (Cham, Switz.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 62–65.

8. Peter P. Garretson, “A Note on Relations between Ethiopia and the Kingdom of Aragon in the Fifteenth Century,” Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 37 (1993): 41–42.

9. John K. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 27.

10. J. Thornton, “Portuguese in Africa,” 139.

11. Zurara, “Descobrimento do Senegal,” in Monumenta Missionaria Africana: África Ocidental; Segunda série (1342–1499), 7 vols., ed. António Brásio (Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1958), 1:28; João de Barros, “Descoberta do Rio Senegal (1445),” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:118; and João de Barros, “Descobrimento do Cabo Verde (1445–1446),” in Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:124.

12. José da Silva Horta and Francisco Freire, “Os primeiros contatos luso-saarianos: Narrativas europeias quatrocentistas e tradições orais biDān (Mauritânia),” in As lições de Jill Dias: Antropologia, história, África e academia, ed. Maria Candeira da Silva e Clara Saraiva (Lisbon: Etnográfica Press, 2013), 37–38.

13. For example, J. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, and more recently Randy J. Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters”: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).

14. Peter Russell, Prince Henry the Navigator (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 239–40.

15. Zurara, “Regresso de Lançarote,” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:16–17.

16. Zurara, “Partilha das presas em Lagos,” in Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:18. For an English translation of Zurara’s chronicle, see Gomes Eannes de Azurara, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1896–1899).

17. Zurara, “Partilha das presas em Lagos,” 18–19.

18. João de Barros, “Descobrimento do Cabo Verde,” 126–27.

19. J. Thornton, Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 213.

20. Alencastro, Trade in the Living, 40.

21. J. Thornton, “Portuguese in Africa,” 141.

22. J. Thornton, “Portuguese in Africa,” 145.

23. Alencastro, Trade in the Living, 23.

24. There is a significant literature on lançados; see Walter Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545 to 1800 (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970); Toby Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 115–19; and Peter Mark, “The Central Upper Guinea Coast in the Pre-Contact and Early Portuguese Period, Fifteenth to Seventeenth Century: The Dynamics of Regional Interaction,” Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde, no. 67 (2021): 113–44.

25. Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, 33–35.

26. J. Thornton, Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 84.

27. João de Barros, “Recepção do Príncipe Bemoim (Outubro—1488),” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:531.

28. Ousmane Traoré, “State Control and Regulation of Commerce on the Waterways and Coast of Senegambia, ca. 1500–1800,” in Navigating African Maritime History, ed. Carina E. Ray and Jeremy Rich (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 59.

29. Barros, “Recepção do Príncipe Bemoim,” 1:534.

30. Rui de Pina, “Como Bemoim foi feito cristão,” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:537–41; Garcia de Resende, “Conversão e baptismo de Bemoim,” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:543–49.

31. João de Barros, “Morte do Príncipe Bemoim,” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:553–59. See also Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, 85; and Francisco Bethencourt, Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 85.

32. Resende, “Conversão e baptismo de Bemoim,” 549. On this episode, see Bethencourt, Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century, 130–31. Toby Green differs with Bethencourt in thinking that that members of the crew were indeed punished. See Green, Fistful of Shells, 79.

33. Bennett, African Kings and Black Slaves, 60.

34. Bennett, African Kings and Black Slaves, 51–53.

35. Rebecca Shumway, The Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Rochester, NY: Rochester University Press, 2014), 25.

36. Green, Fistful of Shells, 108.

37. David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 304. Scholars working strictly in earlier periods use the term Mina along with Gold Coast to refer to this region; see, for example, Africa’s Gold Coast through Portuguese Sources, 1469–1680, ed. Kwasi Konadu (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022).

38. See Florence Abena Dolphyne, “The Volta-Comoé Languages,” in The Languages of Ghana, ed. Mary E. Kropp Dakubu (New York: Routledge, 2015), 50–90.

39. Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 28, and Walter C. Rucker, Gold Coast Diasporas: Identity, Culture, and Power (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015), 26.

40. Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 17–21, and Rucker, Gold Coast Diasporas, 12–13.

41. Rucker, Gold Coast Diasporas, 25.

42. Rui de Pina, “Fundamento do castelo e cidade de São Jorge na Mina,” in Monumenta Missionaria Africana: África Ocidental, 15 vols., ed. António Brásio (Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1952), 1:10–11, and João de Barros, “Construção do castelo da Mina (19-1-1482),” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 1:21.

43. Pina, “Fundamento do castelo e cidade de São Jorge na Mina,” 11.

44. On Eguafo shrines, see Sam Spiers, “The Eguafo Polity: Between the Traders and Raiders,” in Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives, ed. J. Cameron Monroe and Akinwumi Ogundiran (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 115–41. On stones as shrines in Cape Coast, about seven miles from Elmina, see the mid-eighteenth-century account Thomas Thompson, An Account of Two Missionary Voyages (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1937), 39–40. On Anomabu’s rock shrines, see Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 26.

45. Pina, “Fundamento do castelo e cidade de São Jorge na Mina,” 12–14; Barros, “Construção do castelo da Mina,” 27. For a detailed analysis of this conflict, centering the trade of gold, see Green, Fistful of Shells, 114–17.

46. For examples of this weaponry, including spears, axes, and swords, see Thomas Astley, ed. A New General Collection of Voyages [...], 2 vols. (London: Thomas Astley, 1745), vol. 2, illustration no. 77 on plate 69, p. 693.

47. Duarte Pacheco Pereira, “Descoberta da Mina e edificação do castelo (jan. 1471-1-1-1482),” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 1:4–5.

48. Duarte Pacheco Pereira, “Descoberta da Mina e edificação do castelo (jan. 1471-1-1-1482),” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 1: 6.

49. Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 27.

50. J. Thornton, “Portuguese in Africa,” 144.

51. John K. Thornton, A History of West Central Africa to 1850 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 16–17.

52. Among historians who have supported the thesis of wealth-in-people to explain accumulation of wealth are Jean Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 251, and Miller, Way of Death, 43. On the limitations of the wealth-in-people model, see Jane I. Guyer, “Wealth in People and Self-Realization in Equatorial Africa,” Man 28, no. 2 (1993): 243–65, and Jane I. Guyer and Samuel M. Eno Belinga, “Wealth in People as Wealth in Knowledge: Accumulation and Composition in Equatorial Africa,” Journal of African History 36 (1995): 91–120. For a recent bold critique of this thesis in West Central Africa, see Mariana P. Candido, Wealth, Land and Property in Angola: A History of Dispossession, Slavery, and Inequality (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 49–51.

53. J. Thornton, History of West Central Africa to 1850, 35.

54. J. Thornton, Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 183; J. Thornton, History of West Central Africa to 1850, 42.

55. Cécile Fromont, The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 75.

56. James H. Sweet, Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 113.

57. See J. Thornton, Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 43–44, Fromont, Art of Conversion, 74.

58. See Miller, Way of Death, 42–43.

59. J. Thornton, History of West Central Africa to 1850, 53.

60. Miller, Way of Death, 105.

61. Candido, African Slaving Port, 9.

Chapter 2

1. Florence Hall (Akeiso), “Memoir of the Life of Florence Hall, 1808–1820?” Powel Family Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, transcribed in Randy M. Browne and John Wood Sweet, “Florence Hall’s �?Memoirs’: Finding African Women in the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Slavery and Abolition 37, no. 1 (2016): 216. Hall’s very short unpublished handwritten narrative is among the earliest firsthand accounts about enslavement by African-born women.

2. See Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 199–214, and John K. Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800 (London: University College London Press, 1999), 127–28. See also Araujo, Shadows of the Slave Past, 15–45.

3. The only existing published biography of an enslaved person brought to Brazil is that of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, published in 1854. See Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua [...] (Detroit: George Pomeroy, 1854), and Paul E. Lovejoy and Robin Law, The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His Passage from Slavery to Freedom in African and America (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2003). See also Paul E. Lovejoy and Nielson R. Bezerra, Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: An Enslaved Muslim of the Black Atlantic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2025).

4. J. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 99. This was also true for the region of Benguela in West Central Africa during the seventeenth century and until the nineteenth century; see Candido, African Slaving Port, 199.

5. Philip D. Curtin, “General Introduction,” in Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip Curtin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 7.

6. Candido, African Slaving Port, 19.

7. Linda M. Heywood, “Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800,” Journal of African History 50 (2009): 3.

8. John Thornton, “African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade,” in Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic, ed. Derek R. Peterson (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 41.

9. See Heywood, “Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo,” 5–8.

10. Candido, African Slaving Port, 147–49.

11. See Mariana P. Candido, “African Freedom Suits and Portuguese Vassal Status: Legal Mechanisms for Fighting Enslavement in Benguela, Angola, 1800–1830,” Slavery and Abolition 32, no. 3 (2011): 447–59.

12. On Luanda and Benguela, see Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 52–54, 77. For more cases in Benguela, see Candido, African Slaving Port, 191–93.

13. Candido, Wealth, Land and Property in Angola, 8–11.

14. Candido, African Slaving Port, 201–2.

15. Candido, African Slaving Port, 206–9.

16. Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 20–23.

17. Candido, African Slaving Port, 177–82.

18. Walter Hawthorne, From Africa to Brazil: Culture, Identity, and an Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1830 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 77–80. On the “iron-slave cycle,” see Walter Hawthorne, Planting Rice and Harvesting Slaves: Transformations along the Guinea-Bissau Coast, 1400–1900 (Portsmouth, UK: Heinemann, 2003), 97–98.

19. Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 42–47.

20. Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 44; Green, Fistful of Shells, 117; 124.

21. On the discussion about Akan and Fante as separate languages or Fante as an Akan dialect, see Dolphyne, “Volta-Comoé Languages,” 52–54.

22. On the construction of this complex Fante identity, see Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 15.

23. Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 129.

24. Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 8–9; Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 123–24.

25. See A. Le Herissé, Royaume du Dahomey: Moeurs, Religion, Histoire (Paris: Emile Larose, 1911), 56, and Robin Law, Ouidah: The Social History of a West African Slaving Port (1727–1892) (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004), 149.

26. One example is the case of one of the wives of King Agonglo, Na Agontimé. See Ana Lucia Araujo, “History, Memory and Imagination: Na Agontimé, a Dahomean Queen in Brazil,” in Beyond Tradition: African Women and their Cultural Spaces, ed. Toyin Falola and Sati U. Fwatshak (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2011), 45–68.

27. Suzanne Preston Blier, African Vodun: Art, Psychology, and Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 4. See also Archibald Dalzel, The History of Dahomey: An Inland Kingdom of Africa (London: T. Spilsbury and Son, 1793).

28. J. Cameron Monroe and Anneke Janzen, “The Dahomean Feast: Royal Women, Private Politics, and Culinary Practices in Atlantic West Africa,” African Archaeological Review 31, no. 2 (2014): 307.

29. Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery, 98–99.

30. According to Robin Law, Ouidah, 63, Dahomey became tributary of Oyo in 1748. Monroe states that Dahomey started paying tributes to Oyo after 1729. See J. Cameron Monroe, The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 87.

31. Francesca Piqué and Leslie Rainer, Palace Sculptures of Abomey: History Told on Walls (London: J. Paul Getty Trust, Thames and Hudson, 1999), 42. Today the palaces house the collections of the Musée Historique d’Abomey (Historical Museum of Abomey). For an analysis of the bas-reliefs, see Monroe, Precolonial State in West Africa, 207–12.

32. Ana Lucia Araujo, “Dahomey, Portugal, and Bahia: King Adandozan and the Atlantic Slave Trade,” Slavery and Abolition 3, no. 1 (2012): 1–19. The entire correspondence between Dahomean and Portuguese rulers has been transcribed and published in Portuguese. See Luis Nicolau Parés, “Cartas do Daomé,” Afro-Ásia 47 (2013): 295–395.

33. “Relation de la Guerre de Juda par le S[ieu]r Ringard Capitaine du Navire le Mars de Nantes.” The account was fully transcribed and published by Robin Law, “A Neglected Account of the Dahomian Conquest of Whydah (1727): The �?Relation de la Guerre de Juda’ of the Sieur Ringard of Nantes,” History in Africa 5 (1988): 321–38.

34. See Law, “A Neglected Account of the Dahomian Conquest of Whydah (1727),” 326.

35. Sweet, Domingos Álvares, 26–27.

36. Belinda’s petition is considered the first known individual demand of reparations for slavery in the United States. See Roy E. Finkenbine, “Belinda’s Petition: Reparations for Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts,” William and Mary Quarterly 64, no. 1 (2007): 95–104. I examine Belinda’s case in Araujo, Reparations for Slavery, 49–51.

37. “Petition of Belinda an African, to the Honourable Senate and House of Representatives in General Court Assembled, February 14, 1783,” Digital Archive of Massachusetts Anti-Slavery and Anti-Segregation Petitions, Massachusetts Archives, Boston, MA, v. 239–Revolution Resolves, 1783, SCI/ series 45X, 239, fl. 12–16.

38. “Petition of Belinda an African,” fl. 12.

39. See Robin Law, The Ọyọ Empire, c. 1600–c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).

40. Historians do not always agree about the dates of the beginning and end of this war. Robin Law identifies a war between Owu and Ife starting in 1812 and the fall of Owu in 1822. See Law, Ọyọ Empire, 275. These dates are also corroborated by Aribidesi Usman and Toyin Falola, The Yoruba from Prehistory to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 161.

41. Paul E. Lovejoy, Slavery in the Global Diaspora of Africa (New York: Routledge, 2019), 28.

42. J. Reis, Gomes, and Carvalho, Story of Rufino, 7–8.

43. Francis de Castelnau, Renseignements sur l’Afrique Centrale [...] (Paris: Chez P. Bertrand, 1851), 22–23. Robin Law and Paul E. Lovejoy, “Borgu in the Atlantic Slave Trade,” African Economic History, no. 27 (1999): 82.

44. Donald Pierson, Brancos e pretos na Bahia: Estudo de contato racial (São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1945), 304–5. See also Feliz Ayoh’Omidire and Alcione M. Amos, “O Babalaô fala: A autobiografia de Martiniano Eliseu do Bomfim,” Afro-Ásia no. 46 (2012): 238.

45. See Kristin Mann, “One Yoruba Man’s Transatlantic Passages from Slavery to Freedom,” in The Rise and Demise of Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Atlantic World, ed. Philip Misevich and Kristin Mann (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2016), 220–46, and Kristin Mann, “Gendered Authority, Gendered Violence: Family, Household and Identity in the Life and Death of a Brazilian Freed Woman in Lagos,” in African Women in the Atlantic World: Property, Vulnerability and Mobility, 1660–1880, ed. Mariana P. Candido and Adam Jones (Rochester, NY: James Currey, 2019), 148–68.

46. On this story of Otampê Ojaró, see Lisa Earl Castillo, “The Alaketu Temple and its Founders: Portrait of an Afro-Brazilian Dynasty,” Luso-Brazilian Review 50, no. 1 (2013): 83–112.

47. The account was written in 1594 and published for the first time in 1733. See André Alvares d’Almada, Tratado breve dos rios de Guiné do Cabo-Verde desde o rio do Sanaga até aos Baixos de Sant’Anna (Porto: Typographia Comercial Portuense, 1841), 29–34.

48. Hawthorne, From Africa to Brazil, 64.

49. John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea, Brazil and the West Indies (London: Ward and Chandler, 1737), 151.

50. Paul E. Lovejoy, “Speculations on the African Origins of Venture Smith,” in The Changing Worlds of Atlantic Africa: Essays in Honor of Robin Law, ed. Toyin Falola and Matt D. Childs (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2009), 374.

51. Venture Smith, A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture Smith [...] Related by Himself (New London, CT: Holt, 1798), 6.

52. Lovejoy, “Speculations on the African Origins of Venture Smith,” 377–78.

53. Lovejoy, “Speculations on the African Origins of Venture Smith,” 376–77.

54. Vincent Carretta has argued that Equiano’s birthplace was South Carolina and not Igboland. See Carretta, Equiano, the African. Africanist historians Paul E. Lovejoy and James H. Sweet each have challenged this interpretation by showing that the ways enslaved Africans who had been transported to the Americas, sometimes at very young age, identified themselves could change over time; therefore, when examining written evidence, historians must also consider that identities are not always fixed. Consequently, despite having declared South Carolina as his birthplace years after he had endured the Middle Passage, and earlier before he wrote his autobiography in no way invalidates Equiano’s Igboland birthplace. For the main responses by Lovejoy and Sweet, see Paul E. Lovejoy, “Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African,” Slavery and Abolition 27, no. 3 (2006): 317–47, and James H. Sweet, “Mistaken Identities? Olaudah Equiano, Domingos Álvares, and the Methodological Challenges of Studying the African Diaspora,” American Historical Review 114, no. 2: (2009): 279–306.

55. Olaudah Equiano and Vincent Carretta, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings (New York: Penguin Books, 2003), 47.

56. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 47.

57. Quobna Ottobah Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery and Other Writings (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), 12–13. Page numbers for Thoughts and Sentiments in subsequent notes refer to this edition. For the original edition, see Ottobah Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery [...] (London: Printed by the author, 1791).

58. “The Ijebu kingdom stretched southwestward to the territory of Lagos and eastward across the Sasa River to the Oni River and its largest extent. It was bounded on the west by Egba, on the north by Oyo, on the northeast by Ife and on the east by Ondo.” See Toyin Falola and Aribidesi Usman, The Yoruba from Prehistory to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 97.

59. Osifekunde’s story was made public by Marie-Armand Pascal de Castera-Macaya d’Avezac in 1845, when he interviewed him in Paris. See M. d’Avezac, Notice sur le pays et le people des Yébous en Afrique (Paris: Librairie Orientale de Mme Ve Dondey-Dupré, 1845). For an English translation, see Peter C. Lloyd, “Osifekunde of Ijebu,” in Curtin, Africa Remembered, 217–88.

60. On the Owu war, see Falola and Usman, Yoruba from Prehistory to the Present, 161–65. Historian Aderivaldo Santana connects Osifekunde’s abduction with the Owu war; see Aderivaldo Ramos de Santana, “A extraordinário odisseia do comerciante ijebu que foi escravo no Brasil e homem livre na França (1820–1842),” Afro-Ásia 57 (2018): 9–53.

61. James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince, as Related by Himself (Bath: W. Gye, 1770), 4–5. According to Paul E. Lovejoy, he was taken by kola traders who made the route from Borno to the Asante territory on the Gold Coast, see Paul E. Lovejoy, Jihād in West Africa During the Age of Revolutions (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2016), 63.

62. Gronniosaw, Narrative, 5.

63. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 41.

64. Baquaqua, Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua, 24.

65. See Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 137n151.

66. For West Central African cases, see Candido, African Slaving Port, 221.

67. Greene first recorded this story in 1998. See Sandra E. Greene, West African Narratives of Slavery: Texts from Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Ghana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 187–89.

68. Bailey recorded several versions of this story in interviews she undertook in Ghana between 1992 and 2003. See Anne C. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame (Boston: Beacon Press, 2005), 27–56.

69. Greene, West African Narratives of Slavery, 188.

70. Pawnship and panyarring often appear in the literature as blurred categories. See Paul E. Lovejoy, “Pawnship, Debt, and �?Freedom’ in Atlantic Africa during the Era of the Slave Trade: A Reassessment,” Journal of African History 55 (2014): 59.

71. Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 28; 37. For a discussion on pawnship and its relationship with credit and trust, see Green, Fistful of Shells, 277.

72. See Document 525, Charles Towgood, Allampo Road, 19 Marc 1681/2 in The English in West Africa 1681–1683: The Local Correspondence of the Royal African Company of England, 1681–1699, Part I, ed. Robin Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 272.

73. The ship pilot was taken as a pawn. See Lieutenant Durand, “Journal de bord d’un négrier, 1731–1732,” Gen Mss, vol. 7, 49, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University (hereafter cited as BLY). See also Robert W. Harms, The Diligent: A Voyage Through the Words of the Slave Trade (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 147.

74. Miller, Way of Death, 179.

75. Louis-Marie-Joseph Ohier de Grandpré, Voyage à la côte occidentale d’Afrique [...], vols. 1 and 2 (Paris: Dentu, 1801), 2:63–64.

76. See Robin Law, “The Politics of Commercial Transition: Factional Conflict in Dahomey in the Context of the Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade,” Journal of African History 38 (1997): 213–33.

77. On Agontimé’s history, see Edna G. Bay, Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Politics, and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 178–81. On Agontimé’s legend, see Araujo, “History, Memory and Imagination,” 45–68. On Agontimé as the woman who introduced Dahomey Vodun in Brazil, see Pierre Verger, “Le culte des vodoun d’Abomey aurait-il été apporté à Saint Louis de Maranhão par la mère du roi Ghèzo?” Études Dahoméennes 8 (1952): 19–24. See also Luis Nicolau Parés, “The Jeje in the Tambor de Mina of Maranhão and in the Candomblé of Bahia,” Slavery and Abolition 22, no. 1 (2001): 91–115.

78. Papa Joãozinho, interview by Milton Guran, in Milton Guran, Agudás: Os “Brasileiros” do Benim (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Nova Fronteira, 1999), 78.

79. Jacqueline Abul (born Vieyra) and Renée Sadeler (born Vieyra), interview by Ana Lucia Araujo, Cotonou, Benin, June 25, 2005.

80. See Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery, chap. 7.

81. See SlaveVoyages, www.slavevoyages.org. See also Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 15.

82. See Randy J. Sparks, The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 20–23.

83. Today, the archives of Sierra Leone and the United Kingdom preserve the registers of about 92,230 of these individuals. See Richard Anderson et al., “Using African Names to Identify the Origins of Captives in the Transatlantic Slave Trade: Crowd-Sourcing and the Registers of Liberated Africans, 1808–1862,” History in Africa (2013): 1–27. A growing number of works focus on the harrowing trajectories and legal statuses of these individuals. See Sharla M. Fett, Recaptured Africans: Surviving Slave Ships, Detention, and Dislocation in the Final Years of the Slave Trade (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), Beatriz G. Mamigonian, Africanos livres: A abolição do tráfico de escravos no Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, São Paulo, 2017), Richard Peter Anderson, Abolition in Sierra Leone: Re-Building Lives and Identities in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020), and Richard Anderson and Henry B. Lovejoy, eds. Liberated Africans and the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1807–1896 (Rochester, NY: Rochester University Press, 2020).

84. See Sigismund W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana or A Comparative Vocabulary of Nearly Three Hundred Words and Phrases in More Than One Hundred African Languages (London: Church Missionary House, 1854), and Paul E. H. Hair, “The Enslavement of Koelle’s Informants,” Journal of African History 6, no. 2 (1965): 195n5.

85. See Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 77–81; Daniel Domingues da Silva, The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa 1780–1867 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 2–3.

Chapter 3

1. Zora Neale Hurston, Barracoon: The Story of the Last “Black Cargo” (New York: Amistad, 2018), 45.

2. The approximate date based on a British report is given by Sylviane A. Diouf, The Dreams of Africa in Alabama: The Slave Ship Clotilda and the Story of the Last Africans Brought to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 69.

3. Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 130.

4. See Lovejoy, “Autobiography and Memory,” 323. Based on an entry in a parish register and the muster book of the ship Racehorse, Vincent Carretta has contested Equiano’s birthplace, by arguing that he was born in South Carolina; see Carretta, Equiano, the African, 17.

5. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 47.

6. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 37.

7. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 37.

8. Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 32.

9. Candido, African Slaving Port, 219.

10. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 52.

11. See Colleen E. Kriger, Making Money: Life, Death, and Early Modern Trade on Africa’s Guinea Coast (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2017), 18–19, and Green, Fistful of Shells, 17. On cowrie shells as currency, see Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson, The Shell Money of the Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), and Bin Yang, Cowrie Shells and Cowrie Money: A Global History (New York: Routledge, 2018).

12. Atkins, Voyage to Guinea, Brazil, & the West Indies, 112. See also Law, Ouidah, 136.

13. Alain Yacou, Journaux de bord et de traite de Joseph Crassous de Médeuil: De La Rochelle à la côte de Guinée et aux Antilles (1772–1776) (Paris: Karthala, 2001), 173.

14. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 107.

15. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 13.

16. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 14.

17. On these fears of being eaten on the Gold Coast, see Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 155.

18. Miller, Way of Death, 5. See also Green, Fistful of Shells, 86, 220.

19. Kriger, Making Money, 69.

20. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 14. See also Rucker, Gold Coast Diasporas, 68.

21. Jacob Festus Adeniyi Ajayi, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther of Oyo,” in Curtin, Africa Remembered, 304; 308. See also Anderson, Abolition in Sierra Leone, 72.

22. Ajayi, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther of Oyo,” 303.

23. Ajayi, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther of Oyo,” 310–11.

24. Philip D. Curtin, “Joseph Wright of the Egba,” in Curtin, Africa Remembered, 326–27.

25. Curtin, “Joseph Wright of the Egba,” 329.

26. Curtin, “Joseph Wright of the Egba,” 330.

27. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 139.

28. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 140.

29. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 144.

30. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 149, 149n201. See also Law, Ouidah, 138.

31. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 150.

32. Diouf, Dreams of Africa in Alabama, 48.

33. Hurston, Barracoon, 52.

34. See Robin Law, “�?My Head Belongs to the King’: On the Political and Ritual Significance of Decapitation in Pre-Colonial Dahomey,” Journal of African History 30, no. 3 (1989): 413. See William Snelgrave, A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave-Trade (London, 1734), 160–61.

35. Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (hereafter cited as IHGB), Lata 137, Pasta 62, Doc. 1, ff. 6v, 7, n.d. See Araujo, “Dahomey, Portugal, and Bahia,” 10.

36. Law, “�?My Head Belongs to the King,’” 403–5.

37. Hurston, Barracoon, 53.

38. Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 123. See also Nicholas Radburn, Traders in Men: Merchants and the Transformation of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2023), chap. 2.

39. See, for example, entries of Thursday, November 1, 1750, and Friday, January 25, 1751, in John Newton, Bernard Martin, and Mark Spurrell, The Journal of a Slave Trader (John Newton), 1750–1754; with Newton’s “Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade” (London: Epworth Press, 1962), 14.

40. On Ouidah, see Law, Ouidah, 140–41. On Cape Coast, see Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 155.

41. See D. da Silva, Atlantic Slave Trade, 100–103. See also Lovejoy, Slavery in the Global Diaspora of Africa, 53.

42. Carlos Liberato et al., “Laços entre a África e o mundo atlântico durante a era do comércio de africanos escravizados: Uma introdução,” in Laços atlânticos: África e africanos durante a era do comércio transatlântico de escravos, ed. Carlos Liberato et al. (Luanda, Angola: Ministério da Cultura, Museu Nacional da Escravatura, 2016), 14–15.

43. Bruce L. Mouser, ed., A Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica: The Log of the Sandown, 1793–1794 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 87.

44. Entries of January 11, 1751, and January 20, 1751, in John Newton, Bernard Martin, and Mark Spurrell, The Journal of a Slave Trader (London: Epworth Press, 1962), 30, 31.

45. Reported by Samuel Gamble in two separate entries of the ship log in January 1794; see Mouser, Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica, 97. Successful escape attempts from forts on the Gold Coast also occurred in the seventeenth century, see Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 41–42.

46. Pieter van den Broecke and James D. La Fleur, Pieter Van Den Broecke’s Journal of Voyages to Cape Verde, Guinea and Angola: (1605–1612) (London: Hakluyt Society, 2000), 54–55.

47. Sparks, “Where the Negroes Are Masters,” 227.

48. I explore these rivalries in Ana Lucia Araujo, The Gift: How Objects of Prestige Shaped the Atlantic Slave Trade and Colonialism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2024).

49. Phyllis M. Martin, “The Kingdom of Loango,” in Kongo: Power of Majesty, ed. Alisa Lagamma (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015), 75.

50. See Roquinaldo Ferreira, Dos sertões ao Atlântico: Tráfico ilegal de escravos e comércio lícito em Angola, 1830–1860 (Luanda, Angola: Kilombelombe, 2012), and D. da Silva, Atlantic Slave Trade, 29.

51. See Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 8, and D. da Silva, Atlantic Slave Trade, 38–39; 46.

52. See H. Klein, Atlantic Slave Trade, 97.

53. On the asiento, see Linda A. Newson and Susie Minchin, From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in Early Seventeenth Century (Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2007), 18–21.

54. H. Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America, 42.

55. See Charles R. Boxer, Salvador de Sá and the Struggle for Brazil and Angola, 1602–1654 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957); Alencastro, O trato dos viventes; and Filipa Ribeiro da Silva, Dutch and the Portuguese in Western Africa: Empires, Merchants and the Atlantic System 1580–1674 (Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2011).

56. These estimates are based on SlaveVoyages, http://www.slavevoyages.org.

57. These gifts had an important role in local exchanges and the custom of exchanging gifts was extended to the transactions associated with the Atlantic slave trade. See Miller, Way of Death, 50–51; Kriger, Making Money, 31; and Green, Fistful of Shells, 133, 223–24.

58. Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, “Continental Drift: The Independence of Brazil (1822), Portugal and Africa,” in From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the Colonisation of Black Africa, 1780s–1880s, ed. Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau (London: Routledge, 2004), 103, 108n8.

59. On West Central Africa, see Miller, Way of Death, 66–67. On the Loango coast, see also Jean-Michel Deveau, La traite rochelaise (Paris: Karthala, 1990), 74–75.

60. Samuel Robinson, A Sailor Boy’s Experience Aboard a Slave Ship in the Beginning of the Present Century (Wigtown, UK: GC Book Publishers, 1996), 13–14.

61. See Green, Fistful of Shells, 13. See also Kriger, Making Money, 12–14, 23.

62. Johann Peter Oettinger, Craig Koslofsky, and Roberto Zaugg, A German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade: The Seventeenth-Century Journal of Johann Peter Oettinger (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2020), 42–43. For cotton locally produced in West Africa, see Colleen E. Kriger, “�?Guinea Cloth’: Production and Consumption of Cotton Textiles in West Africa before and during the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 105–26.

63. Miller, Way of Death, 74.

64. Kriger, Making Money, 23.

65. See Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 51, and Chris Evans and Louise Miskell, Swansea Copper: A Global History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2020), 227.

66. Green, A Fistful of Shells, 237–38.

67. Timothy Insoll and Thurstan Shaw, “Gao and Igbo-Ukwu: Beads, Interregional Trade, and Beyond,” African Archaeological Review 14, no. 1 (1997): 9–23.

68. Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery, 168.

69. To understand the early and long-lasting relations between Brazil and the Bight of Benin, in which the trade in third-rate tobacco and enslaved people was central, see Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres.

70. On Luanda, see José Curto, Enslaving Spirits: The Portuguese-Brazilian Alcohol Trade at Luanda and Its Hinterland, c. 1550–1830 (Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2004), 69. On Benguela, see Candido, African Slaving Port, 161.

71. Archives Départementales de Charente-Maritime (hereafter cited as ADCM), 41 ETP 217/6659, fl. 1v.

72. IHGB, Lata 137, Pasta 62, Doc.1, ff.3–3v, n.d. This undated letter was probably written in 1804 and sent to Brazil with the Dahomean embassy of 1805. On these grievances, see Araujo, “Dahomey, Portugal, and Bahia.”

73. See Ty M. Reese, “�?Eating’ Luxury: Fante Middlemen, British Goods, and Changing Dependencies on the Gold Coast, 1750–1821,” William and Mary Quarterly 66, no. 4 (2009): 851–72, and Shumway, Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 41.

74. In West Central Africa, see Grandpré and Ohier, Voyage à la côte occidentale d’Afrique, 1:191; Phyllis M. Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 1576–1870: The Effects of Changing Commercial Relations on the Vili Kingdom of Loango (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 79; Miller, Way of Death, 71–72; Christina Frances Mobley, “The Kongolese Atlantic: Central Africa Slavery and Culture from Mayombe to Haiti” (PhD diss., Duke University, 2015), 88; and Stacey Jean Muriel Sommerdyk, “Trade and Merchant Community of the Loango Coast in the Eighteenth Century” (PhD diss., University of Hull, 2012), 102, 168. See also Araujo, Gift.

75. David Ross, “The Dahomean Middleman System, 1727–c. 1818,” Journal of African History 28 (1987): 364–65.

76. Law, Ouidah, 61.

77. On Afro-European communities in African ports during the era of the Atlantic slave trade, see Peter Mark, “Portuguese” Style and Luso-African Identity: Precolonial Senegambia, Sixteenth-Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002) 13–14. See also George E. Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa: Commerce, Social Status, Gender, and Religious Observance from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Oxford: James Currey, 2003), and Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. On African women traders on Gorée Island and Saint-Louis, see Hilary Jones, The Métis of Senegal: Urban Life and Politics in French West Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013), 19–39; Bronwen Everill, “�?All The Baubles That They Needed’: �?Industriousness’ and Slavery in Saint-Louis and Gorée,” Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 15, no. 15 (2017): 714–39; and Jessica M. Johnson, Wicked Flesh: Black Women, Intimacy, and Freedom in the Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 16–76. On European traders and African women and their children on the Gold Coast, see Harvey M. Feinberg, Africans and Europeans in West Africa: Elminans and Dutchmen on the Gold Coast during the Eighteenth Century (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1989), and Pernille Ipsen, Daughters of the Trade: Atlantic Slavers and Interracial Marriage on the Gold Coast (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).

78. See Ipsen, Daughters of the Trade, 9.

79. See Ty M. Reese, “Wives, Brokers, and Laborers: Women at Cape Coast, 1750–1807,” in Women in Port: Gendering Communities, Economies, and Social Networks in Atlantic Port Cities, 1500–1800, ed. Douglas Catterall and Jodi Campbell (Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2012), 291‒314.

80. On African-born women traders and their unions with Portuguese men in Benguela, see Mariana P. Candido, “Aguida Gonçalves da Silva, une dona à Benguela à la fin du XVIII^e siècle,” Brésil(s): Sciences humaines et sociales, no. 1 (2012): 33–54. For Luanda, see Vanessa Oliveira, Slave Trade and Abolition: Gender, Commerce, and Economic Transition in Luanda (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2021).

81. In West Central African slave-trading routes, these agents had a variety of names. See D. da Silva, Atlantic Slave Trade, 64.

Chapter 4

1. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 150–53.

2. The term tumbeiro emerged in a seventeenth-century sermon by the Jesuit priest Antônio Vieira and soon was embraced by Brazilian and Portuguese slave traders referring to slave ships. See Charles R. Boxer, The Golden Age of Brazil, 1695–1750 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2022), 5; José Gonçalves Salvador, Os Magnatas do tráfico negreiro (séculos XVI e XVII) (São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1981), 91; and Miller, Way of Death, 314.

3. But there were shorter voyages. The Rhode Island sloop Hare departed from Sierra Leone on January 6, 1755, and arrived in Barbados just twenty days later. See Sean M. Kelley, A Journey into Captivity from Sierra Leone to South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 110. The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database features the voyage, Voyage ID 36175.

4. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 55.

5. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 15.

6. According to Robin Law, the port was probably Little Popo; see Law, Ouidah, 138.

7. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 150–51.

8. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 152.

9. Rediker, Slave Ship, 9.

10. Mouser, A Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica, 7.

11. Rediker, Slave Ship, 65.

12. “Consulta ao Conselho Ultramarino (12-8-1664),” in Brasio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 7:490–91. See also Arlindo Manuel Caldeira, Escravos e traficantes no império português: O comércio negreiro no Atlântico durante os séculos XV à XIX (Lisbon: A Esfera dos Livros, 2013), 123–24.

13. Jaime Rodrigues, “Arquitetura naval: Imagens, textos e possibilidades de descrições dos navios negreiros,” in Tráfico, cativeiro, liberdade: Rio de Janeiro, séculos XVII–XIX, ed. Manolo Florentino (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2005), 105.

14. Historian José Lingna Nafafé suggests that this legislation was a response to a court case presented by Black abolitionist Lourenço da Silva Mendonça before the Vatican denouncing the enslavement of Africans by the Portuguese. For a broader discussion of this case, see José Lingna Nafafé, Lourenço da Silva Mendonça and the Black Atlantic Abolitionist Movement in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 43.

15. “Regimento sobre o embarque de negros de Angola (18-3-1684),” in Brasio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 8:551–58.

16. Caldeira, Escravos e traficantes no império português, 125, and Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, 71–72.

17. Herbert S. Klein, “The Portuguese Slave Trade from Angola in the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of Economic History 32, no. 4 (1972): 898.

18. Kate McMahon, “The Transnational Dimensions of Africans and African Americans in Northern England, 1776–1865” (PhD diss., Howard University, 2017), 89.

19. Rediker, Slave Ship, 53, and Reinaldo Funes Monzote, From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History Since 1492 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 23. See also the website SlaveVoyages, https://www.slavevoyages.org/. European and American shipbuilders used a variety of light and resistant woods to construct slave vessels, including red cedar, oak, mahogany, and pine, and often relied on timber imported from the Americas.

20. In Brazil, shipbuilders employed an assortment of native woods obtained in various regions of the country such as sucupira, vinhático, oiticica, tapinhoã, jequitibá, jenipapo, pau d’arco, sapucaia, angelim, maçaranduba, and jacaranda; see Rodrigues, “Arquitetura naval,” 87, 115n16.

21. Manolo Florentino, Em costas negras: Uma história do tráfico de escravos entre a África e o Rio de Janeiro (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002), 121.

22. Rediker, Slave Ship, 56. For other details, see David Richardson, ed., Bristol, Africa, and the Eighteenth-Century Slave Trade to America, vol. 3, The Years of Decline 1746–1769 (Bristol: Bristol Record Society, 1991), 21.

23. Deveau, La traite rochelaise, 150–51.

24. Jaime Rodrigues, De Costa à Costa: Escravos, marinheiros e intermediários do tráfico negreiro de Angola ao Rio de Janeiro (1780–1860) (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2005), 189–90.

25. J. Rodrigues, De costa à costa, 186–87.

26. Florentino, Em costas negras, 152.

27. See Mariana P. Candido, “Different Slave Journeys: Enslaved African Seamen on Board of Portuguese Ships, c. 1760–1820s,” Slavery and Abolition 31, no. 3 (2010): 398, and Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 135–37.

28. Candido, “Different Slave Journeys,” 402.

29. Walter Hawthorne, “Gorje: An African Seaman and His Flights from �?Freedom’ Back to �?Slavery’ in the Early Nineteenth Century,” Slavery and Abolition 31, no. 3 (2010): 411–28. The name was misspelled as Gorje, but the name in Portuguese is Jorge.

30. Their owner had probably rented them to work aboard the slave ship. See Beatriz Gallotti Mamigonian, “José Majojo e Francisco Moçambique, marinheiros das rotas atlânticas: Notas sobre a reconstituição de trajetórias da era da abolição,” Topoi 11, no. 20 (2010): 79. On this voyage, see Transatlantic Slave Trade Database: Voyages, Voyage ID 2105.

31. Mary Hicks, “The Sea and the Shackle: African and Creole Mariners and the Making of a Luso-African Atlantic Commercial Culture, 1721–1835” (PhD diss., University of Virginia, 2015), 117. See also Mary E. Hicks, “Transatlantic Threads of Meaning: West African Textile Entrepreneurship in Salvador da Bahia, 1770–1870,” Slavery and Abolition 41, no. 4, (2020): 701.

32. See Idade d’ouro do Brazil, April 19, 1816, 4; Idade d’ouro do Brazil, March 25, 1817, 4; Idade d’ouro do Brazil, February 24, 1821, 4; Idade d’ouro do Brazil, September 23, 1817, 4.

33. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, September 16, 1825, 1.

34. Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730–1807 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 57–58.

35. See Lisa Earl Castillo, “O terreiro do Gantois: Redes sociais e etnografia histórica no século XIX,” Revista de História, no. 176 (2017): 24.

36. Pierre Verger, Os libertos: Sete caminhos da liberdade (Salvador, Brazil: Corrupio: 1992), 9–10. On Oliveira, see also Daniele Santos de Souza, “De escravo a cabeceira: A Trajetória do africano João de Oliveira no mundo atlântico setecentista.” Revista da ABPN (Associação Brasileira de Pesquisadores Negros) 12 (2020): 113–39.

37. Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors, 52.

38. See Jean Mettas, Répertoire des expéditions négrières françaises au XVIIIe siècle, vol. 2, Ports autres que Nantes (Paris: Société française d’histoire d’outre-mer, 1984), 579, and Jessica Marie Johnson, Wicked Flesh, 77. On this voyage, see also Transatlantic Slave Trade Database, Voyage ID 32905.

39. See Brice Marinetti, Les négociants de La Rochelle au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2013), 75.

40. Kelley, American Slavers, 284–85.

41. On Florinda Joanes Gaspar, see Mariana P. Candido, “Women, Family, and Landed Property in Nineteenth-Century Benguela,” African Economic History 43 (2015): 136–61.

42. The four ships were Boa União, Felina, Nazareth, and Minerva. See V. Oliveira, Slave Trade and Abolition, 34. However, only the ship Boa União appears in the Transatlantic Slave Trade Database as belonging to Ana Joaquina dos Santos Silva; see Voyage ID 47030.

43. See entries of Monday, October 8; Friday, November 30; and Monday, December 3, 1750, in Newton, Martin, and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 10, 20, 21; and Rediker, Slave Ship, 59.

44. Cândido Eugênio Domingues de Souza, “�?Perseguidores da espécie humana’: Capitães negreiros da Cidade da Bahia a primeira metade do século XVIII” (MA thesis, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 2011), 141.

45. See Rediker, Slave Ship, 390n18.

46. Lieutenant Durand, “Journal de bord d’un négrier, 1731–1732,” BLY, Gen Mss, vol. 7, 66. See also Harms, Diligent, 263.

47. See Florentino, Em costas negras,153; Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 25; and C. de Souza, “�?Perseguidores da espécie humana,’” 161.

48. Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres, 476–78.

49. Rediker, Slave Ship, 137.

50. Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors, 37, 39.

51. See Newton, Martin, and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, ix–x.

52. Deveau, La traite rochelaise, 111–12.

53. See, for example, the case of Jean-Amable Lessenne in Araujo, Gift, 49.

54. Rediker, Slave Ship, 59.

55. See Bailey, African Voices of the Slave Trade, 133.

56. Oettinger, Koslofsky, and Zaugg, German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 39.

57. Oettinger, Koslofsky, and Zaugg, German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade, xviii–xx.

58. Here I refer to hundreds of crew lists (rôles d’équipage) from La Rochelle and Nantes, in Archives de la Marine, Rochefort, France (hereafter cited as AMR) and Archives départementales de la Loire Atlantique, Nantes, France (hereafter cited as ADLA).

59. J. Rodrigues, De costa à costa, 272–77; Castillo, “O terreiro do Gantois,” 19.

60. Robinson, A Sailor Boy’s Experience, 54.

61. Rediker, Slave Ship, 68; Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, 73–74.

62. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 15.

63. See entry of Wednesday, December 5, 1750, in Newton, Martin, and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 21.

64. Jessica Carney and Richard Nicholas Rosomoff, In the Shadow of Slavery: Africa’s Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 73.

65. On São Tomé and Príncipe as an island where slave ships stopped to fetch provisions, see Oettinger, Koslofsky, and Zaugg, German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 48. See also Yacou, Journaux de bord et de traite de Joseph Crassous de Médeuil, 173. See also Arlindo Caldeira, “Learning the Ropes in the Tropics: Slavery and the Plantation System on the Island of São Tomé,” African Economic History 39 (2011): 35–71.

66. Oettinger, Koslofsky, and Zaugg, German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 50.

67. Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, 136.

68. Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, 33.

69. Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors, 29–32.

70. Robinson, Sailor Boy’s Experience, 52–53.

71. Jessica Marie Johnson, Wicked Flesh, 92–94.

72. See entry of Sunday, May 26, 1751, in Newton, Martin, and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 54–55.

73. Entry of Monday, December, 11, 1752, in Newton, Martin, and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 71.

74. Kelley, Journey into Captivity from Sierra Leone to South Carolina, 49.

75. On the tragic Atlantic crossing of the Sally, see Center for Digital Scholarship, Brown University Library, Voyage of the Slave Ship Sally, 1764–1765, https://cds.library.brown.edu/projects/sally/.

76. On the slave trade in Rhode Island and the Browns’ involvement in the trade, see Christy Clark-Pujara, Dark Work: The Business of Slavery in Rhode Island (New York: New York University Press, 2016), 23.

77. Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 161.

78. James Walvin, The Zong: A Massacre, the Law & the End of Slavery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 97–98.

79. Oettinger, Koslofsky, and Zaugg, German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 44.

80. Marcus Rediker, “History from Below the Water Line: Sharks and the Atlantic Slave Trade,” Atlantic Studies 5, no. 2 (2008): 286.

81. “Auto de inquirição a Gonçalo Roiz (11-12-1511–15-1-1512),” in Brasio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 1:215–21.

82. See David Richardson, ed. Bristol, Africa and the Eighteenth-Century Slave Trade to America, vol. 4, The Final Years, 1770–1807 (Bristol: Bristol Record Society, 1996), 193. One report suggests that 299 enslaved Africans were embarked at New Calabar, whereas another report refers to 304 African captives. The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database that features the voyage (Voyage ID 18161) indicates that 321 enslaved Africans boarded the ship, and 105 perished during the Middle Passage.

83. The Trial of Captain John Kimber, for the Murder of Two Female Negro Slaves on Board the Recovery, African Slave Ship: Tried at the Admiralty Sessions, held at the Old Baily, the 7^th of June, 1792 (London: C. Stalker, 1792), 4.

84. Trial of Captain John Kimber, 20–21.

85. Saidiya Hartman masterfully tells this tragic story in her acclaimed Lose Your Mother: A Journey along the Atlantic Slave Route (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008), 137–53. Later she explored the case of Venus, the second girl murdered by Kimber; see Saidiya Hartman, “Venus in Two Acts,” Small Axe 12, no. 2 (2008): 1–14.

86. Sowande Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2016), 146.

87. Srivdhya Swaminathan, “Reporting Atrocities: A Comparison of the Zong ang the Trial of Captain John Kimber,” Slavery and Abolition 31, no. 4 (2010): 487–88.

88. On the illegal slave trade and Brazil’s resistance to abolishing the trade in enslaved Africans, see Sidney Chalhoub, A força da escravidão: Ilegalidade e costume no Brasil oitocentista (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2012).

89. Marcus J. M. de Carvalho, “O patacho Providência, um navio negreiro: Política, justiça e redes depois da lei antitráfico de 1831,” Varia História 30, no. 54 (2014): 794.

90. J. Rodrigues, “Arquitetura naval,” 191.

91. See the website SlaveVoyages, https://slavevoyages.org/, Voyage ID 4315.

Chapter 5

1. See Grandpré, Voyage à la côte occidentale d’Afrique, 1:141–53, and Araujo, Gift, 99–101.

2. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 117.

3. For example, see multiple entries of the logbook of British ship captain Samuel Gamble in Mouser, Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica, 104–11.

4. Miller, Way of Death, 391. On burial conditions in Benguela, see also Candido, African Slaving Port, 119, and Kalle Kananoja, Healing Knowledge in Atlantic Africa: Medical Encounters, 1500–1850 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 209–10.

5. Miller, Way of Death, 391.

6. A “bar” was the currency used to trade in the region, corresponding to the value of an iron bar. Mouser, Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica, 56.

7. Mouser, Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica, 69.

8. Hugh Crow and John R. Pinfold, The Memoirs of Captain Hugh Crow: The Life and Times of a Slave Trade Captain (Oxford: Bodleian Library, 2007), 166.

9. See Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (London: James Phillips, 1788), 52. See also Rediker, Slave Ship, 38.

10. See this expression “buried at sea” in Oettinger, Koslofsky, and Zaugg, German Barber-Surgeon in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 45. See also Mouser, Slaving Voyage to Africa and Jamaica, 104–11.

11. See, for example, Archives Municipales de La Rochelle (hereafter cited as AMLR), EEARCHANC 48, “Navire Le Roy Dahomet, Journal de navigation, 1772–1774,” entries of July 15 to July 16, and July 16 to July 17, 1773. On throwing the dead bodies of enslaved Africans into the sea during the night, see Harms, Diligent, 274.

12. Crow and Pinfold, Memoirs of Captain Hugh Crow, 152–53.

13. Ludewig Ferdinand Rømer, A Reliable Account of the Coast of Guinea (1760) (New York: Diasporic Africa Press, 2013), 183.

14. Rømer, Reliable Account of the Coast of Guinea, 184.

15. “Relação da Batalha de Ambuíla (29-10-1665),” in Brasio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 12:588; See also Antonio de Oliveira Cadornega, Historia geral das guerras angolanas, vol. 2 (Lisbon: Typographia da Companhia Nacional Editora, 1902), 136–37. See also Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, “História geral das guerras sul-atlânticas: O episódio de Palmares,” in Mocambos de Palmares: História, historiografia e fontes, ed. Flávio Gomes (Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras editora/FAPERJ, 2010), 61–99.

16. Araujo, “Dahomey, Portugal, and Bahia,” 5.

17. On the Rio de Janeiro context, see Mary C. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808–1850 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 92–93. See also Mariza de Carvalho Soares, People of Faith: Slavery and African Catholics in Eighteenth-Century Rio de Janeiro (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011), 133. On Benguela and Luanda, see Miller, Way of Death, 391.

18. Maria João Neves, Miguel Almeida, and Maria Teresa Ferreira, “O caso do �?Poço dos Negros’ (Lagos),” Antrope 2 (2015): 141–60.

19. Maria João Neves, Miguel Almeida, and Maria Teresa Ferreira, “Separados na vida e na morte,” Actas do 7° Encontro de Arqueologia do Algarve, Silves, 22, 23, e 24 de outubro de 2009, 549.

20. Arlindo Manuel Caldeira, Escravos em Portugal: Das origens ao século XIX (Lisbon: A Esfera dos Livros, 2017), 382–83.

21. Arquivo Municipal de Lisboa (hereafter cited as AML), Arquivo Histórico, Provimento da Saúde, Livro 1° do provimento da saúde, “D. Manuel I ordena à camara de Lisboa a abertura de um grande poço,” November 13, 1515, f1, PT/AMLSB/CMLSB/ADMG-E/02/1425.

22. Caldeira, Escravos em Portugal, 380–81.

23. See, for example, Isabel Castro Henriques, Os africanos em Portugal: História e memória, séculos XV–XXI (Lisbon: Comité Português do Projeto UNESCO “A Rota do Escravo,” 2011), 17, and Alastair Corston de Custance Maxwell Saunders, A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal (London: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 110.

24. On Portugal, see Saunders, Social History of Black Slaves, 110. In Cádiz, Spain, see Arturo Morgado García, “El ciclo vital de los esclavos em el Cádiz de la modernidad,” Revista de historia moderna: Anales de la Universidad de Alicante, no. 34 (2016): 313.

25. Matt D. Childs, The 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 52.

26. See Pablo F. Gómez, The Experimental Caribbean: Creating Knowledge and Healing in the Early Modern Atlantic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 32, and Vincent Brown, The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 70–71.

27. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 195–201.

28. David R. Watters, “Mortuary Patterns at the Harney Site Slave Cemetery, Montserrat, in Caribbean Perspective,” Historical Archaeology 28, no. 3 (1994): 66, and Patrice Courtaud, “Le cimetière, comme miroir de l’esclavage: Approche méthodologique; Le cimetière d’Anse Sainte-Marguerite (Guadeloupe),” In Situ 20 (2013): 11.

29. Jerome S. Handler, “An African-Type Healer/Diviner and His Grave Goods: A Burial from a Plantation Cemetery in Barbados, West Indies,” International Journal of Historical Archaeology 1, no. 2 (1997): 91–130.

30. Maria Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil and Residence There, During Part of the Years 1821, 1822, and 1823 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1824), 137.

31. See, for example, Luis Nicolau Parés, “Milicianos, barbeiros e traficantes numa irmandade católica de africanos minas e jejes (Bahia, 1770–1830),” Revista Tempo 20 (2014): 19.

32. João José Reis, Death Is a Festival: Funeral Rites and Rebellion in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 185.

33. Lovejoy, “Speculations on the African Origins of Venture Smith,” 344–45.

34. Smith, Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture Smith, 13.

35. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 60.

36. This case is discussed in Manuel Barcia, “White Cannibalism in the Illegal Slave Trade: The Peculiar Case of the Portuguese Schooner Arrogante in 1837,” New West Indian Guide (2021): 1–28.

37. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 111.

38. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 111.

39. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 128.

40. M. Soares, People of Faith, 125.

41. M. Soares, People of Faith, 125–26.

42. See Maurício Almeida Abreu, A evolução urbana do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1987). See also Júlio César Medeiros da Silva, À flor da terra: O cemitério dos pretos novos no Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Garamond, 2007), 32.

43. Henry Chamberlain and Rubens Borba de Moraes, Vistas e costumes da cidade e arredores do Rio de Janeiro em 1819–1820 (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Kosmos Editora and Erich Eichner, 1943), 233; for the watercolor, see plate on page 183.

44. Robert Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, 2 vols. (London: Frederick Westley and A. H. Davis, 1830), 1:395.

45. Joseph François Xavier Sigaud, “Discurso sobre a Statistica Médica no Brasil,” in Relatorio dos trabalhos da Sociedade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro [...], ed. Luiz Vicente de Simoni (Rio de Janeiro: Seygnot-Plancher, 1832), 13.

46. Luciana Mendes Gandelman, “A Santa Casa da Misericórdia do Rio de Janeiro nos séculos XVI a XIX,” História, ciência, saúde Manguinhos 8, no. 3 (2001): 619. See also J. da Silva, À flor da terra, 37.

47. See J. Rodrigues, De costa a costa, 298–99, and Cláudio de Paula Honorato, “O mercado do Valongo e comércio de escravos africanos—RJ (1758–1831),” in Escravidão africana no Recôncavo da Guanabara, ed. Mariza de Carvalho Soares and Nielson Rosa Bezerra (Niterói, Brazil: Editora da Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2011), 68–69.

48. These are general estimates for enslaved Africans disembarked in the city of Rio de Janeiro. See the website SlaveVoyages, https://www.slavevoyages.org/.

49. For more on the Valongo Wharf memorialization, see Ana Lucia Araujo, “Sites of Disembarkation and the Public Memory of the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in A Stain on Our Pasts: Slavery and Memory, ed. Abdoulaye Gueye and Johann Michel (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2018), 137–69, and Andre Cicalo, “From Public Amnesia to Public Memory: Rediscovering Slavery Heritage in Rio de Janeiro,” in African Heritage and Memories of Slavery in Brazil and the South Atlantic World, ed. Ana Lucia Araujo (Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2015), 171–202.

50. J. Rodrigues, De costa a costa, 286.

51. Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Lisbon, Portugal (hereafter cited as AHU), Conselho Ultramarino, Rio de Janeiro, Caixa 12, D. 1391.

52. Georg Wilhelm Freyreiss, Reisen in Brasilien (Stockholm: Carl Svanberg, 1968), 96.

53. Florentino, Em costas negras, 148.

54. J. da Silva, À flor da terra, 81–87.

55. On these complaints, see Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 38–39.

56. V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 244.

57. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 194.

58. Michael L. Blakey, “The New York African Burial Ground Project: An Examination of Enslaved Lives, A Construction of Ancestral Ties,” Transforming Anthropology 7, no. 1 (1998): 53, https://doi.org/10.1525/tran.1998.7.1.53.

59. Erik R. Seeman, Across the Waters: Cross-Cultural Encounters, 1492–1800. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010, 207. For the detailed description and analysis of the remains, see Michael L. Blakey and Lesley M. Rankin-Hill, The Skeletal Biology of the New York African Burial Ground (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 2009); Warren R. Perry, Jean Howson, and Barbara A. Bianco, The Archaeology of the New York African Burial Ground (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 2009); and Edna G. Medford, Historical Perspectives of the African Burial Ground: New York Blacks and the Diaspora (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 2009).

60. I have used the #slaveryarchive hashtag on social media to feature this kind of news. A quick search on Google using the terms in English “slave burial ground” and its variations will show recent news on slave burial grounds found around the United States. Yet, similar sites have been recovered in other countries in the Caribbean and South America.

61. Rachel E. Fleskes et al., “Ancestry, Health, and Lived Experiences of Enslaved Africans in 18^th-Century Charleston: An Osteobiographical Analysis,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 175, no. 1 (2021): 3– 24.

Chapter 6

1. Zurara, “Partilha das presas em Lagos,” 19.

2. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 60.

3. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 60.

4. Trevor Burnard, “Kingston, Jamaica: Crucible of Modernity,” in The Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, ed. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, Matt D. Childs, and James Sidbury (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 131.

5. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 60–61.

6. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 61.

7. Hurston, Barracoon, 56.

8. Jane Landers, “The African Landscape of Seventeenth-Century Cartagena and Its Hinterlands,” in Cañizares-Esguerra, Childs, and Sidbury, Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, 149.

9. Landers, “African Landscape of Seventeenth-Century Cartagena,” 149.

10. Alonso de Sandoval and Nicole Von Germeten, Treatise on Slavery: Selections from “De Instauranda Aethiopum Salute” (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2008), 58.

11. Ildefonso Gutiérrez Azopardo, “El comercio y mercado de negros esclavos en Cartagena de Indias,” Quinto Centenario 12 (1987): 199–202.

12. See Burnard, “Kingston, Jamaica,” 126–27, 130–31.

13. See Christina Walker, Jamaica Ladies: Female Slaveholders and the Creation of Britain’s Atlantic Empire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020), 98–99.

14. Thomas Lindley, Narrative of a Voyage to Brazil: Terminating in the Seizure of a British Vessel; with General Sketches of the Country, its Natural Productions, Colonial Inhabitants (London: J. Johnson, 1805), 176.

15. Lindley, Narrative of a Voyage to Brazil, 176–77.

16. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 155.

17. See M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 137.

18. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 105.

19. Amédée-François Frézier, Relation du voyage de la mer du Sud aux côtes du Chili et du Pérou fait pendant les années 1712, 1713, et 1714, vol. 2, (Paris: J-G. Nyon, E. Ganeau, J. Quillau, 1716), 533.

20. Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince (New York: Penguin Books, 2004), 11.

21. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (New York: Barnes and Noble Classics, 2005), 22.

22. For examples, see Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 41–42.

23. Weeks before this book went into production, graduate student Lauren Davila uncovered a larger auction of 770 enslaved people in Charleston, South Carolina, in February 1835.

24. The sale was believed to be the largest known slave auction in the United States, but in 2023, College of Charleston MA candidate Lauren Davila uncovered an auction of six hundred enslaved individuals that took place in Charleston on February 24, 1835. See Jennifer Berry Hawes, “How a Graduate Student Uncovered the Largest Known Slave Auction in the U.S.,” ProPublica, June 16, 2023, https://www.propublica.org/article/how-grad-student-discovered-largest-us-slave-auction.

25. Anne C. Bailey, The Weeping Time: Memory and the Largest Slave Auction in the American History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 132–52.

26. For example, see the case of the descendants of the 272 men, women, and children sold by the Jesuits to save Georgetown University in 1838, in Rachel L. Swarns, The 272: The Families Who Were Enslaved and Sold to Build the American Catholic Church (New York: Random House, 2023).

27. David Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean: 1570–1640 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 29.

28. For an overview of slave sales in Cartagena, see Azopardo, “El comercio y mercado de negros esclavos,” 187–210.

29. Azopardo, “El comercio y mercado de negros esclavos,” 188–89.

30. David Geggus, “The Slaves and Free People of Color of Cap Français,” in Cañizares-Esguerra, Childs, and Sidbury, Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, 112.

31. Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, 2:323.

32. Auguste de Saint-Hilaire, Voyage dans les provinces de Saint-Paul et de Sainte-Catherine, vol. 1, (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1851), 192; Marco Antonio da Silva Mello et al., “Os ciganos do Catumbi: De �?andores do Rei’ e comerciantes de escravos a oficiais de justiça na cidade do Rio de Janeiro,” Cidades, Comunidades e Territórios, no. 18 (2009): 80.

33. See Jean-Baptiste Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 3 vols. (Paris: Firmi-Didot Frères, 1834–39), 2:78–79, plate 24. On Roma in Rio de Janeiro, see Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 54.

34. Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, 2:323.

35. Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, 2:325.

36. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 2 :78, plate 23.

37. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 2 :78, plate 23.

38. Maurice Rugendas, Voyage pittoresque dans le Brésil (Paris: Engelmann, 1835), 4e division, 1er cahier, 4e livraison, 7. Rugendas’s account was likely authored by his friend and scholar Victor-Aimé Huber, who relied on Rugendas’s observations.

39. Rugendas, Voyage dans le Brésil, 4e division, 1er cahier, 4e livraison, 7.

40. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 170.

41. On these “nations” in Brazil, see Maria Inês Cortês Oliveira, “La Grande tente Nagô: Rapprochements ethniques chez les Africains de Bahia au XIX^e siècle,” in Identifying Enslaved Africans: The “Nigerian” Hinterland and the African Diaspora, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy (Toronto: York University, 1997), 286, and J. Lorand Matory, Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism and Matriarchy in the Afro-Brazilian Candomblé (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 5–6. On African ethnicities in the Americas, see Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, “African Ethnicities and the Meanings of �?Mina,’” in Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy and David R. Trotman (London, New York: Continuum, 2003), 65–81, and Robin Law, “Ethnicities of Enslaved Africans in the Diaspora: On the Meanings of �?Mina’ (Again),” History in Africa 32 (2005): 247–67.

42. See André João Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brasil por suas Drogas e minas (Lisbon: Na Officina Real Deslandesiana, 1711). I use here the nineteenth-century edition, André João Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brasil por suas drogas e minas (Rio de Janeiro: Typ. Imp. E Const. De J. Villeneuve., 1837), 31. On Ardra and Mina ethnicities in the Atlantic slave trade to Bahia, see Carlos da Silva Jr., “Ardras, minas e jejes, ou escravos de �?primeira reputação’: Políticas africanas, tráfico negreiro e identidade étnica na Bahia do século XVIII,” Almanack, no. 12 (2016): 11. On the Congo “nation” and its various meanings to Brazilians, English, Portuguese, and other Europeans, see Joseph C. Miller, “Central Africa during the Era of the Slave Trade, c. 1490s–1850s,” in Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, edited by Linda M. Heywood (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 21–69.

43. Jean-Baptiste Alban Imbert, Manual do fazendeiro, ou tratado doméstico sobre as enfermidades dos negros, generalisado às necessidades medicas de todas as classes (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia Nacional, 1839), 2–3.

44. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 115.

45. Malachy Postlethwayt, The Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce, vol. 1 (London, 1774), s.v. “Angola.”

46. See Darold D. Wax, “Preferences for Slaves in Colonial America,” Journal of Negro History 58, no. 4 (1973): 371–401.

47. W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 113–14.

48. W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 119.

49. Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery in the Making of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014).

50. David Eltis, Frank D. Lewis, and David Richardson, “Slave Prices, the African Slave Trade, and Productivity in the Caribbean, 1674–1807,” Economic History Review 58, no. 4 (2005): 677.

51. Eltis, Lewis, and Richardson, “Slave Prices,” 677.

52. Azopardo, “El comercio y mercado de negros esclavos,” 202.

53. David Eltis and David Richardson, “Prices of African Slaves Newly Arrived in the Americas, 1673–1865: New Evidence on Long-Run Trends and Regional Differentials,” in Slavery in the Development of the Americas, ed. David Eltis, Frank D. Lewis, and Kenneth L. Sokoloff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 200.

54. Azopardo, “El comercio y mercado de negros esclavos,” 204.

55. Mattoso, Être esclave au Brésil XVIe-XIXe siècles, 81–82.

56. Gregory E. O’Malley, “Slavery’s Converging Ground: Charleston’s Slave Trade as the Black Heart of the Lowcountry,” William and Mary Quarterly 74, no. 2 (2017): 271–302.

57. The voyage appears in the Transatlantic Slave Trade Database, Voyage ID 26031.

58. “Advertisement for Sale of Newly Arrived Africans, Charleston, July 24, 1769,” Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora, http://slaveryimages.org/s/slaveryimages/item/1971.

59. Archives of Maryland Online, Maryland Gazette, Maryland Gazette Collection, MSA SC 2731, M 1281, December 26, 1770, 489, image no. 1213.

60. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, December 16, 1826, 50.

61. Alcide Marie Dessalines d’Orbigny, Voyage pittoresque dans les deux Amériques (Paris: Furne et Cie, 1841), 25.

62. See W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 89. On white women at slave markets, see Stephanie E. Jones-Rogers, They Were Her Property: White Women as Slave Owners in the American South (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).

63. See Jones-Rogers, They Were Her Property, 123–49.

64. Eltis and Richardson, “Prices of African Slaves,” 192.

65. W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 6.

66. See Baptist, Half Has Never Been Told, 173–74. See also W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 26. For a detailed discussion about the monetary value of enslaved persons in the United States during the nineteenth century, see Daina Ramey Berry, The Price for Their Pound of Flesh: The Value of the Enslaved, from Womb to Grave, in the Building of a Nation (Boston: Beacon Press, 2017).

67. W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 141–45.

68. Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Herbert S. Klein, and Stanley L. Engerman, “The Level of Slave Prices on Cuban Plantations in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Some Comparative Perspectives,” American Historical Review 88, no. 5 (1983): 1207. Also on slave prices in Cuba in the mid-nineteenth century, see Laird W. Bergad, “Slave Prices in Cuba, 1840–1875,” Hispanic American Historical Review 67, no. 4 (1987): 631–55.

69. For an overview of the evolution of prices of enslaved people in Bahia, Brazil, see Mattoso, Être esclave au Brésil XVIe–XIXe siècles, 100–110.

70. Brazilian currency in the nineteenth century was the real (plural réis), and this amount was shown as 1:758$118 réis in Portuguese. Superunits were mil réis (1000 réis) and the conto de réis (1,000,000). On these data, see Renato Leite Marcondes and José Flávio Motta, “Duas fontes documentais para o estudo dos preços dos escravos no Vale do Paraíba paulista,” Revista Brasileira de História 21, no. 42 (2001): 503.

Chapter 7

1. Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brasil por suas Drogas e minas, 31.

2. Solomon Northup and David Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave; Narrative of Solomon Northup [...] (Albany: Derby and Miller, 1853), 179.

3. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years A Slave, 166.

4. See Joseph E. Inikori, “Atlantic Slavery and the Rise of the Capitalist Global Economy,” Current Anthropology 61, no 22 (2020): S159–S171.

5. I refer here to the classic work by classical scholar Moses I. Finley; see Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology.

6. For studies expanding the notion of slave society, see Lenski and Cameron, What Is a Slave Society?

7. There is a large body of literature on the extermination and the enslavement of Indigenous populations in the Americas. See, for example Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987); David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); W. George Lovell, “Heavy Shadows and Black Night: Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82, no. 3 (1992): 426–43; and Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1997). On how forced labor regimes provoked mortality among Indigenous populations of Peru, see Ward Stavig, “Continuing the Bleeding of These Pueblos Will Shortly Make Them Cadavers: The Potosi Mita, Cultural Identity, and Communal Survival in Colonial Peru,” Americas 56, no. 4 (April 2000): 529–62.

8. See Matthew Restall, “Black Conquistadors: Armed Africans in Early Spanish America,” Americas 57, no. 2 (2000): 171–205, and Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 7.

9. Restall, “Black Conquistadors,” 177.

10. On encomienda, see Kris Lane, “The Transition from Encomienda to Slavery in Seventeenth-Century Barbacoas (Colombia),” Slavery & Abolition 21, no. 1 (2000): 73–95. On repartimiento (mita), see Jeffrey A. Cole, The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985); and Stavig, “Continuing the Bleeding of These Pueblos”; and Toby Green, “Baculamento or Encomienda? Legal Pluralisms and the Contestation of Power in the Pan-Atlantic World of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” Journal of Global Slavery (2017): 310–36.

11. H. Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America, 29.

12. See the website SlaveVoyages, http://www.slavevoyages.org.

13. On the early sugar industry in Hispaniola, see Genaro Rodríguez Morel, “The Sugar Economy of Española in the Sixteenth Century,” in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450–1680, ed. Stuart B. Schwartz (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 85–114.

14. Philippe Hroděj, “Les esclaves à Saint-Domingue aux temps pionniers (1630–1700): La rafle, la traite et l’interlope,” in L’esclave et les plantations: De l’établissement de la servitude à son abolition, ed. Philippe Hroděj (Rennes, Fr.: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2009), 62–63.

15. Stuart B. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550–1835 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 16. Although Schwartz’s book focuses on Bahia, his description and analysis of sugar production is applicable to other Brazilian regions and remains the most complete work about Brazilian sugar industry during the era of slavery published in English.

16. On Portugal’s migration policies, see Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, “L’émigration portugaise (XVe–XXe Siècles): Une constante structurale et les réponses aux changements du monde,” Revista de história econômica e social 1 (1978): 5–32.

17. Although focusing on the southeast region, the best work on the early history of enslaved Indigenous populations in Brazil is J. Monteiro, Negros da terra, translated as J. Monteiro, Blacks of the Land.

18. H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 31–32.

19. See Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 51–72, and Bergad, Comparative Histories of Slavery, 13.

20. In both Portuguese and Spanish, the term plantation was not in use during the era of slavery. See Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, xvii, and Stuart B. Schwartz, introduction to Schwartz, Tropical Babylons, 2.

21. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 23.

22. On Jesuit slave ownership in Brazil, see Eunicia Fernandes, ed. A Companhia de Jesus na América (Rio de Janeiro: Contra Capa, 2013); in Brazil and Argentina, see Márcia Amantino, Eliane Cristina Deckman Fleck and Carlos Engemann, eds. Companhia de Jesus na America por seus colégios e fazendas: Aproximações entre Brasil e Argentina (século XVIII) (Rio de Janeiro: Garamond, 2015); in the state of Maryland, in the United States, see Thomas Murphy, Jesuit Slaveholding in Maryland, 1717–1838 (New York: Routledge, 2001); in Peru, see Jean-Pierre Tardieu, “Los esclavos de los jesuitas del Perú en la época de la expulsion (1767),” Caravelle: Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-brésilien (2003): 61–109.

23. See Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, “Le versant brésilien de l’Atlantique-Sud: 1550–1850,” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales 61, no. 2 (2006): 348.

24. Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brazil por suas drogas e minas, 7–8.

25. Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brazil por suas drogas e minas, 53. See also Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 141, 528n56.

26. In Bahia, see Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 370.

27. See Roberto Simonsen, História econômica do Brasil, 1500–1820 (Brasília: Senado Federal, 2005), 174. See Mattoso, Être esclave au Brésil XVIe–XIXe siècles, 135; Vera Lúcia Amaral Ferlini, A civilização do açúcar séculos XVI a XVIII (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1994), 60; and Betty Wood, “The Origins of Slavery in the Americas, 1500–1700,” in The Routledge History of Slavery, ed. Gad Heuman and Trevor Burnard (London: Routledge, 2011), 65.

28. Herbert Klein has challenged the “seven years” as a general rule; see Herbert S. Klein, “Novas interpretações do tráfico de escravos do Atlântico,” Revista História 120 (1989): 19. Yet, Brazilian historians who presented that average were referring to recently arrived Africans who were put to work on sugarcane plantations. In another work, Klein also loosely discusses life expectancy but never clearly refers to sugar plantations; see H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 169–70.

29. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 100; 146. See Bernard Moitt, Women and Slavery in the French Antilles, 1635–1848 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), 47.

30. Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brazil por suas drogas e minas, 64, and Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 143.

31. Richard S. Dunn, A Tale of Two Plantations: Slave Life and Labor in Jamaica and Virginia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 165.

32. Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Paris, France (hereafter cited as BSG), Louis-François de Tollenare, Notes dominicales prises pendant un voyage en Portugal et au Brésil en 1816, 1817 et 1818, f. 315–16.

33. Jean-Baptiste Labat, Nouveau voyage aux isles de l’Amérique, vol. 3 (Paris: Chez Guillaume Cavelier, 1722), 202–4.

34. On these accidents, see Labat, Nouveau voyage aux isles de l’Amérique, 205–7. See also Moitt, Women and Slavery in the French Antilles, 1635–1848, 48–52. See also Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 45.

35. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 145.

36. See Padre Antônio Veira, “Sermão décimo quarto do Rosário: Pregado na Bahia à Irmandade dos Pretos de um engenho de açúcar na Bahia, em dia de São João Evangelista, no ano de 1633,” in Essencial Padre Antônio Vieira, ed. Alfredo Bosi (São Paulo: Penguin, Companhia das Letras, 2011), 201–2.

37. Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brazil por suas drogas e minas, 69.

38. James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 249.

39. Antonio Barros de Castro, “Escravos e senhores nos engenhos do Brasil: um estudo sobre os trabalhos do açúcar e a política econômica dos senhores” (PhD diss., Universidade de Campinas, 1976), 4.

40. On the early industry, see Alejandro de la Fuente, “Sugar and Slavery in Early Colonial Cuba,” in Schwartz, Tropical Babylons, 115–57.

41. Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 15.

42. On the comparison between enslaved Africans and European indentured servants, see Jerome S. Handler and Matthew C. Reilly, “Contesting �?White Slavery’ in the Caribbean: Enslaved Africans and European Indentured Servants in Seventeenth-Century Barbados,” New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 91, no. 1–2 (2017): 30–55.

43. Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Kingston, Jamaica: Canoe Press, 1994), 132–33, and Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 26, 46.

44. Hilary M. Beckles, Natural Rebels: A Social History of Enslaved Black Women in Barbados (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 29–30.

45. Beckles, Natural Rebels, 39–40.

46. On British West Indies absentee slave owners, see Nicholas Draper, The Price of Emancipation: Slave-ownership, Compensation and British Society at the End of Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 17–74. See also Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor, and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832–1938 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 89, and V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 21–22. On attorneys who managed several estates, see Caitlin Rosenthal, Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019), 26–27. On slave owners’ absenteeism in the French West Indies, see Antoine Gisler, L’esclavage aux Antilles françaises (XIIe–XIXe siècle) (Paris: Karthala, 1981), 87–88.

47. Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 8–9.

48. H. Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America, 54.

49. Holt, Problem of Freedom, 87.

50. V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 15.

51. H. Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America, 55.

52. See Rafael de Bivar Marquese, Feitores do corpo, missionários da mente: Senhores, letrados e o controle dos escravos nas Américas, 1660–1860 (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2004), and Rosenthal, Accounting for Slavery.

53. See Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990), 278n14, and Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 19–21, 30.

54. Trevor Burnard, Planters: Plantation Societies in British America, 1650–1820 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 175.

55. V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 56.

56. See Testimony of Dr. Harrison, February 12, 1791, cited in V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 188. See also Bergad, Comparative Histories of Slavery, 102. For a comparison of mortality rates in Bahia and Jamaica plantations see Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 373.

57. See Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 40.

58. John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 45.

59. Bergad, Comparative Histories of Slavery, 23.

60. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 7–8.

61. See Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1996), 25.

62. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 65.

63. P. Wood, Black Majority, 36.

64. P. Wood, Black Majority, 43.

65. See P. Wood, Black Majority, 57–62, Judith Carney, “Rice Milling, Gender and Slave Labour in Colonial South Carolina.,” Past & Present, no. 153 (1996): 108–34, and Judith Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press, 2001). Known as the “black rice thesis,” Wood’s and Carney’s conclusions were challenged in David Eltis, Philip Morgan, and David Richardson, “Agency and Diaspora in Reassessing the African Contribution to Rice Cultivation in the Americas,” American Historical Review 12, no. 5 (2007): 1329–58. But since 2007, other studies brought new contributions to the rice thesis. See Edda. L. Fields-Black, Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), and Walter Hawthorne, “From �?Black Rice’ to �?Brown’: Rethinking the History of Risiculture in the Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Atlantic,” American Historical Review 115, no. 1 (2010): 151–63.

66. See Leslie Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We: Women’s Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 19, and Carney, Black Rice, 107–41.

67. For a specific study on the Allston, Butler, and Manigault rice plantations as capitalistic ventures, see William Dusinberre, Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamps (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

68. On this transformation, see Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).

69. See Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 155–59. For an accessible description of cotton production, see also Dale W. Tomich et al., Reconstructing the Landscapes of Slavery: A Visual History of the Plantation in the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021), 72–74.

70. Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014), 56–57.

71. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave, 166.

72. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave, 167–68.

73. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 103.

74. Department of Commerce and Labor Bureau of the Census, A Century Population Growth from the First Census of the United States: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909), 132.

75. See W. Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 153–75, Baptist, Half Has Never Been Told, 115, and Tomich et al., Reconstructing the Landscapes of Slavery, 78–81.

76. See Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), 126–28. On the new studies addressing the relationship between slavery and capitalism in the Americas, see Beckert, Empire of Cotton; Baptist, Half Has Never Been Told; Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman, Slavery’s Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016); D. Berry, Price for Their Pound of Flesh; and Rosenthal, Accounting for Slavery.

77. See Dale Tomich, Through the Prism of Slavery: Labor, Capital and World Economy (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), and Tomich and Zeuske, “Introduction, the Second Slavery,” 91–100. See also Baptist, Half Has Never Been Told, 153.

78. Some new studies are finally emphasizing the role of Africa in the rise of second slavery and industrial capitalism; see Dale W. Tomich and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., The Atlantic and Africa: The Second Slavery and Beyond (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2021), and Toby Green, “Africa and Capitalism: Repairing a History of Omission,” Capitalism: A Journal of History and Economics 3, no. 2 (2022): 301–32.

79. Manuel Moreno Fraginals, El Ingenio: Complejo económico-social cubano del azúcar, vol. 1 (Havana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 2014), 12.

80. Fraginals, El Ingenio, 166.

81. See “Royal Decree and Instructional Circular for the Indies on the Education, Treatment, and Work Regimen of Slaves,” May 31, 1789, 49, and “Statement from Havana’s Ingenio Owners to the King,” Havana, January 19, 1790, in Gloria García Rodríguez, Voices of the Enslaved in Nineteenth-Century Cuba: A Documentary History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 59.

82. On the impacts of the Saint Domingue Revolution in Cuba, see Ada Ferrer, Freedom’s Mirror: Cuba and Haiti in the Age of Revolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

83. Fraginals, El Ingenio, 207. See also Tomich et al., Reconstructing the Landscapes of Slavery, 98.

84. On this modernization process, see the first four chapters of Daniel B. Rood, The Reinvention of Atlantic Slavery: Technology, Labor, Race, and Capitalism in the Greater Caribbean (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).

85. Justo G. Cantero and Eduardo Laplante, Los ingenios: Colleción de vistas de los principales ingenios de azúcar de la isla de Cuba (Havana: Litografía de Luis Marquier, 1847).

86. Bergad, Comparative Histories of Slavery, 7.

87. On the impacts of the Saint Domingue Revolution in Brazil, see João José Reis and Flávio dos Santos Gomes, “Repercussions of the Haitian Revolution in Brazil, 1791–1850,” in The World of the Haitian Revolution, ed. David Patrick Geggus and Norman Fiering (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 284–313.

88. M. Graham, Journal of a Voyage to Brazil, 277.

89. Auguste de Saint-Hilaire, Voyages dans l’intérieur du Brésil: Seconde Partie (Paris: Librairie Gide, 1837), 130, 147–52.

90. Ricardo Salles, E o Vale era o escravo: Vassouras, século XIX; Senhores e escravos no coração do império (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008), 141–46.

91. H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 142–43.

92. Rafael de Bivar Marquese, “African Diaspora, Slavery, and the Paraíba Valley Coffee Plantation Landscape: Nineteenth-Century Brazil,” Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 31, no. 2 (2008): 200.

93. For a careful analysis of these images, see Mariana de Aguiar Ferreira Muaze, “Violence Appeased: Slavery and Coffee Raising in the Photography of Marc Ferrez (1882–1885),” Revista brasileira de história, 37, no. 74 (2017): 1–30.

Chapter 8

1. Baquaqua, Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua, 46.

2. Thomas H. Holloway, “Prefácio: Haddock Lobo e o recenseamento do Rio de Janeiro em 1849,” in Roberto Hadock Lobo, “Texto introdutório do recenseamento do Rio de Janeiro de 1849,” special issue, Boletim de História Demográfica 15, no. 50 (July 2008), http://historia_demografica.tripod.com/bhds/bhd50/thrj.pdf.

3. Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 125.

4. Sandra R. Joshel, Slavery in the Roman World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 8. See also Neville Morley, Metropolis and Hinterland: The City of Rome and the Italian Economy, 200 BC–AD 200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 182.

5. Thomas Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery (New York: Routledge, 1994), 17. See also Paulin Ismard, La cité et ses esclaves: Institutions, fictions, expériences (Paris: Seuil, 2019), 23.

6. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology, 69–70.

7. Wiedeman, Greek and Roman Slavery, 22–25.

8. Ismard, La cité et ses esclaves, 96–97.

9. On enslaved Muslims in Portugal, see Caldeira, Escravos em Portugal, 31–32.

10. Aurelia Martín Casares, “Free and Freed Black Africans in Granada in the Time of the Spanish Renaissance,” in Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, ed. Thomas Foster Earle and Kate J. P. Lowe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 248.

11. Saunders, Social History of Black Slaves, 114.

12. Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal (hereafter cited as BNP), Cristóvão Rodrigues de Oliveira, Sumario e[m] que brevemente se contem alguas cousas assi eclesiásticas como seculares que ha na cidade de Lisboa (Lisbon: Em casa de Germão Galharde, 1554), 103.

13. Jorge Fonseca, “Black Africans in Portugal during Cleynaerts’s Visit (1533–1538),” in Earle and Lowe, Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, 114n5.

14. Saunders, Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 55. See also Didier Lahon, “Esclavage, confréries noires, sainteté noire et pureté de sang au Portugal (XVIe et XVIIIe siècles),” Lusitania Sacra 2, no. 15 (2003): 120, and António de Almeida Mendes, “Les réseaux de la traite ibérique dans l’Atlantique nord (1440–1640),” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales, no. 4 (2008): 742.

15. Caldeira, Escravos em Portugal, 143.

16. See William D. Phillips Jr., Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 10. On Valencia, see Debra Blumenthal, Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 4. On Valencia and Barcelona, see Iván Armenteros Martínez, “Un caso de reestructuración de redes comerciales: El mercado de esclavos de Barcelona entre 1472 y 1516” (paper presented at the eleventh Congrés de Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, Institut de Cultura, Ajuntament de Barcelona, December 1–3, 2009), 5, 9. On sixteenth-century Seville, see Manuel F. Fernández Chavez and Rafael M. Pérez García, En los márgenes de la ciudad de Dios: Moriscos en Sevilla (Valencia: Publicaciones de la Universitat de València; Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada; Zaragoza: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universida de Zaragoza, 2009), 86–87.

17. Saunders, Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 77.

18. Saunders, Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 27, and Fonseca, “Black Africans in Portugal during Cleynaerts’s Visit,” 16.

19. Imtiaz Habib, Black Lives in the English Archives, 1500–1677: Imprints of the Invisible (London: Routledge, 2007), 64. On Black Tudors, see also Miranda Kaufmann, Black Tudors: The Untold Story (London: Oneworld Publications, 2018).

20. Mark Ponte, “�?Al de swarten die hier ter stede comen’: Een Afro-Atlantische gemeeschap in zeventiended-eeuws Amsterdam,” TSEG 15, no. 4 (2018): 34.

21. Existing graves of enslaved and free Black Africans attest to this early presence in Amsterdam and its surroundings. See Dienke Hondius, “Access to the Netherlands of Enslaved and Free Black Africans: Exploring Legal and Social Historical Practices in the Sixteenth–Nineteenth Centuries,” Slavery and Abolition 32, no. 3 (2011): 380–81. For tangible traces of slavery in Amsterdam and Leiden, see Dienke Hondius et al., Gids Slavernijverleden, Amsterdam Slavery Heritage Guide (Arnhem, Neth.: LM Publishers, 2018), Gert Oostindie and Karwan Fatah-Black, Sporen van de slavernij in Leiden (Leiden, Neth.: Leiden University Press, 2018), and Olivette Otele, African Europeans: An Untold History (New York: Basic Books, 2021), 70–72.

22. Ponte, “�?Al de swarten die hier ter stede comen,’” 38.

23. On the Hemingses, see Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008). On the legal debates about slavery in metropolitan eighteenth-century France, see Sue Peabody, “There Are No Slaves in France”: The Political Culture of Race and Slavery in the Ancien Régime (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

24. See, for example, Lorelle Semley, “Beyond the Dark Side of the Port of the Moon: Rethinking the Role of Bordeaux’s Slave Trade Past,” Histoire Sociale / Social History 53, no. 107 (2020): 43–68, and Julie Duprat, Bordeaux Métisse: Esclaves et affranchis de couleur du XVIII à l’empire (Bordeaux, Fr.: Mollat, 2021).

25. See Cole, Potosí Mita, Kris Lane, Potosí: The Silver City That Changed the World (Oakland: University of California Press, 2019), and James Almeida, “Minting Slavery in the Colonial Andes: Labor and Race in Potosi and Lima” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2022).

26. See, for example, Karen B. Graubart, With Our Labor and Sweat: Indigenous Women and the Formation of Colonial Society in Peru, 1550–1700 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 60–61, 89.

27. See Mieko Nishida, Slavery and Identity: Ethnicity, Gender, and Race in Salvador, Brazil, 1808–1888 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003), 19.

28. On enslaved Asians, see Tatiana Seijas, Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

29. See Pablo Miguel Sierra Silva, Urban Slavery in Colonial Mexico: Puebla de los Ángeles, 1531–1706 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019), and Karen B. Graubart, “As Slaves and Not Vassals: Interethnic Claims of Freedom and Unfreedom in Colonial Peru,” Población & Sociedad 27, no. 2 (2020): 30–53.

30. See Marisa Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), chaps. 2 and 3.

31. According to the first census of Cuba in 1774; see Ramón Sagra, Historia economico-politica y estadística de la islã de Cuba (Havana: Printed by the Widows Arazoza and Soler, 1831), 3.

32. Ynaê Lopes dos Santos, “Irmãs do Atlântico: Escravidão e espaço urbano no Rio de Janeiro e Havana (1763–1844)” (PhD diss., University of São Paulo, 2012), 51, 60–64.

33. H. Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America, 41.

34. Ann Twinam, Purchasing Whiteness: Pardos, Mulattos, and the Quest for Social Mobility in the Spanish Indies (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015).

35. Mariana L. R. Dantas, Black Townsmen: Urban Slavery and Freedom in the Eighteenth-Century Americas (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 86, 105–6, and H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 45.

36. See Eduardo França Paiva, Escravidão e universo cultural na colônia: Minas Gerais, 1716–1789 (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Editora da Universidade de Minas Gerais, 2006).

37. Leila Mezan Algranti, O feitor ausente: Estudo sobre a escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro (Petrópolis. Brazil: Vozes, 1988), 49, and Nishida, Slavery and Identity, 20.

38. H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 141.

39. Bergad, Comparative Histories of Slavery, 196–97.

40. Alejandro de la Fuente and Ariela J. Gross, Becoming Free, Becoming Black: Race, Freedom, and Law in Cuba, Virginia, and Louisiana (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 106.

41. James H. Sweet, “Manumission in Rio de Janeiro, 1749–54: An African Perspective,” Slavery and Abolition 24, no. 1 (2003): 63, 66.

42. See Afua Cooper, The Hanging of Angélique: The Untold Story of Canadian Slavery and the Burning of Old Montréal (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007), and Frank Mackey, Done with Slavery: The Black Fact in Montreal, 1760–1840 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2010).

43. On New York City, see Graham Russell Gao Hodges, Root & Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Leslie Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626–1863 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Jill Lepore, New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery, and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan (New York: Knopf, 2005); and Daniel Nathaniel Gellman, Emancipating New York: The Politics of Slavery and Freedom, 1777–1827 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008).

44. L. Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery, 30.

45. Cécile Vidal, Caribbean New Orleans: Empire, Race, and the Making of a Slave Society (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 323.

46. On the use of an enslaved workforce to build the capital, see Felicia Bell, “�?The Negroes Alone Work’: Enslaved Craftsmen, the Building Trades, and the Construction of the United States Capitol, 1790–1800” (PhD diss., Howard University, 2009).

47. See Tamika Y. Nunley, At the Threshold of Liberty: Women, Slavery, and Shifting Identities in Washington, D.C. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021), 18–20.

48. See Dantas, Black Townsmen, 55–58, 72. See also Seth Rockman, Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery, and Survival in Early Baltimore (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 233.

49. Midori Takagi, Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction: Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782–1865 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 22–24.

50. Lucia C. Stanton, “Those Who Labor for My Happiness”: Slavery at Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012), 21, 116.

51. Justene Hill Edwards, Unfree Markets: The Slaves’ Economy and the Rise of Capitalism in South Carolina (New York: Columbia University Press, 2021), 52–53.

52. Richard C. Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South 1820–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 40.

53. Ethan J. Kytle and Blain Roberts, Denmark Vesey’s Garden: Slavery and Memory in the Cradle of the Confederacy (New York: New Press, 2018), 23.

54. João José Reis, “African Nations in Nineteenth-Century Salvador, Bahia,” in Cañizares-Esguerra, Childs, and Sidbury, Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, 64.

55. For an overview of what these ethnonyms meant in nineteenth-century Bahia, see J. Reis, “African Nations in Nineteenth-Century Salvador,” 65–68.

56. Nishida, Slavery and Identity, 39.

57. Daniel Parish Kidder and James Cooley Fletcher, Brazil and the Brazilians, Portrayed in Historical and Descriptive Sketches (Philadelphia: Childs and Peterson, 1857), 475.

58. Kidder and Fletcher, Brazil and the Brazilians, 476.

59. François-Auguste Biard, Deux années au Brésil (Paris: Hachette, 1862), 41.

60. See Stuart B. Schwartz, “Cantos and Quilombos: A Hausa Rebellion in Bahia, 1814,” in Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America, ed. Landers, Jane, and Barry Robinson (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006), 257–59.

61. See João José Reis, Ganhadores: A greve negra de 1857 na Bahia (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2019). See also an article in English providing an overview of the movement, João José Reis, “�?The Revolution of the Ganhadores’: Urban Labour, Ethnicity and the African Strike of 1857 in Bahia, Brazil,” Journal of Latin American Studies 29, no. 2 (1997): 355–93.

62. On slaves who owned slaves, see Mattoso, Être Esclave au Brésil XVIe–XIXe siècles, 150–51; João José Reis, “From Slave to Wealthy African Freedman: The Story of Manoel Joaquim Ricardo,” in Biography and the Black Atlantic, ed. Lisa A. Lindsay and John Wood Sweet (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 131–48; and Castillo, “O terreiro do Gantois,” 25.

63. J. Reis, “African Nations in Nineteenth-Century Salvador,” 70.

64. Several monographs explore cases of former slaves who owned slaves in Brazilian urban areas. In Bahia, see João José Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 3; João José Reis, Domingos Sodré: Um sacerdote africano; Escravidão, liberdade e candomblé na Bahia do século XIX (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2008); and J. Reis, Gomes, and Carvalho, Story of Rufino, originally published as João José Reis, Flávio dos Santos Gomes, and Marcus J. M. de Carvalho, O alufá Rufino: tráfico, escravidão e liberdade no Atlântico Negro (c. 1822–c. 1853) (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2010). On former slaves who owned slaves in Minas Gerais, see Kathleen J. Higgins, Licentious Liberty in a Brazilian Gold-Mining Region: Slavery, Gender and Social Control in Eighteenth-Century Sabará, Minas Gerais (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 1999), 43–88; in Rio de Janeiro, see Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, and Luiz Carlos Soares, O �?povo de Cam’ na capital do Brasil: A escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro do século XIX (Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras, 2007).

65. See Luis Nicolau Parés, “Afro-Catholic Baptism and the Articulation of a Merchant Community, Agoué, 1840–1860,” History in Africa 42 (2015): 165–201, and Luis Nicolau Parés, “Entre Bahia e a Costa da Mina, libertos africanos no tráfico ilegal” in Salvador da Bahia: Interações entre América e África (séculos XVI–XIX), ed. Giuseppina Raggi, João Figuerôa-Rego, and Roberta Stumpf (Salvador, Brazil: Editora da Universidade Federal da Bahia, 2017), 19–20.

66. Arquivo Público do Estado da Bahia (hereafter cited as APEB), Seção Judiciária, Maço 1697, document 13, 2v-f3. For a transcription of this will, see Verger, Os Libertos, 116–20.

67. Édouard Manet, Lettres du siège de Paris: Précédées des lettres du voyage à Rio de Janeiro (Paris: Éditions de l’Amateur, 1996), 23.

68. Manet, Lettres du siège de Paris, 24.

69. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 223.

70. On Salvador and Rio de Janeiro, see Sylvia Hunold Lara, “The Signs of Color: Women’s Dress and Racial Relations in Salvador and Rio de Janeiro, ca. 1750–1815,” Colonial Latin American Review 6, no. 2 (1997): 205–24. On Lima, see Tamara J. Walker, “�?He Outfitted His Family in Notable Decency’: Slavery, Honour and Dress in Eighteenth-Century Lima, Peru,” Slavery & Abolition 30, no. 3 (2009): 383–402, and Tamara J. Walker, Exquisite Slaves: Race, Clothing, and Status in Colonial Lima (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017). On Mexico City, see Herman Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico: Absolutism, Christianity, and Afro-Creole Consciousness, 1570–1640 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 30–32. On Mexico City and Santiago de Chile, see Rebecca Earle, �?“Two Pairs of Pink Satin Shoes!!’: Clothing, Race and Identity in the Americas, 17th–19th Centuries,” History Workshop Journal 52 (2001): 175–95.

71. ADCM 17, 4J 45 2318, Mémoires de Jacques Proa dit Proa des îles, 115.

72. See Maria Odila Silva Dias, Power and Everyday Life: The Lives of Working Women in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 55–56.

73. Lara, “Signs of Color,” 205–8.

74. Luís dos Santos Vilhena, A Bahia no século XVIII, vol. 1 (Salvador, Brazil: Editora Itapuã, 1969), 54–55.

75. On March 21, 1817, the vessel Lucrecia from Porto-Novo anchored in Bahia with a cargo of panos da costa; see Idade d’ouro do Brazil, March 25, 1817, 4.

76. James Wetherell, Brazil: Stray Notes from Bahia: Being Extracts from Letters, &c., During a Residence of Fifteen Years (Liverpool: Webb and Hunt, 1860), 73. On the trade of this cloth, see Hicks, “Transatlantic Threads of Meaning.”

77. Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro (hereafter cited as BN), Icon 3030647, “Noticia summaria do gentilismo da Asia com dez Riscos iluminados. Ditos de Figurinhos de Brancos e Negros dos Uzos do Rio de Janeiro e Serro do Frio. Ditos de Vazos e Tecidos Peruvianos,” c. 17––, plate XXVI. For more details about the original manuscript with watercolors and its various editions, see Valéria Piccoli Gabriel da Silva, “Figurinhas de brancos e negros: Carlos Julião e o mundo colonial português” (PhD diss., Universidade de São Paulo, 2010).

78. See the example of eighteenth-century Minas Gerais in Paiva, Escravidão e universo cultural na colônia, 50, 151.

79. Lucilene Reginaldo, “André do Couto Godinho,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, Oxford University Press, article published May 26, 2021, https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-962.

80. On this portrait and other nineteenth-century photographs of enslaved people in Brazil, see Margrit Prussat, Bilder Der Sklaverei: Fotografien Der Afrikanischen Diaspora in Brasilien 1860–1920 (Berlin: Reimer, 2008). See also Margrit Prussat, “Icons of Slavery: Black Brazil in Nineteenth-Century Photography and Image Art,” in Living History: Encountering the Memory of the Heirs of Slavery, ed. Ana Lucia Araujo (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009), 203–30.

81. Grandpré, Voyage à la côte occidentale, 1:75.

82. Mariana P. Candido, “Women’s Material World in Nineteenth-Century Benguela,” in Candido and Jones, African Women in the Atlantic World, 70–85.

83. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 2:91.

84. Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 61.

85. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 223.

86. See Ana Lucia Araujo, Brazil through French Eyes: A Nineteenth-Century Artist in the Tropics (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2015), chap. 3.

87. A similar scene, titled A Brazilian Family, was also depicted by the British traveler Henry Chamberlain; see Henry Chamberlain and Rubens Borba de Moraes, Vistas e costumes da cidade e arredores do Rio de Janeiro em 1819–1820 (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Kosmos editora, 1943), 39. A similar satirical engraving portraying a female slave owner strolling with her slaves also appears in Biard, Deux années au Brésil, 85.

88. L. Soares, O �?povo de Cam’ na capital do Brasil, 363.

89. On white women’s seclusion in Brazil, see Dias, Power and Everyday Life, 59.

90. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 2:31.

91. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 2:31–32.

92. See Mattoso, Être esclave au Brésil, XVIe–XIXe siècles, 230–31. See also Manuela Carneiro da Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros: Os escravos libertos e sua volta à África (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2012), 99.

93. Biard, Deux années au Brésil, 38.

94. Biard, Deux années au Brésil, 64.

Chapter 9

1. Biard, Deux années au Brésil, 38.

2. L. Soares, O �?povo de Cam’ na capital do Brasil, 107.

3. Akinwumi Ogundiran, The Yorùbá: A New History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020), 323.

4. Paul Hair, ed., Barbot in Guinea: The Writings of Jean Barbot on West Africa, 1678–1712, vol. 1 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1992), 90. See also Klas Rönnbäck, Labour and Living Standards in Pre-Colonial West Africa: The Case of the Gold Coast (Oxford: Routledge, 2015), 76–78.

5. See Niara Sudarkasa, Where Women Work: A Study of Yoruba Women in the Marketplace and in the Home (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973), 27–35.

6. Carney and Rosomoff, In the Shadow of Slavery, 49, 59.

7. Ogundiran, Yorùbá, 319.

8. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 37.

9. Selma Pantoja, “A Dimensão Atlântica das Quitandeiras,” in Diálogos Oceânicos: Minas Gerais e as Novas Abordagens para uma História do Império Ultramarino Português, ed. Júnia F. Furtado (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Editora da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 2001), 45–68.

10. Pantoja, “A Dimensão Atlântica das Quitandeiras,” 47; Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 133; and Vanessa S. Oliveira, “Baskets, Stalls and Shops: Experiences and Strategies of Women in Retail Sales in Nineteenth-Century Luanda,” Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines 54, no. 3 (2020): 425.

11. Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange, 133–34, and V. Oliveira, Slave Trade and Abolition, 45.

12. D. Silva, Atlantic Slave Trade, 76, and V. Oliveira, Slave Trade and Abolition, 81, 89.

13. Pantoja, “A Dimensão Atlântica das Quitandeiras,” 47.

14. Candido, African Slaving Port, 105–6.

15. Selma Pantoja, “Women’s Work in the Fairs and Markets of Luanda,” in Women in the Portuguese Colonial Empire: The Theatre of Shadows, ed. Clara Sarmento (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2008), 81–93.

16. V. Oliveira, Slave Trade and Abolition, 97.

17. Susan Kellogg, Weaving the Past: A History of Latin America’s Indigenous Women from the Prehispanic Period to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 64–65.

18. Jean-Pierre Tardieu, El negro em la Real Audiencia de Quito, Siglos XVI–XVIII (Lima, Peru: Institut français d’études andines, 2015), 144, 151n81.

19. Tadeo Haënke, Descripción del Perú (Lima, Peru: Imprenta El Lucero, 1901), 3.

20. Hilary M. Beckles, “An Economic Life of Their Own: Slaves as Commodity Producers and Distributors in Barbados,” Slavery and Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies 12, no. 1 (1991): 40.

21. Beckles, “Economic Life of Their Own,” 41; Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives, 28, 54.

22. Beckles, “Economic Life of Their Own,” 45n2.

23. See Affiches américaines, May 21, 1766, and May 21, 1775.

24. Jean-Baptiste Rouvellat de Cussac, Situation des esclaves dans les colonies françaises; urgence de leur émancipation (Paris: Pagnerre, 1845), 44.

25. For example, on the case of Cap-Français in Saint-Domingue, see Geggus, “Slaves and Free People of Color of Cap Français,” 209. On the French West Indies in general, see Moitt, Women and Slavery in the French Antilles, 55.

26. See Beckles, “Economic Life of Their Own,” 33–35, and Lucille Mathurin Mair, A Historical Study of Women in Jamaica, 1655–1844 (Mona: University of the West Indies Press, 2006), 65.

27. See Camillia Cowling, Conceiving Freedom: Women of Color, Gender, and the Abolition of Slavery in Havana and Rio de Janeiro (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 230n44.

28. See Crystal Eddins, Rituals, Runaways, and the Haitian Revolution: Collective Action in the African Diaspora (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022).

29. On the word mondongo in Spanish, see Laura Álvarez López and Magdalena Coll, “Registers of African-Derived Lexicon in Uruguay: Etymologies, Demography and Semantic Change,” Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 135, no. 1 (2019): 223–55. On mondongo in Portuguese, see Yeda Passos de Castro, Falares africanos na Bahia: Um vocabulário afro-brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro: Academia Brasileira de Letras, 2001), 288. Castro suggests that the word may be related to the Kikongo terms mungungu and mundungu designating the entrails of animals. But the matter remains unsettled; see Thomas Johnen, “Bomba, kanga, makamba e outros africanismos lexicais no papiamento: Comparações com o português do Brasil e o espanhol uruguaio,” in Una historia sin fronteras: Léxico de origen africano em Brasil y Uruguay, ed. Laura Álvarez López and Magdalena Coll (Stockholm: Acta Universitattis Stockholmiensis, 2012), 176–78. On the dish, see Marco Polo Hernandéz Cuevas, African Mexicans and the Discourse on Modern Nation (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2004), 46–47.

30. On mondongueras in San Juan, see Félix V. Matos-Rodríguez, “Street Vendors, Pedlars, Shop-Owners and Domestics: Some Aspects of Women’s Economic Roles in Nineteenth-Century San Juan, Puerto Rico (1820–1870),” in Engendering History: Caribbean Women in Historical Perspective, ed. Verene Shepherd, Bridget Brereton, and Barbara Bailey (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1995), 181–83.

31. J. Edwards, Unfree Markets, 22.

32. Robert Olwell, “�?Loose, Idle and Disorderly’: Slave Women in the Eighteenth-Century Charleston Marketplace,” in More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas, ed. David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 98.

33. See J. Edwards, Unfree Markets, 30–33.

34. J. Edwards, Unfree Markets, 32. On the marketplace as haven for enslaved fugitives in the British colonies of the Americas, see Jennifer Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 159–61. On Jamaica, see Shauna Sweeney, “Market Marronage: Fugitive Women and the Internal Marketing System in Jamaica, 1781–1834,” William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 2 (2019): 197–222.

35. J. Edwards, Unfree Markets, 30, 50–53.

36. Sophie White, Voices of the Enslaved: Love, Labor, and Longing in French Louisiana (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 209; J. Johnson, Wicked Flesh, 183.

37. Vidal, Caribbean New Orleans, 361.

38. Rashauna Johnson, Slavery’s Metropolis: Unfree Labor in New Orleans during the Age of Revolutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 65–73.

39. Vilhena, A Bahia no século XVIII, 93.

40. Nishida, Slavery and Identity, 44–45.

41. See Carney and Rosomoff, In the Shadow of Slavery, 183–85.

42. Richard Graham, Feeding the City: From Street Market to Liberal Reform in Salvador, Brazil, 1780–1860 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010), 35.

43. Cecília Moreira Soares, “As ganhadeiras: Mulher e resistência negra em Salvador no século XIX,” Afro-Ásia, no. 17 (1996): 57.

44. R. Graham, Feeding the City, 37–41.

45. Vilhena, A Bahia no século XVIII, 130.

46. Wetherell, Brazil: Stray Notes from Bahia, 95–96.

47. R. Graham, Feeding the City, 44–45.

48. O Monitor, September 26, 1877, 3; Correio Mercantil, December 12, 1840, 4.

49. See Correio da Bahia, July 17, 1877, 1; Correio da Bahia, August 9, 1877, 1; Correio da Bahia, August 12, 1877, 2; O Guarany, May 10, 1878, 3.

50. I explore these issues in Araujo, Brazil through French Eyes.

51. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 206.

52. Cowling, Conceiving Freedom, 31.

53. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brésil, 2:44.

54. Juliana Barreto Farias, Mercados Minas: Africanos ocidentais na Praça do Mercado do Rio de Janeiro (1830–1890) (Rio de Janeiro: Arquivo Geral da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, 2015), 39.

55. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 58.

56. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 73.

57. Thomas Ewbank, Life in Brazil; or, a Journal of a Visit to the Land of Cocoa (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1856), 92–93.

58. Ewbank, Life in Brazil, 54.

59. On Mina women street vendors, see M. Soares, People of Faith, 99–100. On Mina women in this specific market, see Farias, Mercados Minas, 106.

60. Louis Agassiz and Elizabeth Agassiz, Journey in Brazil (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1868), 82–85.

61. This case is explored in Juliana Barreto Farias, “De escrava a Dona: A trajetória da africana mina Emília Soares do Patrocínio no Rio de Janeiro do século XIX,” Locus: Revista de História 18, no. 2 (2012): 13–40.

62. On this case, see Farias, Mercados Minas, 103.

63. See Sheila Siqueira de Castro Faria, “Sinhás pretas, damas mercadoras: As pretas minas nas cidades do Rio de Janeiro e de São João del Rey (1700–1850)” (diss. for full professor promotion, Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2004), 200–202.

64. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, March 30, 1825, 94.

65. Patricia Acerbi, Street Occupations: Urban Vending in Rio de Janeiro (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2017), 60–61.

Chapter 10

1. “Defloramento da escrava pelo senhor: Questões connexas,” O Direito: Revista mensal de legislação, doutrina e jurisprudencia 35 (1884): 103–18.

2. Gilberto Freyre, Casa-grande e senzala (São Paulo: Global, 2003). Published in 1933 in Brazil, this book was translated into English as Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves: A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946).

3. Marc Epprecht, “Sexuality, Africa, History,” American Historical Review 114, no. 5 (2009): 1259.

4. Oyèrónké Oyěwùmí, The Invention of Women: Making an African Sense of Western Gender Discourses (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 29, 44.

5. Dapper also reports this tradition in the Kingdom of Jolof, in present-day Senegal, and the Gold Coast. Olfert Dapper, Description de l’Afrique [...] (Amsterdam: Chez Wolfgang, Waesberge, Bom & van Someren, 1686), 234–35, 299.

6. Oyěwùmí, Invention of Women, 53–54.

7. See Kwasi Konadu, “�?To Satisfy My Savage Appetite’: Slavery, Belief, and Sexual Violence on the Mina (Gold) Coast, 1471–1571,” Journal of African History (2022): 1–16. For a longer and more detailed study of these cases, see also Kwasi Konadu, Many Black Women of This Fortress: Graça, Mónica and Adwoa, Three Enslaved Women of Portugal’s African Empire (London: Hurst, 2022).

8. Dapper, Description de l’Afrique, 260.

9. Olfert Dapper, Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche gewesten [...], vol. 2 (Amsterdam: J. van Meurs, 1676), 219, 106. The passage describing these women is absent from the French edition of 1686; see Dapper, Description de l’Afrique, 277. For an English translation of this passage, see Adam Jones, “Prostitution, Polyandry or Rape? On the Ambiguity of European Sources for the West African Coast 1660–1860,” in Candido and Jones, African Women in the Atlantic World, 90.

10. Emmanuel Akyeampong, “Sexuality and Prostitution among the Akan of the Gold Coast c. 1650–1950,” Past & Present, no. 156 (1997): 146.

11. A. Jones, “Prostitution, Polyandry or Rape?” 93, 97–105.

12. See Bay, Wives of the Leopard.

13. See Lynne Ellsworth Larsen, “Wives and Warriors: The Royal Women of Dahomey as Representatives of the Kingdom,” in The Routledge Companion to Black Women’s Cultural Histories, ed. Janell Hobson (London: Routledge, 2021), 227. See Gina Prince-Bythewood, dir., The Woman King (TriStar Pictures, 2022).

14. Melville J. Herskovits, Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1967), 2:46.

15. Robin Law, “The �?Amazons’ of Dahomey,” Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde 39 (1993): 256.

16. See Law, “ �?Amazons’ of Dahomey,” 256.

17. Suzanne Preston Blier, “Mort et créativité dans la tradition des amazones du Dahomey,” in Ethnocentrisme et création, ed. Annie Dupuis (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 2013), 73.

18. Melville J. Herskovits, “A Note on �?Woman Marriage’ in Dahomey,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 10, no. 3 (1937): 335–41.

19. Nwando Achebe, The Female King of Colonial Nigeria: Ahebi Ugbabe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 81.

20. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 33.

21. On European and African notions of childhood, see Benjamin N. Lawrance, Amistad’s Orphans: An Atlantic Story of Children, Slavery, and Smuggling (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 20, 29. See also D. da Silva, Atlantic Slave Trade, 111–12.

22. “Viagens de Cadamosto e Pedro de Sintra: Primeira viagem de Cadamosto (22-3-1455)” in Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana: Segunda série, 1:322.

23. On Senegal, see H. Jones, Métis of Senegal, and J. Johnson, Wicked Flesh. On the Gold Coast, see Feinberg, Africans and Europeans in West Africa, and Ipsen, Daughters of the Trade. On Benguela and Luanda, see Candido, “Aguida Gonçalves da Silva,” and V. Oliveira, Slave Trade and Abolition.

24. Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, 38–41.

25. On sexual violence in these early exchanges on the Gold Coast, see Konadu, “�?To Satisfy My Savage Appetite,’” and Kwasi Konadu, Many Black Women of This Fortress.

26. Eustache de la Fosse, Voyage à la côte occidentale d’Afrique en Portugal et en Espagne (1479–1480) (Paris: Foulché-Delbosc, 1897), 14–15.

27. Audra A. Diptee, From Africa to Jamaica: The Making of an Atlantic Slave Society, 1775–1807 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 22–23.

28. Lawrance, Amistad’s Orphans, 120.

29. Harms, Diligent, 312.

30. Harms, Diligent, 312, and Deveau, La traite rochelaise, 241.

31. Johannes Menne Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade 1600–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 243; Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, 85.

32. ADCM 17, 4J 45 2318, Mémoires de Jacques Proa dit Proa des îles, 113–14. On Proa’s memoir, see Antoine Régis, “Aventures d’un jeune négrier français d’après un manuscrit inédit du XVIIIe siècle,” Notes africaines, April 1974, 51–56. See also J. Johnson, Wicked Flesh, 83.

33. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 15.

34. See Deveau, La traite rochelaise, 241. On this specific slave voyage, see SlaveVoyages, Voyage ID 32363, www.slavevoyages.org/voyage/database.

35. ADLA B4596, Rapports des capitaines à l’Amirauté de Nantes, Rapports des capitaines au long cours, August 23, 1777, fl113–14. Part of the document is summarized in Jean Mettas and Serge Daget, Répertoire des expéditions négrières françaises au XVIIIe siècle, vol. 1 (Nantes: Société française d’histoire d’outre-mer et Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1979), voyage 1048, pp. 600–601. The case is also quoted in Robert Stein, The French Slave Trade in the Eighteenth Century: An Old Regime Business (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979), 101.

36. James Field Stanfield, The Guinea Voyage, a Poem [...] (Edinburgh: J. Robertson, 1807), 74. See Rediker, Slave Ship, 152.

37. Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 23.

38. John Newton, Upon the African Slave Trade (London, 1788), 20. See also Harms, Diligent, 313.

39. Entry of February 3, 1753, in Newton, Martin, and Spurrell, Journal of a Slave Trader, 75. See also Rediker, Slave Ship, 179, and Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, 86.

40. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, United Kingdom (hereafter cited as HCPP), Correspondence with the British Commissioners Relating to the Slave Trade, 1838–9, [180.] Class A, Correspondence with the British Commissioners at Sierra Leone, The Havana, Rio de Janeiro, and Surinam, Relating to the Slave Trade from May 1^st 1838 to February 2^nd 1839, vol. XLVIII, Sess. 1839 (London: Clowes and Sons, 1839), 27.

41. Rapes are mentioned in Manuel Barcia, The Yellow Demon of Fever: Fighting Disease in the Nineteenth-Century Transatlantic (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2020), 49. Details about these rapes are in Barcia, “White Cannibalism in the Illegal Slave Trade,” 1–28.

42. The National Archives, Kew, UK (hereafter cited as TNA), Foreign Office 84/347, vol. 45, Draft to the H. Ms. Commission, Havana, August 9, 1841, no. 20, 54v. Contemporaneous observers described the case in John Flude Johnson, Proceedings of the General Anti-Slavery Convention, and held in London from Tuesday, June 13^th, to Tuesday, June 20^th, 1843 (London: British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, 1843), 228–29. The incident was widely reported in the abolitionist press that employed the term rape; see “Tidings from Cuba,” British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter, May 5, 1841, 85. See also Dale T. Graden, Disease, Resistance, and Lies: The Demise of the Transatlantic Slave Trade to Brazil and Cuba (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014), 50.

43. Edward E. Baptist, “�?Cuffy,’ �?Fancy Maids,’ and �?One-Eyed Men’: Rape, Commodification, and the Domestic Slave Trade in the United States,” American Historical Review 106, no. 5 (2001): 1641–42.

44. For the Iberian Peninsula, see the case of sixteenth-century enslaved breeders in Vila Viçosa, Évora, in Portugal, documented in the travel account by Alessandrino Legato, an Italian emissary sent to Portugal by Pope Pius V. See Biblioteca da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal (hereafter cited as BA), “Rerum Lusitanicarum—Symmicta Lusitanica,” Viaggio del Cardinale Alessandrino Legato Apostolico Alli Ser Re di Francia, Spanha e Portogallo, 1571, 46-IX-3; and Jorge Fonseca, Escravos e senhores na Lisboa quinhentista (Lisbon: Edições Colibri, 2010). For seventeenth-century New England, see John Jesselyn, An Account of Two Voyages to New England: Made During the Years 1638, 1663 (Boston: W. Veazie, 1865), 26.

45. See Gregory D. Smithers, Slave Breeding: Sex, Violence, and Memory in African American History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2012), and Thomas A. Foster, Rethinking Rufus: Sexual Violations of Enslaved Men (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2019), 50.

46. Daina Ramey Berry, “Swing the Sickle for the Harvest Is Ripe”: Gender and Slavery in Antebellum Georgia (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 79. On forced breeding, see also Berry, Price for Their Pound of Flesh, 78–80.

47. See Smithers, Slave Breeding, 1–2, and Foster, Rethinking Rufus, 55.

48. See Marinaldo Fernando de Souza, “Além da escola: Reflexões teórico-metodológicas com base na análise de práticas educativas alternativas descobertas em áreas rurais da região de São Carlos, S.P.” (PhD diss., Universidade Estadual Paulista, 2016).

49. Clóvis Moura, Dicionário da escravidão negra no Brasil (São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 2004), 346.

50. Hebe Mattos, “Os Combates da Memória: Escravidão e liberdade nos arquivos orais de descendentes de escravos brasileiros,” Tempo 3, no. 6 (1998): 10–11.

51. Trevor Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves in the Anglo-Jamaican World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 82.

52. Vincent Brown, Tacky’s Revolt: The Story of an Atlantic War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020), 58.

53. Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire, 261.

54. Prince, History of Mary Prince, 24.

55. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, 34.

56. Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, Lisbon, Portugal (hereafter cited as ANTT), Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processo 9065. Anthropologist Luiz Mott was the first scholar to bring this case to light. See Luiz Mott, Rosa Egipcíaca: Uma santa africana no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand do Brasil, 1993), and Luiz Mott, “Rosa Egipcíaca: De escrava da Costa da Mina à Flor do Rio de Janeiro,” in Rotas atlânticas da diáspora africana: Da Baía do Benim ao Rio de Janeiro, ed. Mariza de Carvalho Soares (Rio de Janeiro: Editora da Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2007), 135–55.

57. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processo 9065, fl. 77v.

58. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processo 9065, fl. 77v–78.

59. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, “Minuta da certidão da fé de notários e auto de falecimento da ré Rosa Maria Egicíaca,” October 12–13, 1771, 18078, fl. 1–2.

60. See Keila Grinberg, Liberata: A lei da ambigüidade; As ações de liberdade da corte de apelação do Rio de Janeiro no século XIX (Rio de Janeiro: Centro Edelstein de Pesquisas Sociais, 2008), and Keila Grinberg, “Manumission, Gender, and the Law in Nineteenth-Century Brazil: Liberata’s Legal Suit for Freedom,” in Paths to Freedom: Manumission in the Atlantic World, ed. Rosemary Brana-Shute and Randy J. Sparks (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2009), 219–34.

61. Gunvor Simonsen, Slave Stories: Law, Representation, and Gender in the Danish West Indies (Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2017), 77, 97.

62. “Defloramento da escrava pelo senhor.” See the transcription of this case translated in English in Robert Conrad, Children of God’s Fire: A Documentary History of Black Slavery in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 273–80.

63. On this case, see Luiz Mott, Bahia: Inquisição e sociedade (Salvador, Brazil: Editora da Universidade da Bahia, 2010), 142–43.

64. Mariana P. Candido, “Transatlantic Links: The Benguela-Bahia Connections, 1700–1850,” in Paths of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Interactions, Identities and Images, ed. Ana Lucia Araujo (Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2011), 247–48.

65. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Process 6478, December 6, 1703, fl. 2–2v.

66. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Process 5708, May 20, 1741, fl. 4.

67. See Ronaldo Vainfas, “Sodomy, Love, and Slavery in Colonial Brazil: A Case Study of Minas Gerais during the Eighteenth Century,” in Sex, Power, and Slavery, ed. Gwyn Campbell and Elizabeth Elbourne (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014), 534.

68. Vainfas, “Sodomy, Love, and Slavery in Colonial Brazil,” 535.

69. This trial is transcribed and translated in English in Richard A. Gordon, “Confessing Sodomy, Accusing a Master: The Lisbon Trial of Pernambuco’s Luiz da Costa, 1743,” in Afro-Latino Voices: Narratives from the Early Modern Ibero-Atlantic World, 1550–1812, ed. Kathryn Joy McKnight and Leo J. Garofalo (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2009), 277.

70. Moura, Dicionário da escravidão negra no Brasil, 225.

71. See Martha Hodes, White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the 19th Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), and Foster, Rethinking Rufus, 33.

72. Manoel Bomfim, A América Latina: Males de origem (Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier, 1905), 153.

73. Ulrike Schmieder, “Sexual Relations between Enslaved and between Slaves and Nonslaves in Nineteenth-Century Cuba,” in Campbell and Elbourne, Sex, Power, and Slavery, 234–35.

74. On this case, see Schmieder, “Sexual Relations between Enslaved and between Slaves and Nonslaves,” 236, 249n35.

75. Miguel Barnet, Biografía de un cimarrón (Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina, 1977), 31. The original edition of this biography is Miguel Barnet, Biografía de un cimarrón (Havana: Instituto de Etnología y Folklore, 1966).

76. Júnia Ferreira Furtado, Chica da Silva: A Brazilian Slave of the Eighteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 15–16.

77. Furtado, Chica da Silva, 46–47.

78. Furtado, Chica da Silva, 50.

79. Furtado, Chica da Silva, 105.

80. See, for example, the cases of Bernabela and Petrona Funes in eighteenth-century Córdoba in present-day Argentina, in Erika Denise Edwards, Hiding in Plain Sight: Black Women, the Law, and the Making of a White Argentine Republic (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2020), chap. 3.

81. See Gordon-Reed, Hemingses of Monticello. On the history and memory of Sally Hemings, see also Araujo, Slavery in the Age of Memory, 24–31.

82. On Chinn, see Amrita Chakrabarti Myers, The Vice President’s Black Wife: The Untold Life of Julia Chinn (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023).

83. According to Joshua D. Rothman, in the context of antebellum Virginia, some bondswomen were successful in resisting the sexual advances of slave owners and overseers. See Joshua D. Rothman, Sex and Families across the Color Line in Virginia, 1787–1861 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 154–55.

Chapter 11

1. See James H. Sweet, “Defying Social Death: The Multiple Configurations of African Slave Family in the Atlantic World,” William and Mary Quarterly 70, no. 2 (2013): 251–72.

2. See E. Edwards, Hiding in Plain Sight, 21–22.

3. John T. Dalton and Tin Cheuk Leung, “�?Why Is Polygyny More Prevalent in Western Africa? An African Slave Trade Perspective,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 62, no. 4 (2014): 599–632.

4. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 48.

5. Walter Hawthorne, “Being Now, as It Were One Family: Shipmate Bonding on the Slave Vessel Emilia, in Rio de Janeiro and throughout the Atlantic World,” Luso-Brazilian Review 45, no. 1 (2008): 58.

6. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 115.

7. Lovejoy and Law, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, 116.

8. Ajayi, “Samuel Ajayi Crowther of Oyo,” 303.

9. Laura Murphy, “Obstacles in the Way of Love: The Enslavement of Intimacy in Samuel Crowther and Ama Ata Aidoo,” Research in African Literatures 40, no. 4 (2009): 50.

10. Equiano and Carretta, Interesting Narrative, 56–59.

11. On the similarities of several Bantu languages that may have created a Bantu lingua franca in Brazil and facilitated exchanges between enslaved Africans transported from West Central Africa to Brazil, see Robert W. Slenes, “�?Malungu, ngoma vem!’ África coberta e descoberta do Brasil,” Revista USP 12 (1992): 48–67. For a different perspective of these linguistic connections, see Marcos Abreu Leitão de Almeida, “African Voices from the Congo Coast: Languages and the Politics of Identification in the Slave Ship Jovem Maria (1850),” Journal of African History 60, no. 2 (2019): 167–89.

12. Hawthorne, “Being Now, as It Were One Family,” 55–56, and Fett, Recaptured Africans, 9.

13. See Philip D. Curtin, Two Jamaicas: The Role of Ideas in a Tropical Colony, 1830–1865 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955), 26. Benjamin Lawrance explores these virtual slave ship families among the children of the slave vessel Amistad; see Lawrance, Amistad’s Orphans, 6–15. For a summary of the shipmate debates, see Hawthorne, “Being Now, as It Were One Family,” 55–57; Rosanne Adderley, “New Negroes from Africa”: Slave Trade Abolition and Free African Settlement in the Nineteenth-Century Caribbean (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 67; and Alex Borucki, From Shipmates to Soldiers: Emerging Black Identities in the Rio de La Plata (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2015), 60–61.

14. See M. Soares, People of Faith, 16.

15. See Mintz and Price, Birth of African-American Culture.

16. V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 45–46.

17. Susan Migden Socolow, “Permission to Marry: Eighteenth-Century Matrimonial Files (Montevideo, 1786),” in Colonial Lives: Documents on Latin American History, 1550–1850, ed. Richard Boyer and Geoffrey Spurling (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 236.

18. Borucki, From Shipmates to Soldiers, 63.

19. Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico, 79.

20. On Biafara, Biafada, or Beafada, see Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 41.

21. See several other cases in Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico, 87–109.

22. Borucki, From Shipmates to Soldiers, 69.

23. Hawthorne, “Being Now, as It Were One Family,” 63–64.

24. Hawthorne, “Being Now, as It Were One Family,” 67–69.

25. Barbara Bush, “White �?Ladies,’ Coloured �?Favourites’ and Black �?Wenches’; Some Considerations on Sex, Race and Class Factors in Social Relations in White Creole Society in the British Caribbean,” Slavery and Abolition 2, no. 3 (1981): 249, and Trevor Burnard, “�?Rioting in Goatish Embraces’: Marriage and Improvement in Early British Jamaica,” History of the Family 11 (2006): 185–97.

26. See Brooke Newman, A Dark Inheritance: Blood, Race, and Sex in Colonial Jamaica (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018), 96. See also Daniel Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune: Mixed-Race Jamaicans in Britain and the Atlantic Family, 1733–1833 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018), 403. Livesay’s analysis of wills left by white men in Jamaica from 1773 to 1815 shows that less than 10 percent of these men acknowledged mixed-race children.

27. Rebecca Anne Goetz, The Baptism of Early Virginia: How Christianity Created Race (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 80.

28. See Goetz, Baptism of Early Virginia, 80, and an “An act concerning Negroes and other Slaves,” Maryland, September 1664, in Proceedings and Acts of the General Assembly of Maryland, January 1637/8–September 1664, ed. William Hand Browne (Baltimore, 1883), I:533–34, cited in Newman, Dark Inheritance, 81.

29. See Randy M. Browne and Trevor Burnard, “Husbands and Fathers: The Family Experience of Enslaved Men in Berbice, 1819–1834,” New West Indian Guide 91 (2017): 193–222.

30. Le Code Noir [...] (Paris: Chez Claude Girard, 1685), 5.

31. On how Catholicism and the Roman law shaped Latin American legal codes regulating slavery, see the classic, although controversial, Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992). For a more complete and updated view of the various legal systems inspired by Roman law, see Michelle McKinley, “Fractional Freedoms: Slavery, Legal Activism, and Ecclesiastical Courts in Colonial Lima, 1593–1689,” Law and History Review 28, no. 3 (2010): 749–90, and Michelle A. McKinley, Fractional Freedoms: Slavery, Intimacy, and Legal Mobilization in Colonial Lima, 1600–1700 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 10–11.

32. See Robert I. Burns and Samuel Parsons Scott, Las Siete Partidas, vol. 4, Family, Commerce, and the Sea: The Worlds of Women and Merchants (Philadelphia: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000). For the Code noir of 1685 and the Louisiana Code noir of 1724, see Recueil d’édits, déclarations et arrests de sa majesté, Concernant l’Administration de la Justice la Police des Colonies françaises de l’Amérique, & les Engagés (Paris: Chez les Libraires Associez, 1744), 81–101 and 135–64.

33. See Cândido Mendes de Almeida, Codigo philippino, ou, Ordenações e leis do reino de Portugal (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia do Instituto Philomathico, 1870), vols. 1–5. For a commented version of volume 5, see Silvia Hunold Lara, ed. Ordenações filipinas, vol. 5 (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1999). The Ordenações filipinas were complemented by uncodified laws (leis extravagantes). For later legislation, see Constituições primeiras do Sebastião Monteiro da Vide [...] (São Paulo: Typographia 2 de Dezembro, 1853).

34. Burns and Scott, Family, Commerce, and the Sea, Title XXI, Law II, 977. On the Code noir of 1685 and the Louisiana Code noir of 1724, see Recueil d’édits, Article XIII, 86, and Article IX, 139. Jurists commented on the notion of partus sequitur ventrem in late nineteenth-century editions of the Ordenações filipinas; see Almeida, Codigo philippino, Title XCVII, 4:970.

35. William Waller Hening, The statutes at large: being a collection of all the laws of Virginia [...], vol. 2 (Richmond: Samuel Pleasants, Junior, Printer to the Commonwealth, 1810), Act XII, 170. On the principle of partus sequitur ventrem in the English colonies of the Americas, see Jennifer L. Morgan, “Partus sequitur ventrem: Law, Race, and Reproduction in Colonial Slavery,” Small Axe 22, no. 1 (2018): 1–17, and B. Newman, Dark Inheritance, 81–82.

36. Alejandro de La Fuente and Ariela J. Gross, “Comparative Studies of Law, Slavery, and Race in the Americas,” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 6 (2010): 469–85.

37. David L. Chandler, “Family Bonds and the Bondsman: The Slave Family in Colonial Colombia,” Latin American Research Review 16, no. 2 (1981): 109.

38. Schwartz, Sugar Plantations, 385.

39. Jorge Benci de Arimino, Economia Christã dos senhores no governo dos escravos deduzida a das palavras do capitulo trinta e três do Ecclesiastico [...] (Rome: Officina de Antonio de Rossi, 1705), 85–91.

40. Arimino, Economia Christã dos senhores, 117–18.

41. Mott, Bahia: Inquisição e sociedade, 47. See Coleção Luísa da Fonseca, AHU, ACL, CU 005, Cx. 32, docs. 4131 and 4132, February 12, 1698.

42. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processo 10026.

43. For a detailed analysis of Páscoa’s trajectory in Angola and Brazil, see Rita de Cássia Santos Silva, “A vida desinquieta de Páscoa Vieira: Uma escrava nas malhas do Santo Ofício” (MA thesis, Universidade do Estado da Bahia, 2018).

44. ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processo 10026, fl. 68. R. Silva, “A vida desinquieta de Páscoa Vieira,” 85–87.

45. For a more general overview of Páscoa’s story with a focus on marriage and the Catholic Church, see Charlotte Castelnau-L’Estoile, Páscoa et ses deux maris: Une esclave entre Angola, Brésil et Portugal au XVIIe siècle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2019).

46. Castelnau-L’Estoile, Páscoa et ses deux maris, 70.

47. The terms employed in the case to refer to sexual relations outside marriage are “estar em mau estado” and “andar em mau estado,” which literally mean “to be” or “to go” “in a bad state.” ANTT, Tribunal do Santo Ofício, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processo 10026, fl. 68–69v.

48. R. Silva, “A vida desinquieta de Páscoa Vieira,” 57–58.

49. Bigamy was also criminalized in the Portuguese compiled laws. See Cândido Mendes de Almeida, Codigo philippino, Title XIX, 5:1170.

50. Constituições primeiras do Sebastião Monteiro da Vide, vol. 1, Title LXXI, paragraph 303, p. 125.

51. See Charlotte de Castelnau-L’Estoile, “La liberté du sacrement: Droit canonique et mariage des esclaves dans le Brésil colonial,” Annales: Histoire, Sciences sociales 65 (2010) 1349–83.

52. Antonil, Cultura e opulência do Brasil por suas drogas e minas, 33.

53. Manoel Ribeiro Rocha, Ethiope resgatado, empenhado, sustentado, corregido, instruído, e liberado [...] (Lisbon: Officina Patriarcal de Francisco Luiz Ameno: 1758), 272–73.

54. McKinley, Fractional Freedoms, 164.

55. Thiago Krause, “Compadrio e escravidão na Bahia seiscentista,” Afro-Ásia 50 (2014): 199–228.

56. M. Soares, People of Faith, 95.

57. There were exceptions. For example, in 1791, lay authorities determined that the church could not request these permissions to marry to free and enslaved people born in the parish of São Paulo, Brazil.

58. Kenneth Mills, William B. Taylor, and Sandra Lauderdale Graham, ed. Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History (Lanham, MD: SR Books, 2004), 373.

59. H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 223–24, and Castelnau-L’Estoile, “La liberté du sacrement,” 1357.

60. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique au Brasil, 3:149, plate 15.

61. On Caetana’s story, see Sandra Lauderdale Graham, Caetana Says No: Women’s Stories from a Brazilian Slave Society (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

62. Historian Robert Slenes studied Campinas, in São Paulo, in the second half of the nineteenth century, but this prohibition was also recorded by other historians working in regions such as Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. Robert Slenes, Na Senzala, uma flor: Esperanças e recordações na formação da família escrava (Campinas, Brazil: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 1999), 83–84, 127 n23.

63. McKinley, Fractional Freedoms, 79.

64. McKinley, Fractional Freedoms, 79–81.

65. Laird W. Bergad, Slavery and the Demographic and Economic History of Minas Gerais, Brazil, 1720–1888 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 104.

66. Manolo Florentino and José Roberto Góes, A paz nas senzalas: Famílias escravas e tráfico atlântico, Rio de Janeiro, c. 1790–c. 1850 (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira: 1997), 61–64, and Slenes, Na Senzala, uma flor, 84.

67. See Hodes, White Women, Black Men, chap. 2.

68. Wendy Warren, New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America (New York: Liveright, 2016), 159.

69. Recueil d’édits, Article VI, p. 138.

70. The Spanish crown issued legislation (Real Pragmatica of 1776–78) seeking to prohibit marriage between individuals of different social ranks. See McKinley, Fractional Freedoms, 116–17.

71. Ronaldo Vainfas, Trópico dos pecados: Moral, Sexualidade e inquisição no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2010), 114.

72. See Tera Hunter, Bound in Wedlock: Slave and Free Black Marriage in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2017), 1.

73. H. B. Holloway, interview, Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of Arkansas, Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States with Interviews with Former Slaves (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1941), vol. 2, pt. 3, p. 288.

74. Brenda E. Stevenson, Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 209.

75. See Hunter, Bound in Wedlock, 26, and Tyler D. Parry, Jumping the Broom: The Surprising Multicultural Origins of a Black Wedding Ritual (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020), 43.

76. Hunter, Bound in Wedlock, 51.

77. Sam and Louisa Everett, interview, October 8, 1936, Federal Writers’ Project, Slave Narratives, vol. 3, p. 126.

78. Sam and Louisa Everett, interview, p. 128. See also Parry, Jumping the Broom, 46.

79. Stephanie M. H. Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 45.

Chapter 12

1. AMLR, EEARCHANC “Journal de navigation à l’usage de J. Crassous-Médeuil,” “Du Jeudy 26 au Vendredy 27 août 1773,” 46. This birth can also be found in the commented edition of this journal; see Yacou, Journaux de bord et de traite de Joseph Crassous de Médeuil, 193.

2. For details on the vessel La Marie-Séraphique, see Bertrand Guillet, La Marie-Séraphique: Navire négrier (Nantes, Fr.: MeMo, 2010).

3. The watercolor also shows a representation of an additional enslaved woman with a child at her feet, who could be her child, see Nicholas Radburn and David Eltis, “Visualizing the Middle Passage: The Brooks and the Reality of Ship Crowding in the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 99, no. 4 (2019): 548.

4. Archives Nationales d’outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence, France (FR ANOM), COL E 209TER 1774/1793, Pierre Simon Gourg, écrivain principal des colonies, faisant fonction de commissaire ordonnateur au comptoir de Juda, “Mémoire du Sieur Gourg,” no. 54, 68.

5. Sasha Turner, “The Nameless and the Forgotten: Maternal Grief, Sacred Protection, and the Archive of Slavery,” Slavery and Abolition 30, no. 2 (2017): 233.

6. J. Morgan, Laboring Women, 68.

7. See Sharla M. Fett, Working Cures: Healing, Health, and Power on Southern Slave Plantations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 195; Katherine Paugh, The Politics of Reproduction: Race, Medicine, and Fertility in the Age of Abolition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 97; Cassia Roth, “From Free Womb to Criminalized Woman: Fertility Control in Brazilian Slavery and Freedom,” Slavery and Abolition 38, no. 2 (2017): 273; and Deirdre Cooper-Owens, Medical Bondage: Race, Gender, and the Origins of American Gynecology (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2017), 87.

8. On Jamaica’s “racialized sexual economy,” see B. Newman, Dark Inheritance, esp. chap. 4.

9. See the case of Susanna Augier, in B. Newman, Dark Inheritance, 95–96.

10. See C. de Souza, “�?Perseguidores da espécie humana,’” 82–83, 93.

11. See Adriana Dantas Reis Alves, “As mulheres negras por cima: O caso de Luzia Jeje; Escravidão família e mobilidade social-Bahia, c. 1780–c. 1830” (PhD diss., Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2010).

12. For more on Luzia Jeje, see Adriana Dantas Reis, “Mulheres �?Afro-descendentes’ na Bahia Gênero, cor e mobilidade social (1780–1830),” in Mulheres negras no Brasil escravista e do pós emancipação, ed. Giovana Xavier, Juliana Barreto Farias, and Flavio Gomes (Rio de Janeiro: Selo Negro, 2012), 30.

13. See Olívia Dulce Lobo, “Laura Congo e a família escrava do Barão de Tinguá: Reflexões sobre a família no Vale do Paraíba fluminense (1830–1888)” (MA thesis, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, 2017), 64, 86.

14. On Brazil, see Mariana Dantas, “Child Abandonment and Foster Care in Colonial Brazil: Expostos and the Free Population of African Descent in Eighteenth-Century Minas Gerais,” in Brana-Shute and Sparks, Paths to Freedom: Manumission in the Atlantic World, 199. On Córdoba, see E. Edwards, Hiding in Plain Sight, 24–25.

15. Maria Elizabeth Ribeiro Carneiro, “Procura-se �?preta,’ com muito bom leite, prendada e carinhosa: Uma cartografia das amas-de-leite na sociedade carioca (1850–1888)” (PhD diss., Universidade de Brasília, 2006), 48–50.

16. See Dantas, “Child Abandonment and Foster Care in Colonial Brazil,” 204.

17. See Diana Paton, “The Driveress and the Nurse: Childcare, Working Children and Other Work under Caribbean Slavery,” Past & Present 246, no. 15 (2020): 27–28.

18. Sasha Turner, Contested Bodies: Pregnancy, Childrearing, and Slavery in Jamaica (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017), 106.

19. Also on Jamaica’s nurseries in the early nineteenth century, see Richard B. Sheridan, Doctors and Slaves: A Medical and Demographic History of Slavery in the British West Indies, 1680–1834 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 281–82.

20. S. Turner, Contested Bodies, 108.

21. Catherine Clinton, The Plantation Mistress: Woman’s World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982), 155.

22. Emily West and R. J. Knight, “Mother’s Milk: Slavery, Wet-Nursing, and Black and White Women in the Antebellum South,” Journal of Southern History 133, no. 1 (2017): 55.

23. S. Turner, Contested Bodies, 121–23.

24. Maria Helena Pereira Toledo Machado, “Between Two Beneditos: Enslaved Wet-Nurses Amid Slavery’s Decline in Southeast Brazil,” Slavery and Abolition 38, no. 2 (2017): 320–21, and West and Knight, “Mother’s Milk,” 54, 58.

25. McKinley, Fractional Freedoms, 91.

26. Stephanie E. Jones-Rogers, “�?[S]he Could... Spare One Ample Breast for the Profit of her Owner’: White Mothers and Enslaved Wet Nurses’ Invisible Labor in American Slave Markets,” Slavery and Abolition 38, no. 2 (2017): 337–55.

27. West and Knight, “Mother’s Milk,” 41.

28. Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, June 25, 1814, 4.

29. Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, July 10, 1813, 4; Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, January 5, 1820, 4.

30. Enslaved infants’ mortality in nineteenth-century Rio de Janeiro was higher than 50 percent; see Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 100–101.

31. The use of the pejorative term “mercenary nursing” to refer to “nursing by a stranger” was already in use in French (allaitement mercenaire) in the early nineteenth century; see Jacques-Pierre Maygrier, Nouvelles démonstrations d’accouchemens (Paris: Béchet, 1822), 78. See also Carneiro, “Procura-se �?preta,’” 148–61, Sandra Sofia Machado Koutsoukos, “�?Amas mercenárias’: O discurso dos doutores em medicina e os retratos de amas–Brasil, segunda metade do século XIX,” História, Ciências, Saúde–Manguinhos 16, no. 2 (2009): 307; Okezi T. Otovo, Progressive Mothers: Better Babies: Race, Public Health, and the State in Brazil, 1850–1945 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016), 39; and M. Machado, “Between Two Beneditos,” 322.

32. Francisco José Coelho de Moura, “Do aleitamento natural, artificial e mixto em geral e em particular do mercenario attentas às condições da cidade do Rio de Janeiro: These apresentada à Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro” (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia Carioca, 1874), 25–26.

33. For the full story, see M. Machado, “Between Two Beneditos.”

34. See Renée Soulodre-La France, “�?Por El Amor!’ Child Killing in Colonial Nueva Granada,” Slavery and Abolition 23, no. 1 (2002): 90.

35. See, for example, the case of the Viceroyalty of Peru, in McKinley, Fractional Freedoms, 91.

36. This case is explored in Soulodre-La France, “�?Por El Amor!’” 87–100.

37. See Marcela Echeverri, “�?Enraged to the Limit of Despair’: Infanticide and Slave Judicial Strategies in Barbacoas, 1788–98,” Slavery and Abolition 30, no. 3 (2009): 403–26.

38. I explored this case in more detail, but from the point of view of slave resistance, in Ana Lucia Araujo, “Black Purgatory: Enslaved Women’s Resistance in Nineteenth-Century Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,” Slavery and Abolition 36 no. 4 (2015): 568–85.

39. Dario Scott, “A população do Rio Grande de São Pedro pelos mapas populacionais de 1780 a 1810,” Revista brasileira de estudos populacionais 34, no. 3 (2017): 624.

40. H. Klein and Luna, Slavery in Brazil, 62–63.

41. Classic early studies on slavery in Rio Grande do Sul include Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Capitalismo e escravidão no Brasil meridional (São Paulo: Difusão Europeia do Livro, 1962), 54–66; Mário Maestri Filho, O escravo no Rio Grande do Sul: A charqueada e a gênese do escravismo gaúcho (Caxias do Sul, Brazil: Editora da Universidade de Caxias do Sul, 1984); and Jacob Gorender, A escravidão reabilitada (São Paulo: Ática, 1990), 422.

42. Arquivo Público do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (hereafter cited as APERS), 874, 26, 31, March 5, 1825.

43. APERS, 003, 117, 01, 33, January 7, 1822, 9v.

44. Freyre, Casa-grande e senzala, 421. Mary C. Karasch also observes that “women often had the reputation for cruelty and brutality.” See Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 113–15.

45. Camp, Closer to Freedom, 43.

46. APERS, 223, 09, 33, March 21, 1826, f11.

47. APERS, 272, 11, 10, 1828, 8v.

48. The best and only history monograph about Garner’s case is Nikki M. Taylor, Driven toward Madness: The Fugitive Slave Margaret Garner and Tragedy on the Ohio (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2016).

49. See Toni Morrison, Beloved: A Novel (New York: Knopf, 1987). On the motion picture, see Jonathan Demme, dir., Beloved (Buena Vista Pictures, 1998). On the opera, see Richard Danielpour, Toni Morrison, and Mary Lou Humphrey, Margaret Garner: An Opera in Two Acts (New York: Associated Music Publishers, 2005).

50. The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy, Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library, “Constitution of Vermont, July 8, 1777,” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/vt01.asp. On Vermont, see also Harvey Amani Whitfield, The Problem of Slavery in Early Vermont, 1777–1810: Essays and Primary Sources (Barre: Vermont Historical Society, 2014), 16, 19.

51. Avalon Project, “Pennsylvania: An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, 1780,” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/pennst01.asp.

52. Rhode Island State Archives (hereafter cited as RISA), Rhode Island General Assembly, “An Act Authorizing the Manumission of Negroes, Mallattoes, & Others, and for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery,” 1784, in Virtual Exhibits, Item #71, http://sos.ri.gov/virtualarchives/items/show/71.

53. “Title CL. Slaves, Chap. I, An Act Concerning Indian, Mulatto, and Negro Servants and Slaves,” in Acts and Laws Passed by the General Assembly of the State of Connecticut, The Public Laws of the State of Connecticut, Book 1 (Hartford, CT: Hudson and Goodwin, 1808), 625. See also David Menschel, “Abolition without Deliverance: The Law of Connecticut Slavery 1784–1848.” Yale Law Journal 111, no. 1 (2001): 187–88.

54. Library of Congress, Washington, DC, United States (hereafter cited as LOC), “An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery... Passed at Trenton Feb. 15, 1804” (Burlington, S. C. Ustick, printer [1804]). See also James J. Gigantino II, The Ragged Road to Abolition: Slavery and Freedom in New Jersey, 1775–1865 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 117.

55. On the term “free womb captives,” see Yesenia Barragan, Freedom’s Captives: Slavery and Gradual Emancipation on the Colombia Pacific (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 5–6.

56. On Chile, see Guillermo Feliú Cruz, La abolición de la esclavitud en Chile (Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1973), 39–40. On Argentina, see George Reid Andrews, Los afroargentinos de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Ediciones de la Flor, 1989), 59.

57. See Magdalena Candioti, “Free Womb Law, Legal Asynchronies, and Migrations: Suing for an Enslaved Woman’s Child in Nineteenth-Century Río de La Plata,” Americas 77, no. 1 (2020): 73–99. Petrona’s case is also explored in Magdalena Candioti, Una historia de la emancipación negra (Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 2021), chap. 2.

58. Candioti, “Free Womb Law, Legal Asynchronies, and Migrations,” 90.

59. Barragan, Freedom’s Captives, 109.

60. See George Reid Andrews, Afro-Latin America, 1800–2000 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 64, and Barragan, Freedom’s Captives, 188.

61. Barragan, Freedom’s Captives, 186.

62. For a comparison between Cuba’s Moret Law of 1870 and Brazil’s Free Womb Law of 1871, see Cowling, Conceiving Freedom, 56–57.

63. Ley de Cuatro de Julio de 1870 Sobre Abolición de la Esclavitud y Reglamento para su ejecución en las islas de Cuba y Puerto Rico (Havana: Gobierno y Capitania general por S. M., 1872).

64. Biblioteca Digital do Senado Federal, Brasília, Brazil, Lei no. 2040 de 28 de setembro de 1871 [Lei do Ventre Livre], manuscript document.

65. Angela Alonso, Flores, votos e balas: O movimento abolicionista brasileiro (1868–1888) (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2015), 78, 80.

66. Maíra Chinelatto Alves, “Crimes de escravos e os caminhos da autônima, Campinas, 1876,” in Tornando-se livre: Agentes históricos e lutas sociais no processo de abolição, ed. Helena P. T. Machado and Celso Thomas Castilho (São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 2014), 43.

67. Cowling, Conceiving Freedom, 88.

Chapter 13

1. APERS, 139, 06, 123, October 6, 1820. On this case, see Araujo, “Black Purgatory.”

2. The story of Santana’s engenho treaty, brought to light by historian Stuart B. Schwartz, is reproduced in Stuart B. Schwartz, “Resistance and Accommodation in Eighteenth-Century Brazil: The Slaves’ View of Slavery,” Hispanic American Historical Review 57, no. 1 (1977): 69–81.

3. For an introduction on everyday resistance, see Gomez, Reversing Sail, 136.

4. On enslaved women poisoning their owners in eighteenth-century Massachusetts, see Nikki M. Taylor, Brooding over Bloody Revenge: Enslaved Women’s Lethal Resistance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2023), chap. 1, and in nineteenth-century Virginia, see Tamika Y. Nunley, The Demands of Justice: Enslaved Women, Capital Crime, and Clemency in Early Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023), chap. 2.

5. Diana Paton, “Witchcraft, Poison, Law, and Atlantic Slavery,” William and Mary Quarterly 69, no. 2 (2012) 235–64.

6. See Almeida, Codigo philippino, title LXIII, 5:1212, and Caldeira, Escravos em Portugal, 253.

7. Anabela Natário, Christiana Martins, and José Carlos Carvalho, “Coleiras de escravos foram encontradas,” Expresso, March 27, 2017. The collars were displayed in the temporary exhibition Um Museu, tantas coleções! Testemunho da Escravatura. Memória Africana at the National Museum of Archaeology in Lisbon from April 22 to July 8, 2018.

8. See also Isabel Castro Henriques, A presença africana em Portugal: Uma história secular; Preconceito, integração, reconhecimento (séculos XV–XX) (Lisbon: Alto Comissariado para as Imigrações, 2019), 14–15.

9. For an analysis of this collar, see Jennifer Trimble, “The Zoninus Collar and the Archaeology of Roman Slavery,” American Journal of Archaeology 120, no. 3 (2016): 447–72.

10. Valika Smeulders and Lisa Lambrechts, “Paulus: A �?Moor’ in the Dutch Republic,” in Slavery: The Story of João, Wally, Oopjen, Paulus, Van Bengalen, Surapati, Sapali, Tula, Drik, Lohkay, ed. Eveline Sint Nicolaas and Valika Smeulders (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, Atlas Contact, 2021), 128.

11. Simon P. Newman, “Freedom-Seeking Slaves in England and Scotland, 1700–1780,” English Historical Review 134, no. 570 (2019): 1161–68.

12. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, February 11, 1822, 32.

13. Paulin Ismard, “Identification,” in Ismard, Rossi, and Vidal, Les mondes de l’esclavage, 544.

14. On these African identities as they appear in fugitive slave ads, see Gomez, Exchanging our Country Marks, 38–40, 103, 137–40. Fugitive slave ads in nineteenth-century Brazilian newspapers constantly featured African-born fugitives. Some ads described their facial marks; see Gilberto Freyre, O escravo nos anúncios de jornais brasileiros do século XIX (São Paulo: Editora Nacional, 1979). On Rio de Janeiro, see Raphael Neves, “Experiências capturadas: A fuga de escravos no Rio de Janeiro,” (Rio de Janeiro: Fundação Biblioteca Nacional, 2009).

15. Edward B. Rugemer, Slave Law and the Politics of Resistance in the Early Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 29–30, 35–36. See also Fuente and Gross, Becoming Free, Becoming Black, 19–20.

16. Le Code Noir, 5–8.

17. For the French West Indies, see the database Le Marronage dans le monde atlantique: Sources et trajectoires de vie, Université de Sherbrooke, http://www.marronnage.info/fr/index.html. See also Léon Robichaud, “Behind the Marronage Project. Balancing Resources, Methodology and Access in an Online Archive,” Esclavages & Post~Esclavages / Slaveries and Post~Slaveries, no. 3 (2020), https://doi.org/10.4000/slaveries.3112. On Louisiana, Jamaica, and South Carolina, see Jean-Pierre Le Glaunec, Esclaves mais résistants: Dans le monde des annonces pour esclaves en fuite, Louisiane, Jamaïque, Caroline du Sud (1801–1815) (Paris: Karthala, 2021).

18. Gary Nash and Karen Cook Bell each provide similar rates of enslaved women fugitives during the American War of Independence; see Gary B. Nash, The Forgotten Fifth: African-Americans and the Age of Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 27–28, and Karen Cook Bell, Running from Bondage: Enslaved Women and Their Remarkable Fight for Freedom in Revolutionary Era America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 9. Edward Baptist’s preliminary analysis of the data from the database Freedom on the Move (https://freedomonthemove.org/) reveals that at least 15 percent of the fugitives before the US Civil War were women. Based on a sample of 11,112 US slave ads from her personal database, historian Jennie Williams concluded that slave ads between the 1740s and the 1860s included nearly 17 percent of enslaved fugitives who were women.

19. C. Walker, Jamaica Ladies, 102.

20. Affiches américaines, October 8, 1766, 352.

21. Affiches américaines, May 28, 1766, 196.

22. Eddins, Rituals, Runaways, and the Haitian Revolution, 175.

23. Affiches américaines, February 10, 1768, 52.

24. K. Bell, Running from Bondage, 3.

25. See Erica Dunbar, Never Caught: The Washingtons’ Relentless Pursuit of Their Runaway Slave, Ona Judge (New York: Atria/37 INK, 2017).

26. “Advertisement for a Runaway Slave, 7 September 1769,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-01-02-0021. Original source: Thomas Jefferson, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1, 1760–1776, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 33.

27. Lucia C. Stanton, “Those Who Labor for My Happiness”: Slavery at Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012), 151.

28. Stanton, “Those Who Labor for My Happiness,” 150–52.

29. Camp, Closer to Freedom, 44–45.

30. Washington DC National Intelligencer, August 30, 1804, retrieved in the database Freedom on the Move, https://freedomonthemove.org/. On Rachel, see Nunley, At the Threshold of Liberty, 45–46.

31. Nunley, At the Threshold of Liberty, 43.

32. Western Carolinian, February 11, 1828, retrieved in the database Freedom on the Move, https://freedomonthemove.org/.

33. New-Orleans Argus, March 24, 1828, retrieved in the database Freedom on the Move, https://freedomonthemove.org/.

34. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, July 23, 1821, 150–51.

35. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, June 25, 1821, 160, and Diário do Rio de Janeiro, November 5, 1821, 23.

36. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, November 5, 1821, 24.

37. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, November 12, 1821, 72.

38. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, October 6, 1851, 3.

39. See Yuko Miki, Frontiers of Citizenship: A Black and Indigenous History of Postcolonial Brazil (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 196–97.

40. Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, March 17, 1813, 4, Diário do Rio de Janeiro, June 3, 1821, 11, and Diário do Rio de Janeiro, June 9, 1821, 47.

41. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, June 10, 1821, 55.

42. Daily Picayune, March 26, 1845, retrieved in the database Freedom on the Move, https://freedomonthemove.org/.

43. East Carolina Republican, June 8, 1847, retrieved in the database Freedom on the Move, https://freedomonthemove.org/.

44. For two recent monographs discussing this ad and this photograph, see Deborah Willis and Barbara Krauthamer, Envisioning Emancipation: Black Americans and the End of Slavery (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2017), 11–14, and Matthew Fox-Amato, Exposing Slavery: Photography, Human Bondage, and the Birth of Modern Visual Politics in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 64–67.

45. Fox-Amato, Exposing Slavery, 65.

46. On dogs used to hunt enslaved fugitives in the Americas, see Tyler D. Parry and Charlton W. Yingling, “Slave Hounds and Abolition in the Americas,” Past & Present 246, no. 1 (2020): 69–108.

47. Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 382.

48. On slave escapes in cities and rural areas during the nineteenth century in the United States, see Damian Pargas, Freedom Seekers: Fugitive Slaves in North America, 1800–1860 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022).

49. John Stauffer and Henry Louis Gates Jr., Portable Frederick Douglass (New York: Penguin, 2016), 87. On Douglass’s escape, see Blight, Frederick Douglass, 79–86. On the Underground Railroad in New York City, see Eric Foner, Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad (New York: W.W. Norton, 2015).

50. On Tubman’s escape, see Milton C. Sernett, Harriet Tubman: Myth, Memory, and History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007), 19–21.

51. Among the countless examples, see Colston Whitehead, The Underground Railroad: A Novel (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2016), adapted as a miniseries available for streaming: Barry Jenkins, dir., The Underground Railroad (Amazon Studios, 2021). See also the motion picture Kasi Lemmons, dir., Harriet (Martin Chase Productions, 2019).

52. See Jeffrey Kerr-Ritchie, Freedom’s Seekers: Essays on Comparative Emancipation (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014), 21–40.

53. See Jane Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).

54. On enslaved fugitives who escaped to Mexico in the nineteenth century, see Alice L. Baumgartner, South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War (New York: Basic Books, 2020).

55. See Jeffrey R. Kerr-Ritchie, Rebellious Passage: The Creole Revolt and America’s Coastal Slave Trade (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

56. Richard J. M. Blackett, The Captive’s Quest For Freedom: Fugitive Slaves, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, and the Politics of Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 5.

57. On the law, see Blackett, Captive’s Quest for Freedom, 3–41, and Matthew Pinsker, “After 1850: Reassessing the Impact of the Fugitive Slave Law,” in Fugitive Slaves and Spaces of Freedom in North America, ed. Damian Pargas (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2018), 93–115.

58. The scholarship on enslaved people who escaped slavery during the Civil War era is far too vast to be included here. I will highlight a few recent excellent studies addressing enslaved men and women who escaped bondage during this period. On enslaved women, see Camp, Closer to Freedom, chap. 5, and Thavolia Glymph, The Women’s Fight: The Civil War’s Battles for Home, Freedom, and Nation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020), chaps. 3 and 7. On enslaved men and women, see Amy Murrell Taylor, Embattled Freedom: Journeys through the Civil War’s Slave Refugee Camps (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018).

59. Jeffrey D. Needell, The Sacred Cause: The Abolitionist Movement, Afro-Brazilian Mobilization, and Imperial Politics in Rio de Janeiro (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020), 182.

60. Today the remnants of these communities in Brazil are referred to as quilombos. On the use of the term quilombo to refer to maroon communities in Brazil starting in the seventeenth century, see Silvia Hunold Lara, Palmares e Cucaú: O aprendizado da dominação (São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 2021), 362–63, 367. On this variety of terms, see Stuart Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian Slavery (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 103.

61. See Gabriel Debien, “Le marronage aux Antilles françaises au XVIIIe siècle,” Caribbean Studies 6, no. 3 (1966): 3–43.

62. See Sylviane A. Diouf, Slavery’s Exiles: The Story of American Maroons (New York: New York University Press, 2014). For the region of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina, see Marcus P. Nevius, City of Refuge: Slavery and Petit Marronage in the Great Dismal Swamp, 1763–1856 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2020). On petit marronage in Brazil, see Flávio Gomes, “Africans and Petit Marronage in Rio de Janeiro, ca. 1800–1840,” Luso-Brazilian Review 47, no. 2 (2010): 74–99.

63. There are many published studies and unpublished PhD dissertations and MA theses on specific communities; for an overview, see João José Reis and Flávio dos Santos Gomes, ed. Liberdade por um Fio: História dos quilombos no Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1996), translated in English as João José Reis and Flávio dos Santos Gomes, ed. Freedom by a Thread: The History of Quilombos in Brazil (New York: Diasporic Africa Press, 2016).

64. See Jane Landers, “Transforming Bondsmen into Vassals: Arming Slaves in Colonial Spanish America,” in Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age, ed. Christopher Leslie Brown and Philip D. Morgan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 124.

65. See Christina A. Sue, Land of the Cosmic Race: Race Mixture, Racism, and Blackness in Mexico (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 118, and William D. Phillips Jr., “Slavery in the Atlantic Islands and the Early Modern Spanish Atlantic World,” in The Cambridge World History of Slavery, vol. 3, AD 1420–AD 1804, ed. David Eltis, Keith R. Bradley, Stanley L. Engerman, and Paul Cartledge (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 345.

66. Sagrario Cruz Carretero, Alfredo Martínez Maranto, and Angélica Santiago Silva, El Carnaval en Yanga: Notas y comentarios sobre una fiesta de la negritud (San Angel, Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, Dirección General de Culturas Populares, Unidad Regional Centro de Veracruz, 1990), 27–28.

67. Chapters 6 and 11 note the presence of enslaved people from Upper Guinea disembarking in the port of Cartagena in the early period of the Atlantic slave trade. On the term “Bioho,” see Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 25–26. See also Margaret M. Olsen, “African Reinscription of Body and Space in New Granada,” in Mapping Colonial Spanish America Places and Commonplaces of Identity, Culture, and Experience, ed. Santa Arias and Mariselle Meléndez (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press; London: Associated University Press, 2002), 61; Aquiles Escalante, “Palenques in Colombia,” in Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas, ed. Richard Price (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 77–79; Leslie B. Rout, The African Experience in Spanish America, 1502 to the Present Day (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 110; Clara Inés Guerrero García, “Memorias palenqueras de la libertad,” in Afro-reparaciones: Memoria de la esclavitud y justicia reparativa para negros, afrocolombianos y raizales, ed. Claudia Mosquera Rosero-Labbé and Luís Claudio y Barcelos (Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2007), 368.

68. I discuss Bioho’s bust and the monument in Araujo, Shadows of the Slave Past, 195–96.

69. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 259.

70. “The Second Maroon War,” in The Jamaica Reader: History, Culture, Politics, ed. Diana Paton and Matthew J. Smith (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021), 132–33.

71. On these conflicts and consecutive deportations, see Ruma Chopra, Almost Home: Maroons between Slavery and Freedom in Jamaica, Nova Scotia, and Sierra Leone (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018).

72. Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels, 109–11.

73. See, for example, Miki, Frontiers of Citizenship, esp. chap. 5.

74. See Schwartz, Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels, 126–27; Joseph C. Miller, Kings and Kinsmen: Early Mbundu States (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 151, 161–62.

75. John K. Thornton, “Les États de l’Angola et la formation de Palmares (Brésil),” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales 63, no. 4 (2008): 789.

76. For an accessible discussion on quilombo/kilombo as a military organization, see Green, Fistful of Shells, xxxiv, 189.

77. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 148, 219.

78. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 364–67.

79. Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, “South Atlantic Wars: The Episode of Palmares,” Portuguese Studies Review 19, no. 1–2 (2011): 47.

80. Pedro Paulo A. Funari, “Conflict and the Interpretation of Palmares, a Brazilian Runaway Polity,” Historical Archaeology 27, no. 3 (2003): 83.

81. J. Thornton, “Les États de l’Angola et la formation de Palmares,” 775.

82. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 170, 248.

83. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 194.

84. Funari, “Conflict and the Interpretation of Palmares,” 84–85. See also Pedro Paulo de Abreu Funari, “A arqueologia de Palmares: Sua contribuição para o conhecimento da história da cultura afro-americana,” in Reis and Gomes, Liberdade por um fio, 26–51.

85. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 250–51.

86. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 253.

87. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 322–23.

88. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 341–42.

89. Lara, Palmares e Cucaú, 352.

90. See Marc Hertzman, “Fatal Differences: Suicide, Race, and Forced Labor in the Americas,” American Historical Review 122, no. 2 (2017): 333–35.

91. Mariza de Carvalho Soares, “Nos atalhos da memória: Monumento a Zumbi,” in Cidade Vaidosa: Imagens Urbanas do Rio de Janeiro, ed. Paulo Knauss (Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras, 1999), 119.

92. See Francine Saillant and Ana Lucia Araujo, “Zumbi: Mort, mémoire et résistance,” Frontières 19, no. 1 (2006): 37–42.

93. Terri L. Snyder, The Power to Die: Slavery and Suicide in British North America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 66.

94. APERS 1208, 42, 95, December 17, 1872; APERS 1580, 44, 143, September 12, 1874; APERS 1583, 44, 143, 1875, December 28, 1875.

95. APERS 2542, 84, 123, December 9, 1883.

96. In Rio de Janeiro during this same period, see Sidney Chalhoub, Visões da liberdade: Uma história das últimas décadas da escravidão na Corte (São Paulo: Companhia de Bolso, 2011), 201–10.

97. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 120. See also V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 132.

Chapter 14

1. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave Written by Himself (Boston: Anti-Slavery Office, 1845), 74.

2. Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, 74.

3. Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, 74.

4. See John K. Thornton, “Afro-Christian Syncretism in the Kingdom of Kongo,” Journal of African History 54, no. 1 (2013): 53–77; Fromont, Art of Conversion; and Green, Fistful of Shells, 205–13.

5. Fromont, Art of Conversion, 1–2.

6. Erin Kathleen Rowe, Black Saints in Early Modern Global Catholicism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 15–24.

7. Erin Kathleen Rowe, “Visualizing Black Sanctity in Early Modern Spanish Polychrome Sculpture,” in Envisioning Others: Race, Color, and the Visual in Iberia and Latin America, ed. Pamela A. Patton (Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2016), 67–68.

8. Jeremy Lawrance, “Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature,” in Earle and Lowe, Black Africans in Renaissance Europe, 70.

9. Miguel A. Valerio, “�?That There Be No Black Brotherhood’: The Failed Suppression of Afro-Mexican Confraternities, 1568–1612.” Slavery and Abolition 42, no. 2 (2021): 297.

10. Anthony John R. Russell-Wood, Slavery and Freedom in Colonial Brazil (Oxford: One World, 2002).

11. See M. Soares, People of Faith, chap. 3.

12. These nations were not fixed entities; they changed over time and space. For example, an African labeled as “Jeje” in Bahia would probably be identified as “Mina” in Rio de Janeiro. For a detailed discussion on these denotations, see Luis Nicolau Parés, The Formation of Candomblé: Vodun History and Ritual in Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 1–34.

13. See Elizabeth W. Kiddy, Blacks of the Rosary: Memory and History in Minas Gerais Brazil (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2005), 32; Sweet, Recreating Africa, 207; and Lucilene Reginaldo, “Os Rosários dos Angolas: Irmandades Negras, Experiências Escravas e Identidades Africanas na Bahia Setecentista” (PhD diss., Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2005), 38.

14. Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, 105, 114.

15. Eduardo Freire de Oliveira, Elementos para a história do município de Lisboa, vol. 1 (Lisbon: Typhographia Universal, 1882), 516, and Saunders, Social History of Black Slaves, 105.

16. See Marina de Mello e Souza, Reis negros no Brasil escravista: História da festa de coroação de Rei Congo (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Editora da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 2014), 164–65.

17. BNP, IL 151, Compromisso da Irmandade de Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Homens Pretos, Lisbon, December 2, 1565, chap. 16, 6v, and chap. 26, 9v.

18. For the identification of this painting, see Isabel Castro Henriques, Historical Guide to an African Lisbon: 15th to 21st Century (Lisbon: Colibri, 2021), 53.

19. Rowe, Black Saints in Early Modern Global Catholicism, 16.

20. Russell-Wood, Slavery and Freedom in Colonial Brazil, 138.

21. Karen B. Graubart, “�?So color de una cofradía’: Catholic Confraternities and the Development of Afro-Peruvian Ethnicities in Early Colonial Peru,” Slavery and Abolition 23, no. 1 (2011): 43–65.

22. J. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 203.

23. Miguel A. Valerio, “Architects of Their Own Humanity: Race, Devotion, and Artistic Agency in Afro-Brazilian Confraternal Churches in Eighteenth-Century Salvador and Ouro Preto,” Colonial Latin American Review 30, no. 2 (2021): 247.

24. See João José Reis, “Identidade e Diversidade Étnicas nas Irmandades Negras no Tempo da Escravidão,” Tempo 2, no. 3 (1996): 6.

25. Carlos Ott, “A Irmandade de Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Pretos do Pelourinho.” Afro-Ásia no. 6/7 (1968): 121.

26. Ott, “A Irmandade de Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Pretos do Pelourinho,” 123.

27. See Maria das Graças de Andrade Leal, Manuel Querino: Entre Letras e Lutas Bahia 1851–1923 (São Paulo: Annablume, 2009), and Sabrina Gledhill, ed., Manuel Querino (1851–1923): An Afro-Brazilian Pioneer in the Age of Scientific Racism (Crediton, UK: Funmilayo Publishing, 2021).

28. On Bamboxê Obitikô, see Lisa Earl Castillo, “Bamboxê Obitikô and the Nineteenth-Century Expansion of Orisha Worship in Brazil,” Tempo 22, no. 30 (2016): 126–53.

29. Early manifestations during the colonial period were rather referred to as calundus, labeled as witchcraft by the Catholic Church; see Laura de Mello e Souza, The Devil and the Land of the Holy Cross: Witchcraft, Slavery, and Popular Religion in Colonial Brazil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010).

30. For example, Marina de Mello e Souza associates Black saints with minkisi (plural of nkisi), power figures that when activated, like the saints, could intervene on behalf of a person making a plea. See Marina de Mello e Souza, “The Construction of a Black Catholic Identity in Brazil: Saints and Minkisi; A Reflection of Cultural Miscegenation,” in Africa, Brazil, and the Construction of Black Atlantic Identities, ed. Livio Sansone, Elisée Soumonni, and Boubacar Barry (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2008), 261–62. On these connections, see also Fromont, Art of Conversion, 70, and Valerio, “Architects of Their Own Humanity,” 246.

31. John K. Thornton, “The Kingdom of Kongo and Palo Mayombe: Reflections on an African-American Religion,” Slavery and Abolition 37, no. 1 (2016): 1–22.

32. Ewbank, Life in Brazil, 290.

33. On popular Christianity in Brazil, see John Burdick, Blessed Anastacia: Women, Race and Popular Christianity in Brazil (New York: Routledge, 1998). Regarding Afro-Brazilian deities embodying enslaved individuals, see Lindsay Lauren Hale, “Preto Velho: Resistance, Redemption, and Engendered Representations of Slavery in a Brazilian Possession-Trance Religion,” American Ethnologist 24, no. 2 (1997): 392–414.

34. On the rise of Anastácia’s representation and also on her mask, see Jerome Handler and K. Hayes, “Escrava Anastácia: The Iconographic History of a Brazilian Popular Saint,” African Diaspora: Journal of Transnational Africa in a Global World 2 (2009): 1–27.

35. On Anastácia in Rio de Janeiro’s Black’s Museum, see Ana Lucia Araujo, Museums and Atlantic Slavery (Oxford: Routledge, 2021), chap. 2. See also Marcus Wood, “The Museu do Negro in Rio and the Cult of Anastácia as a New Model for the Memory of Slavery,” Representations, no. 113 (2011): 111–49.

36. Mônica Dias de Souza, “Escrava Anastácia e pretos-velhos: A rebelião silenciosa da memória popular,” in Memória afro-brasileira: Imaginário, cotidiano e poder, ed. Vagner Gonçalves da Silva (São Paulo: Selo Negro, 2007), 18–20, and M. Wood, “Museu do Negro in Rio and the Cult of Anastácia,” 125.

37. Jacques Arago, Souvenirs d’un aveugle: Voyage autour du monde, vol. 1 (Paris: H. Lebrun, 1842), 119. About the use of this image to represent Anastácia, see Jerome Handler and Annis Steiner, “Identifying Pictorial Images of Atlantic Slavery: Three Case Studies,” Slavery and Abolition 27 (2006): 56–62, and Handler and Hayes, “Escrava Anastácia.”

38. For a recent rich overview of these festivals, especially in Brazil, Mexico, the United States, and Trinidad, see the various chapters in Cécile Fromont, ed., Afro-Catholic Festivals in the Americas: Performance, Representation, and the Making of Black Atlantic Tradition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2019).

39. Jeroen Dewulf, “Black Brotherhoods in North America: Afro-Iberian and West Central African Influences,” African Studies Quarterly 15, no. 3 (2015): 25–28.

40. On Pinkster, see Jeroen Dewulf, The Pinkster and the King of Kongo: The Forgotten History of America’s Dutch-Owned Slaves (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2019).

41. On the Divine Holy Ghost festival, see Martha Abreu, O império do divino: Festas religiosas e cultura popular no Rio de Janeiro, 1830–1900 (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1999).

42. Henry Koster, Travels in Brazil by Henry Koster in the Years from 1809 to 1815 (Philadelphia: M. Carey & Son, 1817), 274.

43. Ewbank, Life in Brazil, 398. On Balthasar as king of Congo and on the coronation of African kings and queens at Lampadosa’s church in Rio de Janeiro, see also Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 19, 58.

44. For more details on this brotherhood and its Mahi congregation, see M. Soares, People of Faith, and Mariza de Carvalho Soares, ed., Diálogos Makii de Francisco Alves de Souza: Manuscrito de uma congregação de africanos Mina, 1786 (Rio de Janeiro: Chão Editora, 2019).

45. Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique, 3:283. See Lisa Voigt, Spectacular Wealth: The Festivals of Colonial South American Mining Towns (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016), 135–36.

46. Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past, 14.

47. On this approach, see Mintz and Price, Birth of African-American Culture.

48. See Ira Berlin, “From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America,” William and Mary Quarterly 53, no. 2 (1996): 251–88; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone; and Linda M. Heywood and John K. Thornton, Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

49. J. Harris, Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, 3–8. See also Palmer, “Defining and Studying the Modern African Diaspora,” 27–32; Butler, “Defining Diaspora, Refining a Discourse,” 189–219; Mann, “Shifting Paradigms,” 3–21; and Zeleza, “Diaspora Dialogues,” 1–19.

50. See Marina de Mello e Souza, Reis negros no Brasil escravista, 340–50.

51. Elizabeth W. Kiddy, “Who Is the King of Congo? A New Look at African and Afro-Brazilian Kings in Brazil,” in Heywood, Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, 181–82.

52. See Mariza de Carvalho Soares, “Art and the History of African Slave Folias in Brazil,” in Crossing Memories: Slavery and African Diaspora, ed. Ana Lucia Araujo, Mariana P. Candido, and Paul E. Lovejoy (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2011), 224.

53. Cécile Fromont, “Dancing for the King of Congo from Early Modern Central Africa to Slavery-Era Brazil,” Colonial Latin America Review 22, no. 2 (2013): 184–208, and Cécile Fromont, “Envisioning Brazil’s Afro-Christian Congados: The Black King and Queen Festival Lithographs of Johann Moritz Rugendas,” in Fromont, Afro-Catholic Festivals in the Americas, 117–39.

54. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave, 213.

55. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave, 214.

56. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave, 216.

57. Northup and Wilson, Twelve Years a Slave, 217.

58. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, 131.

59. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, 131–32.

60. On Belisario’s representations of Jonkonnu, see Laura M. Smalligan, “An Effigy for the Enslaved: Jonkonnu in Jamaica and Belisario’s Sketches of Character,” Slavery and Abolition 32, no. 4 (2011): 561–81.

61. Douglas B. Chambers, “�?My Own Nation’: Igbo Exiles in the Diaspora,” in Routes to Slavery: Direction, Ethnicity and Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade, ed. David Eltis and David Richardson (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 83, 87.

62. John Andrew Jackson, The Experience of a Slave in South Carolina (London: Passmore & Alabaster, 1862).

63. See Debret, Voyage pittoresque et historique, 2:103, plate 33.

64. See Pedro Meira Monteiro and Michael Stone, eds., Cangoma Calling Spirits and Rhythms of Freedom in Brazilian Jongo Slavery Songs (Dartmouth: University of Massachusetts, 2013), and Hebe Mattos and Martha Abreu, “Memories of Captivity and Freedom in São José’s Jongo Festivals,” in Araujo, African Heritage and Memories of Slavery in Brazil and the South Atlantic World, 149–77.

65. On capoeira in Rio de Janeiro, see Carlos Eugênio Líbano Soares, A negregada instituição: Os capoeiras na corte imperial (1850–1890) (Rio de Janeiro: Access, 1999), and Carlos Eugênio Líbano Soares, A capoeira escrava e outras tradições rebeldes no Rio de Janeiro, 1808–1850 (Campinas, Brazil: Editora da Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, 2004). See also Matthias Röhrig Assunção, “Stanzas and Sticks: Poetics and Physical Challenges in the Afro-Brazilian Culture of the Paraíba Valley, Rio de Janeiro,” History Workshop Journal 77, no. 1 (2014): 103–36.

66. On capoeira from an Atlantic perspective, see Matthias Röhrig Assunção, Capoeira A History of the Afro-Brazilian Martial Art (New York: Routledge, 2004). On the West Central African “origins” of capoeira, see Matthias Röhrig Assunção, “Engolo e capoeira: Jogos de combate étnico e diaspóricos no Atlântico Sul,” Tempo 26, no. 3 (2020): 522–56, and for its various styles, see Matthias Röhrig Assunção, “Capoeira Circle or Sports Academy? The Emergence of Modern Styles of Capoeira and Their Global Context,” História, Ciências, Saúde–Manguinhos (2014): 135–50.

67. Childs, 1812 Aponte Rebellion, 111.

68. The literature on cabildos de nación is extensive; for a useful overview, see Matt D. Childs, “Re-Creating African Ethnic Identities in Cuba,” in Cañizares-Esguerra, Childs, and Sidbury, Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, 85–100. On the relations between cabildos de nación and Afro-Cuban religions, see María del Carmen Barcia, Andrés Rodríguez Reyes, and Milagros Niebla Delgado, Del cabildo de “nación” a la casa de santo (Havana: Fundación Fernando Ortiz, 2012).

69. See Castillo, “Bamboxê Obitikô.”

70. Interview by Ana Lucia Araujo with Júlio César Soares da Silva, then a member of the board of directors of the brotherhood of Our Lady of the Rosary of the Black Men, May 13, 2009, and author’s interview with Antônio Carlos dos Santos (Vovô), founder of the Ilê Aiyê, June 2, 2009. I also had the opportunity to attend several Catholic masses on Sunday and Tuesday between May and June 2009, while conducting fieldwork in Salvador, Bahia.

Chapter 15

1. “Bahia: Policia,” Jornal do Commercio (Rio de Janeiro), February 10, 1835, 1.

2. Marjoleine Kars, “Dodging Rebellion: Politics and Gender in the Berbice Slave Uprising of 1763,” American Historical Review 121, no. 1 (2016): 39–69, and J. Morgan, Reckoning with Slavery, 207–28.

3. Anthony Stevens-Acevedo, The Santo Domingo Slave Revolt of 1521 and the Slave Laws of 1522: Black Slavery and Black Resistance in the Early Colonial Americas (New York: CUNY Dominican Studies Institute, 2019), 11.

4. Stevens-Acevedo, The Santo Domingo Slave Revolt of 1521, 11.

5. “Decree by Viceroy Diego Colón Including Ordinances on Blacks and Slaves of La Española and Puerto Rico, January 6, 1522,” in Stevens-Acevedo, Santo Domingo Slave Revolt of 1521, 23–29.

6. See also Rebecca Hall, “Not Killing Me Softly: African American Women, Slave Revolts, and Historical Constructions of Racialized Gender,” Freedom Center Journal 2, no. 1 (2007): 1–47.

7. R. Hall, “Not Killing Me Softly,” 29.

8. L. Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery, 37–38.

9. Along with the Akan-speaking individuals were “Spanish Indians” as well as Africans identified as “Pappa” (which probably corresponded to Popo, in the Bight of Benin); see Rucker, Gold Coast Diasporas, 158.

10. Walter Rucker, “Conjure, Magic, and Power: The Influence of Afro-Atlantic Religious Practices on Slave Resistance and Rebellion,” Journal of Black Studies 32, no. 1 (2001): 87–88.

11. Rucker, “Conjure, Magic, and Power,” 87. On African and African-derived names of enslaved people in the US South, see also Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 440–50.

12. Rucker, “Conjure, Magic, and Power,” 87.

13. L. Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery, 32, 39–40.

14. For an accessible account of this rebellion, see Lepore, New York Burning.

15. L. Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery, 43.

16. See Daniel C. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991).

17. P. Wood, Black Majority, 116, and Russell R. Menard, “Slave Demography in the Lowcountry, 1670–1740: From Frontier Society to Plantation Regime,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 101, no. 3 (2000): 192–93.

18. See John K. Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” American Historical Review 96, no. 4 (1991): 1101–13.

19. “Act for the Better Ordering and Governing of Negroes and Other Slaves in this Province,” May 1740, in The Statutes at Large of South Carolina, vol. 7, ed. Thomas Cooper and David James McCord (Columbia, SC: Johnston, 1840), 397–417.

20. V. Brown, Tacky’s Revolt.

21. Marjoleine Kars, Blood in the River: A Chronicle of Mutiny and Freedom on the Wild Coast (New York: New Press, 2020), 78.

22. Fick, Making of Haiti, 25.

23. Julius Scott, The Common Wind: Afro-American Currents in the Age of the Haitian Revolution (London: Verso, 2018), 25–26.

24. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 68.

25. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 77.

26. See Scott, Common Wind.

27. Cyril Lionel Robert James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 89.

28. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 126. On enslaved people emancipating themselves prior to the Saint Domingue Revolution, see Eddins, Rituals, Runaways, and the Haitian Revolution.

29. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 216.

30. There are two recent biographies of Toussaint Louverture in English; see Philippe R. Girard, Toussaint Louverture: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Basic Books, 2016), and Sudhir Hazareesingh, Black Spartacus: The Epic Life of Toussaint Louverture (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 2020).

31. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 300. See also TNA, “Haitian Declaration of Independence,” January 1, 1804, 7v.

32. Cristina Soriano, Tides of Revolution: Information, Insurgencies, and the Crisis of Colonial Rule in Venezuela (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2018), 124.

33. Soriano, Tides of Revolution, 132.

34. See Alejandro E. Gómez, Le spectre de la révolution noire: L’impact de la révolution haïtienne dans le monde atlantique, 1790–1886 (Rennes, Fr.: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2013), 127. Geggus states that both men went to Saint Domingue before the revolt; see David Patrick Geggus, “Slavery, War, and Revolution in the Greater Caribbean, 1789–1815,” in A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean, ed. David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 42n115.

35. Soriano, Tides of Revolution, 143.

36. Soriano, Tides of Revolution, 118–19.

37. On the impacts of the Saint Domingue revolution in Cuba, see Ferrer, Freedom’s Mirror.

38. See Childs, 1812 Aponte Rebellion, 157–58.

39. For more information on Aponte, including primary sources, see the website Digital Aponte, https://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/.

40. See Childs, 1812 Aponte Rebellion, 124.

41. See Manuel Barcia, The Great African Slave Revolt of 1825: Cuba and the Fight for Freedom in Matanzas (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), 162–63.

42. Charles Manfred Thompson, History of the United States: Political, Industrial, Social (Chicago: Benj. H. Sanborn, 1917), 293.

43. Kenneth S. Greenberg, ed., “The Confessions of Nat Turner” and Related Documents (Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 6–7.

44. Greenberg, “Confessions of Nat Turner” and Related Documents, 6–7.

45. Greenberg, “Confessions of Nat Turner” and Related Documents, 2.

46. On the many dimensions of the rebellion, see Kenneth S. Greenberg, ed., Nat Turner: A Slave Rebellion in History and Memory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

47. Vanessa M. Holden, Surviving Southampton: African American Women and Resistance in Nat Turner’s Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2021), 28–29.

48. Holden, Surviving Southampton, 107.

49. Greenberg, “Confessions of Nat Turner” and Related Documents, 13.

50. Chapter XXII, “An act to amend an act entitled, �?an act reducing into one the several acts concerning slaves, free negroes and mulattoes, and for other purposes,’” in Acts Passed at a General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia (Richmond: Thomas Ritchie, 1832), 20‒22.

51. V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 232.

52. Gad Heuman, Between Black and White: Race, Politics, and the Free Coloreds in Jamaica, 1792–1865 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), 86. For a recent accessible history of the rebellion, see Tom Zoellner, Island on Fire: The Revolt that Ended Slavery in the British Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020).

53. See Michael Craton, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 313–15, and V. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 233.

54. Jean Besson, “Missionaries, Planters, and Slaves in the Age of Abolition,” in The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples, ed. Stephan Palmié and Francisco A. Scarano (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 324.

55. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 15.

56. The Law of November 7, 1831. See also Nishida, Slavery and Identity, 17.

57. There were revolts in 1814 and 1816, and others between 1827 and 1831. See Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 45–68. For an updated and expanded analysis of the rebellion, see the newest Portuguese edition, João José Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil: A história do levante dos malês em 1835 (São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2003).

58. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 139. See also Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil, 161–63.

59. To know more, see Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil, 272–73. Two more recent books support this view of the Malê Revolt; see Manuel Barcia, West African Warfare in Bahia and Cuba: Soldier Slaves in the Atlantic World, 1807–1844 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014) and Lovejoy, Jihād in West Africa During the Ages of Revolutions.

60. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 5. See also Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil, 24.

61. On the early Hausa rebellions in 1807, see João José Reis, “La révolte haoussa de Bahia en 1807: Résistance et contrôle des esclaves au Brésil,” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales no. 2 (2006): 383–418. On the revolt of 1809, see João José Reis, “A revolta haussá de 1809 na Bahia,” in Revoltas escravas no Brasil, ed. João José Reis and Flávio dos Santos Gomes (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2021), 177–226. On the rebellion of 1814, the most serious one, see Schwartz, “Cantos and Quilombos,” 247–72, and João José Reis, “Há duzentos anos: A revolta escrava de 1814 na Bahia,” Topoi 15, no. 28 (2014): 68–115.

62. Mattoso, Être esclave au Brésil XVIe–XIXe siècles, 230.

63. On the repressive measures, see Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, 99.

64. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 127.

65. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 121.

66. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 91.

67. “Bahia: Policia,” Jornal do Commercio, February 10, 1835, 1.

68. Jornal do Commercio, February 27, 1835, 2. On how Brazilian press reported on the rebellion, see José Antônio Teófilo Cairus, “Jihad, cativeiro e redenção: Escravidão, resistência e irmandade, Sudão Central e Bahia (1835)” (MA thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 2002), chap. 1. On the material, visual, and spiritual dimensions of these amulets, see Matthew Francis Rarey, Insignificant Things: Amulets and the Art of Survival in the Early Black Atlantic (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2023), chap. 4.

69. Jornal do Commercio, February 17, 1835, 3.

70. Jornal do Commercio, March 21, 1835, 1.

71. Jornal do Commercio, April 8, 1835, 4.

72. Jornal do Commercio, April 8, 1835, 1.

73. Jornal do Commercio, April 1, 1835, 2.

74. Among the several British newspapers were the Caledonian Mercury, the Dorset County Chronicle, and the Liverpool Albion. French newspapers included the Journal du commerce, La Quotidienne, La Tribune des départemens, and several others. Spanish newspapers included the Anales administrativos, June 3, 1835, 1. US newspapers included the Herald of the Times, the Martinsburg Gazette, and the South Branch Intelligencer. German newspapers included the Schwäbischer Merkur, March 26, 1835, 508, and Karlsruher Zeitung, November 17, 1835, 2856.

75. Dorset County Chronicle (Dorchester, UK), March 26, 1835, 2.

76. Le Spectateur (Dijon, France), May 15, 1835, 4, and El Guerrero y el compilador, May 31, 1835, 208. The original story was published in the Jornal do Commercio, March 21, 1835, 1.

77. On the role of Carlota and Fermina in La Escalera, see Aisha K. Finch, Rethinking Slave Rebellion in Cuba: La Escalera and Insurgencies of 1841–1844 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 169–77.

78. “Revista de las Provincias,” El Catolico, April 10, 1844, 80.

79. Finch, Rethinking Slave Rebellion in Cuba, chap. 7.

80. See, for example, the case of the West Indies colony of Berbice during British rule in Randy Browne, Surviving Slavery in the British Caribbean (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017).

Chapter 16

1. Radical Paulistano, November 13, 1869, 1.

2. See Nafafé, Lourenço da Silva Mendonça.

3. See Sinha, Slave’s Cause.

4. Digna Castañeda, “The Female Slave in Cuba During the First Half of the Nineteenth Century,” in Shepherd, Brereton, and Bailey, Engendering History, 145. On Cuba and also for a broader discussion on Latin America, see Adriana Chira, “Freedom with Local Bonds: Custom and Manumission in the Age of Emancipation,” American Historical Review 126, no. 3 (2021): 949–77. See also Adriana Chira, Patchwork Freedoms: Law, Slavery and Race Beyond Cuba’s Plantations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2022), chap. 4.

5. See “Acts relating to Slaves” (1735), in Cooper and McCord, Statutes at Large of South Carolina, 396.

6. “An Act to Authorize the Manumission of Slaves” (May 1782 of Commonwealth), in William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature, in the Year 1619, vol. 11 (Richmond: J. & G. Cochran, 1821), 39.

7. Sinha, Slave’s Cause, 41–44, and Araujo, Reparations for Slavery, 49.

8. Joel Quirk, The Anti-Slavery Project: From the Slave Trade to Human Trafficking (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 61.

9. On Antigua, see Lightfoot, Troubling Freedom: Antigua and the Aftermath of British Emancipation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015).

10. Simon Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 212.

11. Gigantino, Ragged Road to Abolition, 214–15.

12. Andrews, Afro-Latin America, 1800–2000, 87.

13. Jaime Olveda Legaspi, “La abolición de la esclavitud en México, 1810–1917,” Signos Históricos, no. 29 (2013): 22–26.

14. Baumgartner, South to Freedom, 67, 117–18.

15. Borucki, From Shipmates to Soldiers, 50–51.

16. On Chile, see Cruz, La abolición de la esclavitud en Chile, 39–40. On Argentina, see Andrews, Los afroargentinos de Buenos Aires, 59, and E. Edwards, Hiding in Plain Sight, 2020, 4.

17. Borucki, From Shipmates to Soldiers, 136.

18. Lawrence C. Jennings, French Anti-Slavery: The Movement for the Abolition of Slavery in France, 1802–1848 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

19. Jason McGraw, The Work of Recognition: Caribbean Colombia and the Postemancipation Struggle for Citizenship (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 28–29, and Andrews, Los afroargentinos de Buenos Aires, 57.

20. Among the several new recent studies on the illegal slave trade in the United States, see W. Caleb McDaniel, Sweet Taste of Liberty: A True Story of Slavery and Restitution in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019); Richard Bell, Stolen: Five Free Boys Kidnapped into Slavery and Their Astonishing Odyssey Home (New York: 37 Ink, 2019); Jeff Forret, Williams’ Gang: A Notorious Slave Trader and His Cargo of Black Convicts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2020); Jonathan Daniel Wells, The Kidnapping Club: Wall Street, Slavery, and Resistance on the Eve of the Civil War (New York: Bold Type, 2020); and Joshua D. Rothman, The Ledger and the Chain: How Domestic Slave Traders Shaped America (New York: Basic Books, 2021).

21. Keila Grinberg, “Illegal Enslavement, International Relations, and International Law on the Southern Border of Brazil,” Law and History Review 35, no. 1 (2017): 31–52.

22. Ira Berlin, The Long Emancipation: The Demise of Slavery in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 15.

23. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: HarperCollins, 2014), 7.

24. Araujo, Reparations for Slavery, 65–66.

25. See Celso Thomas Castilho, Slave Emancipation and Transformations in Brazilian Political Citizenship (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2016); Needell, Sacred Cause; and Alonso, Flores, votos e balas, translated into English as Angela Alonso, The Last Abolition: The Brazilian Antislavery Movement, 1868–1888 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021).

26. For more, see Mamigonian, Africanos livres.

27. Maria Alice Rosa Ribeiro, “Preços de escravos em Campinas no século XIX,” História econômica & história de empresas 20, no. 1 (2017): 111–12.

28. Kim D. Butler, Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won: Afro-Brazilians in Post-Abolition São Paulo and Salvador (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 28.

29. See L. Soares, O �?povo de Cam’ na capital do Brasil, 299, and Cowling, Conceiving Freedom, 42.

30. Flávio dos Santos Gomes, “Slavery, Black Peasants and Post-Emancipation Society in Brazil (Nineteenth-Century Rio de Janeiro),” Social Identities 10, no. 6 (2004): 742, and Castilho, Slave Emancipation, 88.

31. Maria Helena Machado, O plano e o pânico: Os movimentos sociais na década da abolição (São Paulo: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1994), 76, 82.

32. Wlamyra Albuquerque, O jogo da dissimulação: Abolição e cidadania negra no Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2009), 105.

33. Emília Viotti da Costa, A Abolição (São Paulo: Editora da Universidade Estadual de São Paulo, 2008), 10.

34. Ana Flávia Magalhães Pinto, Escritos da liberdade: Literatos negros, racismo e cidadania no Brasil oitocentista (Campinas Brazil: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2019), 263–64.

35. Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 39.

36. Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba, 27.

37. Araujo, Reparations for Slavery, 74–75.

38. Rebecca J. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000), 73.

39. Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, Empire and Antislavery: Spain, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, 1833–1874 (Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press, 1999), 153, and Luis A. Figueroa, Sugar, Slavery, and Freedom in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 126.

40. R. Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cuba, 140.

41. Manning, Slavery and African Life, 106.

42. Mariana P. Candido, “The Expansion of Slavery in Benguela during the Nineteenth Century,” International Review of Social History 65, S28 (2020): 70–71.

43. Quirk, Anti-Slavery Project, 73.

44. Quirk, Anti-Slavery Project, 95.

45. See the classic Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery; Mohammed Bashir Salau, The West African Slave Plantation: A Case Study (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); and Mohammed Bashir Salau, Plantation Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate: A Historical and Comparative Study (Suffolk, UK: University of Rochester Press, 2018).

46. Marcia C. Schenk and Mariana P. Candido, “Uncomfortable Pasts: Talking About Slavery in Angola” in Araujo, African Heritage and Memories of Slavery in Brazil and the South Atlantic World, 218, and Candido, “Expansion of Slavery in Benguela,” 71. See also Candido, Wealth, Land and Property in Angola, chap. 5.

47. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 253; Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 159; and Marie Rodet, “Escaping Slavery and Building Diasporic Communities in French Soudan and Senegal, ca. 1880–1940,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 48, no. 2 (2015): 363–86.

48. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 261.

49. Rodet, “Escaping Slavery and Building Diasporic Communities,” 363.

50. Drescher, Abolition, 454.

51. On how residents of Angola associate and sometimes conflate the past of slavery and the forced labor system imposed by the Portuguese in the nineteenth century, see Schenck and Candido, “Uncomfortable Pasts,” 216. On the international debates about the persistence of forced labor regimes in Portuguese colonies, see José Pedro Monteiro, The Internationalization of the �?Native Labour’ Question in Portuguese Late Colonialism 1945–1965 (Cham, Switz.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2023).

52. I explore these dimensions in Araujo, Reparations for Slavery.

Chapter 17

1. Alain Gilbert, Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 95.

2. See Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journey of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006), 41–42; Gilbert, Black Patriots and Loyalists, 191; and Sinha, Slave’s Cause, 50.

3. See Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: HarperCollins, 2011), 46, 48.

4. Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles, 9.

5. Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 298–301.

6. C. Brown, Moral Capital, 301.

7. Pybus, Epic Journey of Freedom, 70.

8. See Alex Byrd, Captives and Voyagers: Black Migrants across the Eighteenth-Century British Atlantic World (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008), 155. On age and sex breakdown, see Gilbert, Black Patriots and Loyalists, 200–201.

9. TNA, Public Records Office, Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, Papers, 30/55/100, Subseries C. Folios 10427. An online searchable version of The Book of Negroes is also at the Nova Scotia National Archives https://archives.novascotia.ca/africanns/book-of-negroes/.

10. Lawrence Hill, The Book of Negroes (Toronto: HarperCollins, 2007), and Lawrence Hill, Someone Knows My Name (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007). Lawrence Hill and Clement Virgo’s miniseries The Book of Negroes aired on CBC Television (Canada) on January 7, 2015, and BET (United States) on February 16, 2015.

11. Gilbert, Black Patriots and Loyalists, 209–14.

12. Brandon Mills, The World Colonization Made: The Racial Geography of Early American Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 39.

13. See Samantha Seeley, Race, Removal, and the Right to Remain: Migration and the Making of the United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021), 179–85.

14. See the letter from Anthony Taylor to William Thornton, the architect of the US Capitol in Washington, DC, dated January 24, 1787, in Dorothy Sterling, ed., Speak Out in Thunder Tones: Letters and Other Writings by Black Northerners, 1787–1865 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1998), 4–6.

15. Ruma Chopra, “�?Wayward Humours’ and �?Perverse Disputings’: Exiled Blacks and the Foundation of Sierra Leone, 1787–1800,” in Africans in Exile: Mobility, Law, and Identity, ed. Nathan Riley Carpenter and Benjamin N. Lawrance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018), 38–39.

16. Byrd, Captives and Voyagers, 142.

17. See Byrd, Captives and Voyagers, 224–33, and Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: The Slaves, the British and the American Revolution (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 201–2, 216.

18. C. Brown, Moral Capital, 283.

19. Chopra, “�?Wayward Humours’ and �?Perverse Disputings,’” 42.

20. Jeffrey A. Fortin, “�?An Act of Deportation’: The Jamaican Maroons’ Journey from Freedom to Slavery and Back Again, 1796–1836,” in Araujo, Paths of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 82. See also Chopra, Almost Home.

21. See James D. Lockett, “The Deportation of the Maroons of Trelawny Town to Nova Scotia, then Back to Africa,” Journal of Black Studies 30, no. 1 (1999): 5–14.

22. Chopra, “�?Wayward Humours’ and �?Perverse Disputings,’” 46–47.

23. Nemata Amelia Ibitayo Blyden, African Americans and Africa: A New History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), 89.

24. On Finley’s plans to relocate US Black populations in Africa, see Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley [...] (New-Brunswick, NJ: Terhune & Letson, 1819).

25. Kate Masur, “The African American Delegation to Abraham Lincoln: A Reappraisal,” Civil War History 56, no. 2 (2010): 117–44, 121.

26. On Vaughan’s and his family’s story, see Lisa A. Lindsay, Atlantic Bonds: A Nineteenth-Century Odyssey from America to Africa (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

27. On Cuba, see Rodolfo Sarracino, Los que volvieron a África (Havana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1988), and Solimar Otero, Afro-Cuban Diasporas in the Atlantic World (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2010).

28. On the various waves of exiles from Bahia to the Bight of Benin, see Lisa Earl Castillo, “Mapping the Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Returnee Movement: Demographics, Life Stories and the Question of Slavery,” Atlantic Studies: Global Currents 13, no. 1 (2016): 25–52.

29. Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, 77. Also regarding these repressive measures, see Ricardo Figueiredo Pirola, Escravos e rebeldes nos tribunais do Império: Uma história social da lei de 10 de junho de 1835 (Rio de Janeiro: Arquivo Nacional, 2015); Luciana da Cruz Brito, Temores da África: Segurança, Legislação e População Africana (Salvador, Brazil: Editora da Universidade da Bahia, 2016); and Castillo, “Mapping the Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Returnee Movement,” 26.

30. Castillo, “Mapping the Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Returnee Movement,” 28.

31. Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil, 220.

32. Lisa Earl Castillo, “The Exodus of 1835: Agudá Life Stories and Social Networks,” in The Vile Trade: Slavery and the Slave Trade in Africa, ed. Abi Alabo Derefaka et al. (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2015), 211.

33. See Lisa Earl Castillo and Luis Nicolau Parés, “Marcelina da Silva: A Nineteenth-Century Candomblé Priestess in Bahia,” Slavery and Abolition 31, no. 1 (2010): 1–27.

34. Castillo, “Mapping the Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Returnee Movement,” 29.

35. On returnees to the region of present-day Togo, see Alcione M. Amos, “Afro-Brazilians in Togo: The Case of the Olympio Family, 1882–1945,” Cahier d’études africaines 41, no. 162 (2001): 293–314, and especially Silke Strickrodt, Afro-European Trade in the Atlantic World: The Western Slave Coast, c. 1550–1885 (Woodbridge, UK: James Currey, 2015). In present-day Nigeria, see Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, and Alcione M. Amos, “The Amaros and Agudás: The Afro-Brazilian Returnee Community in Nigeria in the Nineteenth Century,” in Yoruba in Brazil, Brazilians in Yorubaland: Cultural Encounter, Resilience, and Hybridity in the Atlantic World, ed. Niyi Afolabi and Toyin Falola (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2017), 65–110. In today’s Ghana, see Alcione Meira Amos, Os que voltaram: A história dos retornados afro-brasileiros na África Ocidental no século XIX (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Tradição Planalto, 2007), 69–89; Kwame Essien, Brazilian-African Diaspora in Ghana: The Tabom, Slavery, Dissonance of Memory, Identity, and Locating Home (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2016).

36. For the movement of return from Rio de Janeiro, see Mônica Lima e Souza, “Entre margens: O retorno à África de libertos no Brasil, 1830–1870” (PhD diss., Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2008), 122–23.

37. Verger, Fluxo et refluxo, 646.

38. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1976), 108.

39. Pierre Verger estimated 3,000 returnees; see Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres, 633. Jerry Michael Turner estimated 4,000 returnees; see Jerry Michael Turner, “Les Brésiliens: The Impact of Former Slaves Upon Dahomey” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1975), 85. Manuela Carneiro da Cunha estimated 7,000 to 8,000 returnees; see Manuela Carneiro da Cunha, Da Senzala ao Sobrado (São Paulo: Nobel, Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1985), 17.

40. Guran, Agudás, 73.

41. See Araujo, “Dahomey, Portugal, and Bahia,” 7.

42. On Souza, see Alberto da Costa e Silva, Francisco Félix de Souza, mercador de escravos (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2004), and Ana Lucia Araujo, “Forgetting and Remembering the Atlantic Slave Trade: The Legacy of Brazilian Slave Merchant Francisco Felix de Souza,” in Crossing Memories: Slavery and African Diaspora, ed. Ana Lucia Araujo, Mariana P. Candido, and Paul Lovejoy (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2011), 79–103.

43. Bruce Chatwin, The Viceroy of Ouidah (London: Jonathan Cape, 1980), and Werner Herzog, dir., Cobra Verde (1987; Beverly Hills, CA: Anchor Bay Entertainment, 2002), DVD.

44. Prince-Bythewood, The Woman King.

45. I extensively discussed these issues in Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery.

46. Law, Ouidah, 201.

47. HCPP, Correspondence with the British Commissioners Relating to the Slave Trade, 1844. Class A, Correspondence with the British Commissioners at Sierra Leone, Havana, Rio de Janeiro, Surinam, Cape of Good Hope, Jamaica, Loanda, and Boa Vista, Relating to the Slave Trade from January 1 to December 31, 1844, inclusive, Enclosure in No. 18, Abstract of the Proceedings in the British and Brazilian Court of Mixed Commission established in Sierra Leone, for the Repression of the Slave Trade, during the year 1843 (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1845), 21. See also HCPP, Correspondence with the British Commissioners Relating to the Slave Trade, 1844. Class A, Correspondence with the British Commissioners at Sierra Leone, Havana, Rio de Janeiro, Surinam, Cape of Good Hope, Jamaica, Loanda, and Boa Vista, Relating to the Slave Trade from January 1 to December 31, 1845, inclusive, Class A, 1845, letter from Cuban slave trader Rafael de Toca to Don Thomas da Costa Ramos, March 15, 1844 (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1846), 313.

48. HCPP, Correspondence on the Slave Trade with Foreign Powers, Parties to Treaties under which Captured Vessels Are to Be Tried by Mixed Tribunals, from January 1 to December 21, 1846, inclusive, Class B. 1846, Brazil, Enclosure 7 in no. 152 (London: T. R. Harrison, 1847), 244.

49. Olatunji Ojo, “Document 2: Letters Found in the House of Kosoko, King of Lagos (1851),” African Economic History 40 (2012): 41.

50. APEB, Tribunal da Relação, Salvador. “Testamento de Domingos José Martins.” No. 52904. E5, CX 2190, M2659, N5, 1864, fol. 6.

51. HCPP, Correspondence with the British Commissioners at Sierra Leone, Havana, The Cape of Good Hope, Jamaica, Loanda, and the Cape Verd Islands; and Reports from British Vice-Admiralty Courts, and from British Naval Officers, Relating to the Slave Trade. From April 1, 1850, to March 31, 1851, Class A, Enclosure 1 in No. 134 and Enclosure 7 in no. 140 (London: Harrison and Son, 1851), 147, 168–69.

52. See Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, 109.

53. See Fio Agbanon II, Histoire de Petit-Popo et du Royaume Guin (Paris: Karthala; Lomé, Togo: Haho, 1991), 87; Verger, Os libertos, 43–48; Alberto da Costa e Silva, Um rio chamado Atlântico: A África no Brasil e o Brasil na África (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2003), 169; and Alberto da Costa e Silva, “Portraits of African Royalty in Brazil,” in Identity in the Shadow of Slavery, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy (London: Continuum, 2000), 130. This version was also found in Verger’s research notes; see Fundação Pierre Verger, Salvador, Brazil (hereafter cited as FPV), Verger’s Research Documents, Caixa “Dahomey” I, handwritten note.

54. See Robin Law, “A carreira de Francisco Félix de Souza na África Ocidental (1800–1849),” Topoi (2001): 5, and Robin Law, “A comunidade brasileira de Uidá e os últimos anos do tráfico atlântico de escravos, 1850–66,” Afro-Ásia 27 (2002): 46. See also Costa e Silva, Francisco Félix de Souza, 12, and Parés, “Afro-Catholic Baptism,” 170–72.

55. “Enclosure 9: Lieutenant Forbes to Commodore Fanshawe �?Bonetta,’ at sea, November 5, 1849,” in Tim Coates, ed., King Gezo of Dahomey, 1850–52: The Abolition of Slave Trade on the West Coast of Africa, 1850–52, Uncovered Editions (London: Stationery Office, 2001), 37.

56. HCPP, Correspondence with British Ministers and Agents in Foreign Countries, and with Foreign Ministers in England Relating to the Slave Trade. From April 1, 1853 to March 31, 1854, Brazil (Consular) Bahia, no. 169, Letter from Consul Morgan to Lord John Russell, Bahia, March 18, 1853 (London: Harrison and Sons, 1854), 245.

57. I conducted several interviews with Silva in Porto-Novo in 2005. I explore the different versions of Paraíso’s possible trajectories in Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery, 363–65.

58. Júlio Santana Braga, “Notas sobre o �?Quartier Brésil’ no Daomé,” Afro-Ásia, no. 6–7 (1968): 189; Guran, Agudás, 15; and Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, 189.

59. Guran, Agudás, 88.

60. Sylvain Coovi Anignikin, Bellarmin Coffi Codo, and Léopold Dossou, “Le Dahomey (Bénin),” in L’Afrique occidentale au temps des Français, ed. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, in collaboration with Odile Goerg (Paris: La Découverte, 1992), 392.

61. Alain Sinou, “La valorisation du patrimoine architectural et urbain: L’exemple de la ville de Ouidah au Bénin,” Cahiers des Sciences Humaines 29, no. 1 (1993): 36.

62. See Law, “A comunidade brasileira de Uidá,” 52; Law, Ouidah, 203; Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City: Lagos, 1760–1900 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 85.

63. Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, 109.

64. See Bay, Wives of the Leopard, 276.

65. Mann, Slavery and the Birth of Lagos, 84.

66. Lisa A. Lindsay, “�?To Return to the Bosom of Their Fatherland’: Brazilian Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century Lagos,” Slavery and Abolition 15, no. 1 (1994): 27.

67. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, L’Afrique et les Africains au XIX^e siècle: Mutations, révolutions, crises (Paris: Armand Colin 1999), 166, and Law, Ouidah, 263.

68. Cunha, Negros, Estrangeiros, 109.

69. See Castillo and Parés, “Marcelina da Silva,” 1–27.

70. Patrick Manning, Slavery, Colonialism and Economic Growth in Dahomey, 1640–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 163.

71. Anignikin, Codo, and Dossou, “Le Dahomey (Bénin),” 373.

72. Nassirou Bako-Arifari, “La Mémoire de la traite négrière dans le débat politique au Bénin dans les années 1990,” Journal des Africanistes 70, nos. 1–2 (2000): 222, and Amos, Os que voltaram, 53–55.

73. Dov Ronen, “The Colonial Elite in Dahomey,” African Studies Review 17, no. 1 (1974): 58, and Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery, 112–13.

74. On these projects of relocating US black populations in Liberia, Haiti, and Central America, see Masur, “African American Delegation to Abraham Lincoln,” 117–44. On Brazil and Central America, see Maria Clara Sales Carneiro Sampaio, “Negros sonhos: Os projetos de colonização de afro-americanos no Brasil e na América Central durante a Guerra de Secessão,” in H. Machado and Castilho, Tornando-se Livre, 399–421.

75. On Amazonia, see Gerald Horne, The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 116–17, and Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 145–46.

76. Blyden, African Americans and Africa, 89.

77. See Henry McNeal Turner, “Justice or Emigration Should Be Our WatchWord,” in African American Political Thought, vol. 5, Integration vs. Separatism: The Colonial Period to 1945, ed. Marcus D. Pohlmann (New York: Routledge, 2003), 92–93, and Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (New York: Knopf, 1976), 126–27.

78. See “Speech by Marcus Garvey,” Liberty Hall, January 1, 1922 in Marcus Garvey, The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, 12 vols., ed. Robert A. Hill (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 4:323.

79. Garvey, Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, 1:13, and Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 8.

80. Keisha N. Blain, Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 2018), 14.

81. See Emory Tolbert, “Outpost Garveyism and the UNIA Rank and File,” Journal of Black Studies 5, no. 3 (1975): 233–53.

82. Blyden, African Americans and Africa, 132.

83. Ula Yvette Taylor, The Veiled Garvey: The Life and Times of Amy Jacques Garvey (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 214.

Epilogue

1. See Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1981), and Green, Fistful of Shells.

2. See Schenck and Candido, “Uncomfortable Pasts.”

3. On the political idea of race, see Charles Mills, The Racial Contract (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Jemima Pierre, The Predicament of Blackness: Postcolonial Ghana and the Politics of Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Achille Mbembe and Laurent Dubois, Critique of Black Reason (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017); and Crystal Fleming, Resurrecting Slavery: Racial Legacies and White Supremacy in France (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2017).

4. On race, see C. Mills, Racial Contract. On capitalism, or the creation of the West and modernity, see the very accessible book by Howard French, Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War (New York: Liveright, 2021).

5. See SlaveVoyages, https://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates.

6. Lightfoot, Troubling Freedom, 84–85.

7. Diana Paton, No Bound but the Law: Punishment, Race, and Gender in Jamaican State Formation, 1780–1870 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 146.

8. Ulrike Schmieder, “Martinique and Cuba Grande: Commonalities and Differences during the Periods of Slavery, Abolition, and Post-Emancipation,” Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 36, no. 1 (2013): 95.

9. See Christine Chivallon, L’esclavage, du souvenir à la mémoire: Contribution à une anthropologie de la Caraïbe (Paris: Karthala, 2012), 205–6, 211, and Schmieder, “Martinique and Cuba Grande,” 97.

10. See Céline Flory, De l’esclavage à la liberté forcée: Histoire des travailleurs africains engagés dans la Caraïbe française au XIXe siècle (Paris: Karthala, 2015), 19–21, and Céline Flory, “New Africans in the Post-Slavery French West Indies and Guiana: Close Encounters? (1857–1889),” in Araujo, Paths of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 109–30.

11. Schmieder, “Martinique and Cuba Grande,” 89. On Indian immigration to the British West Indies and other Caribbean islands, see Lomarsh Roopharnine, The Indian Caribbean: Migration and Identity in the Diaspora (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2018).

12. See Alex Lichtenstein, Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South (London: Verso, 1996), and Kim Gilmore, “Slavery and Prison: Understanding the Connections,” Social Justice 27, no. 3 (1981): 198.

13. Statutes at Large, Treaties, and Proclamations of the United States of America, from December 1863 to December 1865, vol. 13 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1866), 508.

14. See Rebecca J. Scott, Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba after Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 38.

15. Foner, Reconstruction, 246; R. Scott, Degrees of Freedom, 38.

16. Mary Frances Berry, My Face Is Black Is True: Callie House and the Struggle for Ex-Slave Reparations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 24.

17. Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute, U.S. Constitution, 15th Amendment, Section 1, https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxv.

18. See Araujo, Reparations for Slavery, chap. 3, and more specifically M. Berry, My Face Is Black Is True.

19. See Hebe Mattos, Das cores do silêncio: Os significados da liberdade no sudeste escravista, Brasil século XIX (Campinas, Brazil: Editora da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2013), 282–86. See also Petrônio Domingues, A nova abolição (São Paulo: Selo Negro Edições, 2008), 48–50.

20. According to the Census of 1872. See Alceu Ravanello Ferraro and Michele de Leão, “Lei Saraiva (1881): Dos argumentos invocados pelos liberais para a exclusão dos analfabetos do direito de voto,” Educação Unisinos 16, no. 3 (2012): 241–50. See also Araujo, Reparations for Slavery, 123.

21. There is a huge body of literature in Portuguese and English about whitening in Brazil. For a clear overview, see Edward E. Telles, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).

22. Decree no. 528, June 28, 1890.

23. Law no. 97, October 5, 1892.

24. For an overview of the history of immigration in Brazil, see Jeffrey Lesser, Immigration, Ethnicity, and National Identity in Brazil, 1808 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

25. Mattos, Das cores do silêncio 106–7.

26. The leading scholar to promote these ideas was sociologist Gilberto Freyre; see Freyre, Casa-grande e senzala, and its English translation, Freyre, Masters and Slaves.

27. See Telles, Race in Another America, and Ynaê Lopes dos Santos, Racismo Brasileiro: Uma história da formação do país (São Paulo: Todavia, 2022).

28. See, for example, Williams, Capitalism and Slavery; Beckert, Empire of Cotton; Beckert and Rockman, Slavery’s Capitalism; and Marika Sherwood, After Abolition: Britain and the Slave Trade Since 1897 (London: I. B. Tauris, 2007).