INDEX

absentees from gacaca, 140

abunzi (mediation committees), 80, 124, 127 acknowledgement of suffering, 273, 299 acquittals, 155, 249

AfricanRights, 203 agriculture, 125

AI see Amnesty International aims of gacaca, 3, 29-46, 81-97, 169-85

Alice (gacaca judge), 138

Alphonse (genocide suspect), 116-30, 335 Amis, Martin, 198 amnesia see forgetting

amnesty, 55, 298

Amnesty International (AI), 93, 144 Antoine (ingando detainee), 322 apologies see confessions appeals, 77, 122, 155

Arendt, Hannah, 43

Arusha Peace Accords, 13, 166

Augustin (genocide survivor), 291

Babalola, S., 176 backlog, genocide cases, 170-6

Barza Inter-Communautaire, 353 basic forgiveness, 278, 289-91, 305

Bawaya, Sara, 103-4 Bazaramba, Francois, 167 behaviour guidelines, gacacahearings, 223 Belgium, 14, 16-18, 53

Bernard (father of genocide suspects), 180 Bizimungu, Pasteur, President, 21, 57, 63 Boniface (genocide survivor), 90 Brouneus, Karen, 270 budget for gacaca, 184

Bugingo, Irenee, 337 ButareCentralPrison, 100

camps see ingando cancellation of hearings, 151 categories of suspects, 72-5 Catholicism, 297, 304, 325

Celeste (mother of genocide suspects), 299

Celestin (ingando detainee), 269, 316 cell (administrative level), 74, 75

Chantal (genocide survivor), 124

Chifura (mother of genocide suspect), 233 Christian beliefs, 257, 268-9, 285, 349

forgiveness, 286-7, 289, 291,

297-8, 302-4

reconciliation, 309, 319-21,

337-8, 341

Christian gacaca, 66, 196-7, 321, 337, 350 church leaders, and reconciliation, 324-5 civic education, 11, 105-7, 112, 191, 223, see also ingando

Cobban, Helena, 94, 326 coercion, gacaca participation, 158-60 coexistence, 129, 222, 310, 317, 328 collective guilt, 249 collective memory, 217 colonial period, 16, 53, 135 commentators’ perspectives

economic development, 181-3 forgiveness, 293-6

healing, 269-71 justice, 245-8 peace-building, 228-30, 231-6

popular participation, 141-5, 151-65 prison overcrowding alleviation, 174 reconciliation, 325-31 truth processes, 201-5

communal dialogue, 40, 90, 162, 163-5, 229, 232

healing, 272-3 limitations, 216 reconciliation, 311 truth processes, 212-13

communal identity, 139, 218, 349 communities

forgiveness, 283 healing process, 263

leaders’ interventions in hearings, 216 reconciliation, 315, 326, 328, 332-4, 340 return of genocide suspects, 107-31, 328 social order, 52-3

see also popular participation community service, 79

criticismof, 244 punishment, 178, 181, 247-8, 251, 346 reconciliation, 328

restorative justice, 252

compensation, 126, 177, 178, 179, 183, 346 healing, 275

restorative justice, 254

Compensation Fund for Victims of the Genocide and Crimes against Humanity, 178, 183, 254 confession teams, 65—6, 290 confessions, 101, 120, 197, 244-5, 250, 261, 268-9, 350

forgiveness, 297 healing, 273 reconciliation, 316 conflict resolution, 223, 224-6, 236-7,

336

confrontations, at gacaca hearings, 226-7, 229, 232-4

confusion, gacaca objectives, 83-7 �conspiracy of silence’, 142

Corey, Allison, 95, 229, 234 counselling, 79, 206, 270 critical interpretations see commentators’ perspectives

Crocker, David, 36

Cyanzayire, Aloysie, Deputy Chief Justice, 260, 325

Dallaire, Romeo, Lieutenant-General, 13, 15 Daly, Erin, 174

Darfur, 353

Dauge-Roth, Alexandre, 202, 273 DDR see disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration

de Jonge, Klaas, 293, 298, 305, 329 de Lame, Danielle, 201, 213 dehumanisation, 42 del Ponte, Carla, Chief Prosecutor, 20 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 23, 24-5, 108, 353

democratisation, 22 Department for International Development (DfID) (UK), 182

Derrida, Jacques, 302

Des Forges, Alison, 13, 94 detainees

narratives, 111-30 non-participationingacaca, 140 release of, 100-2

return to home communities, 107-31, 173, 328

see also genocide suspects

deterrent justice, 38, 39, 92, 93, 94, 95, 234-5, 239, 242, 246-7, 255

limitations, 351

DfID see Department for International Development

diasporic elites, 61 disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR), 108 divine forgiveness, 277, 283, 297-8 dominant discourse, 91-7, 160-61 criticismofgacaca, 143-5 critique of, 347-52

Drumbl, Mark, 202, 246 due process, 144, 156, 230 see also fair trials

duty to forgive, 302, 338

eastern DRC see Democratic Republic of Congo

economic cost of gacaca, 184 economic development, 176-85 elites, 60, 61, 72, 325

forced killings, 129

suspicionof, 137 truth-shaping, 217 empowerment, 152-3 engagement, 165-8, 232, 234, 318 ethnic classification, 17 ethnic divisions, 230, 231, 333 ethnic identities, 18 etymology of gacaca, 3 evolution of gacaca, 49-72, 79-80 executions, 61, 62 exhumations, 85-6 extension of gacaca, 68-72

fair trials, 93, 145

see also due process

false testimony, 102, 122, 127, 190, 209-10 family identities, 139

farming, 125

FDLR see Forces Democratiques de Liberation du Rwanda

fear, 316

fieldwork method, 7-12

Finland, 167

Forces Democratiques de Liberation du Rwanda (FDLR), 108

foreign aid, 185 forensic facts, 187 forgetting, 282, 290, 291-2 forgiveness, 42-4, 67, 277-307

forgetting, 299-300 asagift, 301-4 healing, 344 motivations, 294-6 processes, 285 reconciliation, 290 timing, 304-5 formal approach to gacaca

drawbacks, 161-4

formal justice, 39-40, 92, 247, 351 freedom of expression, 164 future of gacaca, 79-80, 355

Gacaca Documentation Centre, 192, 218 Gacaca Law, 63, 69, 71-5, 84, 348

Gacaca Law (cont.) amendments, 251 compensation, 178 forgiveness, 279, 297 justice, 239, 247 punishment, 77 safeguards, 352 truth processes, 191

Gacaca Manual, 89, 309 Galtung, Johan, 45

Gashora ingando, 103, 113, 116

Gasibirege, S., 142, 176, 201, 203, 230, 293, 331

Gasimba, Xavier, 229 general assemblies, 75, 76, 89, 137, 172 genocide

causes, 235, 333

see also Rwanda, genocide genocide survivors see survivors genocide suspects, 20, 50 categories, 72—5, 126 false confessions, 209—10 fear of survivors, 227 forgiveness, 288-91, 295, 300-1 healing, 261, 267-9, 271, 273 humanrightsof, 174 imprisonment, 99-102 interviews with, 8, 9 narratives, 111-30 negative solidarity, 209 non-participationingacaca, 140 peace-building, 225 rearrests, 110 reimprisonment, 346 reconciliation, 313, 315-16, 332 release of detainees, 100-2 return to home communities, 107-31, 173, 328

truth-telling, 193, 198 German colonists, 16 Giotta, Francesco, 181 Gitarama conference, 63 glossary, x

Gourevitch, Philip, 17 government’s perspectives economic development, 177-9 forgiveness, 278-81 healing, 259-62 interference ingacacahearings, 157-60 justice, 239-42 peace-building, 221-4, 230-1, 236 popular participation, 134-8, 146-7 prison overcrowding alleviation, 171-2 reconciliation, 309-12, 339 truth processes, 189-92

Great Lakes conflict, 23-5 groupes de choc, 65-6

guilt, 289

Habyarimana, Juvenal, President, 13

Harrell, Peter, 327-8

healing, 40-2, 86, 258-77, 345

as belonging, 259, 261-6 forgiveness, 301, 344 as liberation, 258, 261, 264, 269 reconciliation conflation, 45 truth-telling, 194

Hema, 24

historical development of gacaca, 49-72 history, 218

Holiday, Anthony, 187 holism, 33, 40, 48, 256, 344-7

HRW see Human Rights Watch

human identity, 198

human rights critiques, 4, 92-5, 144-5, 245, 349

Human Rights Watch (HRW), 93, 144

Hutu

collective guilt, 249 crimes against, 210 Hutu-Tutsi relations, 15-19 Rwandangenocide, 12-15 hybridity, 48, 62, 84, 249, 343

Ibuka (national survivors group), 111, 122, 123,314

ICTR see International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

identity cards, 17, 310

impunity culture, 35, 224, 234 in-camera hearings, 77, 155 individual identity, 42 individual-group forgiveness, 277, 280, 283,

297

individual-group reconciliation,

315-16

individual-to-individual forgiveness, 277, 282-3

individual-to-individual reconciliation, 319, 327, 331

informationphase,gacacahearings, 148, 158 ingando (civic-education camps), 7, 11, 79, 101, 102-7 see also civic education

Ingelaere, Bert, 145, 157, 201, 246, 327 interahamwe.

International Centre for Prison Studies, 175 InternationalCriminalCourt (ICC), 353 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

(ICTR), 9, 20, 30, 74, 136, 167 gacaca testimonies, 204-5 punishment, 31, 37 reconciliation, 31 interviews, methodology, 7-12 inyangamugayo see judges Inyumba, Aloisea, 135, 171, 279, 280 Ituri province (Democratic Republic of

Congo), 24

jails see prisons Johnstone, Gerry, 38, 40 Joireman, Sandra, 95, 229, 234 Jubapeacenegotiations, 352 judges, 20, 66, 69, 138, 154

bias, 144 correctionsof, 146 cross-examination of witnesses, 214 election, 67-8, 75-6, 142, 230 Hnancialburdenofgacaca, 181 guidance for, 89 legalism, 214 mediation, 155-7, 164, 232 powers, 155-7, 352 reconciliation, 314, 317 role, 76-7, 90, 137, 153, 155 security, 76 selection, 71 training, 68 truth-shaping, 200, 216 women, 76 judiciary see judges jurisdictions, 69

administrative levels, 74 phases, 76-7 justice, 37-40, 237-56

critiques of gacaca, 92-7 truth, 33, 39 see also judges

Kabila, Laurent Desiree, 23 Kaboyi, Benoit, 314

Kagame, Paul, President, 51, 58, 71, 136, 172, 242, 280, 281

Karekezi, Alice, 67, 142, 143, 203, 229, 329, 330 Karugarama, Tharcisse, Minister of Justice,

58-9, 241 KigaliCentralPrison, 102 Kigali Ville ingando, 111 Kinyarwanda concept, 104 Kinyinya ingando, 107

labour programmes, 183 Lambourne, Wendy, 43 lawyers, 58

exclusion from gacaca hearings, 83, 137, 162-3, 164

role in gacaca, 163

LCs see local councils Lederach, John Paul, 44 legal context, 20-1 legal critiques, 47, 95 legal pluralism, 48 legalism, 214-16, 249 Lemarchand, Rene, 12 Lendu, 24 Ligue Rwandaise pour la Promotion de la

Defense des Droits de l’Homme (LIPRODHOR), 22 local councils (LCs), 60 Longman, Timothy, 159, 213 Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), 352

MacIntyre, Alasdair, 198 Mamdani, Mahmood, 41 mapofRwanda, xiii mass graves, 85 Mazimpaka, Patrick, 104, 135 Mbonyintege, Abbe Smaragde, 52 MDR see Mouvement Democratique

Republicain mediation committees see abunzi Meier, Charles, 217 memorialisation, 264-6 memory, 217 method of gacaca, 132-68 methodology of research, 6-12 military context, 23-5 Minow, Martha, 274 Mironko, Charles, 283 Mobutu Sese Seko, President of Zaire, 23 modalities of gacaca, 72-8 modificationofgacaca, 68-72 modus operandi of gacaca, 132-68 mourning, 265 Mouvement Democratique Republicain (MDR), 22, 152 Mpanga prison, 99 Mugiraneza, Jean-Paul, 293 Mujawayo, Esther, 167 Mukantaganzwa, Domitilla, 191 multiple cases, gacaca hearings, 172 Murigande, Charles, 178 Museveni, Yoweri, 60 Musoni, Protais, 57-8 mwami (chief), 16, 18

narratives, 111-30 human identity, 199 survivors’, 118, 124, 228 truth-shaping, 217 national courts, 53, 55, 74 National Resistance Movement (NRM), 60, 104

National Service of Gacaca Jurisdictions (NSGJ), 79

national unity, 222, 310, 316, 330, 334 National Unity and Reconciliation

Commission (NURC), 63, 260, 279 national unity, 147

Ndadaye, Melchior, Burundian President, 13 Ndangiza, Fatuma, 89, 134, 136, 137, 190, 242, 254, 259, 311

negative peace, 223, 225, 229, 236

negative solidarity, 209 negotiated justice, 39-40, 253 Ngendandumwe, Jean-Claude, 248, 294

Ngoga, Martin, Prosecutor General, 239 Nkusi, Augustin, 138, 311

NRM see National Resistance Movement Nsabiyera, Solomon, 270-1, 294, 295, 296, 329 NSGJ see National Service of Gacaca

Jurisdictions

Ntaryamira, Cyprien, BurundianPresident, 14, 54

objectives of gacaca, 29-46,81-97, 169-85 official forgiveness, 277, 279, 284, 294, 297 official perspectives see government’s perspectives

Onyango, Elizabeth, 245 Organic Law (1996), 55, 72 organisers of genocide, 73

Parti du Mouvement de l’Emancipation des Bahutu(PARMEHUTU), 18 peace of mind, 267 peace-building, 35-7, 221-37 Pearlman,LaurieAnne, 270

Penal Reform International (PRI), 182, 247, 294

personal healing see healing personal narratives see narratives PFR see Prison Fellowship Rwanda pilot phase of gacaca, 68 planners of genocide, 73 plea bargaining, 56, 77, 209-10, 250, 295, 300 political education, 104

see also civic education

political leaders, obediance to, 338 politicized justice, 96, 230

popular participation, 133-65, 348 commentators’ perspectives, 141-5, 151-65 critique of views, 145-65

government’s perspectives, 134-8, 146-7 population’s perspectives, 138-41, 147-51 see also communities

population’s perspectives, 87-91 economic development, 179-81 forgiveness, 281-93 healing, 262-9 justice, 242-5

peace-building, 224-8, 235 popular participation in gacaca, 138-41, 147-51

prison overcrowding alleviation, 173-4

reconciliation, 312-25, 331

truth processes, 192-201

Porter, Norman, 166 positive peace, 221, 223, 225, 229, 345 post-genocide context, 19-25

transitional justice debates, 55-63 poverty, 177, 275

pragmatism

forgiveness, 287-9, 300-1

objectives of gacaca, 169-85

reconciliation, 334 pre-gacaca hearings, 64, 350

reconciliation, 321-2, 323 pre-genocide gacaca, 52-4 president(judgespanel), 76-7,200 prevailing discourse see dominant discourse PRI see Penal Reform International Prison Fellowship Rwanda (PFR), 65 prisons, 99-102

gacaca hearings, 66, 116, 322

livingconditions, 175

maintenance costs, 177

overcrowding alleviation, 170-6 population, 175

profound forgiveness, 278, 292-3, 305 property crimes, 74, 126, 254 prosecutions, 123

Protestantism, 284, 291, 298, 302, 304 Prunier, G., 17, 18 public perceptions see population’s perspectives

public works, see community service punishment, 30, 37, 38, 39, 52, 77, 95, 123, 239, 248

forgiveness, 298

limitations, 351

reconciliation, 346

restorative justice, 249, 256

sentencing structure, 78

survivors’ views, 124, 244

see also community service; deterrent justice; retributive justice

questionnaires, 8

radiobroadcasts, 13, 100 Radio-Television Libre des Mille Collines

(RTLM), 13 rape, 73, 74, 123, 153, 260 RCs see resistance councils reconciliation, 30, 31, 43-5, 112, 124, 129, 167,

308-41, 345

forgiveness, 290

healingcontrast, 259

justice, 240-1, 245-6

long-term process, 340

optimistic level, 335-6

short-term process, 339

truth-telling, 194

�reflection meetings’, 57 reformstogacaca, 251 reintegration, 263, 332 religion see Christian beliefs remembrance, 264—6, 298 remorse, 225, 285-6 research methodology, 6-12 resistance councils (RCs), 60 restorative justice, 38-9, 238-42, 243, 248, 249-54, 255-6 see also compensation restorative truth, 187 retributive justice, 239, 245-7, 248, 255 revenge attacks, 20, 119, 127, 225, 227 Reyntjens, Filip, 21, 53 Rotberg, Robert, 34 Roth, Kenneth, 94 RPF see Rwandan Patriotic Front RTLM see Radio-Television Libre des

Mille Collines Rugege, Sam, Deputy Chief Justice, 239-41 Ruhengenge, 84-6 Ruhengeri ingando, 103 Rusagara, Frank, 105 Rutayisire, Antoine, 260 Rutinburana, Oswald, 190, 260, 261, 280 Rwanda

colonial period, 16-18, 53-4, 135 ethnic divisions, 146, 230, 231, 333 future of gacaca, 355 genocide, 1, 12-19, 235 government, 49 history, 15-19 popular participation in gacaca, 134-43, 151-4

post-genocide context, 19-25 pre-colonial era, 15-16 social problems, 176

Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 12, 15, 19-24, 125

ingando, 104

killingofHutu, 121

post-genocide debates, 59-61

safety, at gacaca hearings, 226 Sarkin, J., 309 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 199 Schirch, Lisa, 42 secrecy, 201, 213 sector (administrative level), 75 security, of judges, 76 self-identity, 42, 198 sentencing structure, 77, 78 sexual crimes, 73, 74, 123, 153, 211, 260 shaming, 205 silence, 201, 213

social harmony, 310, 329 solidarity camps see ingando

South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), 30, 41, 187 Soyinka, Wole, 218

state-sanctioned truth, 204

Staub, Ervin, 270 structure of book, 26-8

Sudan, 353

suffering, acknowledgement of, 273, 299 survivors

fear of genocide suspects, 227 forgiveness, 280, 281, 285, 294, 295, 300, 301

government’sfavouritismto, 252 healing, 271, 274

loneliness, 262 narratives, 118, 124, 224, 228 peace-building, 225 poverty, 275

reconciliation, 312-14, 323 reluctance to attend gacaca, 140 revenge attacks, 119

truth processes, 192, 195-6, 197, 199-200 suspects see genocide suspects

Teitel, Ruti, 37

Tertsakian, Carina, 66 therapeutic truth, 187, 206

TIG see Travaux d’Interets Generaux

Timor-Leste, 353

torture, 73, 74

transitional justice, 29-46 community practices, 354 popular participation, 133 post-genocide debates, 55-63

trauma, 40-1, 45, 86, 149,

198, 275-6

healing, 259

intensification, 266, 273

Travaux d’Interets Generaux (TIG) camps, 79, 183

TRC see South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission trials, speeding up, 170-6 triangulation, research methodology, 10 trust-building, 10 truth, 33-5, 186-206

communal dialogue, 212-13 elites’ interference, 217 functionsandprocesses, 205,207-6 healing, 345 justice, 39

official versions, 34 processesandfunctions, 205,207-6 truth-hearing, 34, 188, 196

truth (cont.)

truth-shaping, 35, 188, 189, 191, 200, 203-5, 216-19

truth-telling, 34, 102, 188, 189, 191, 192-6, 201, 296

limitations, 209-16

truth commissions, 56

see also South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission Tutsi

diasporic elites, 61

Rwandangenocide, 12-15

Tutsi-Hutu relations, 15-19

Tutu, Desmond, 41

Twa, 15

Twagiramungu, Faustin, Prime

Minister, 21

Uganda, 24,31,60, 104,352

UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCR), 63

UNAMIR see United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda

UNHCR see UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

Union de Patriotes Congolais (UPC), 25 United Nations (UN), 36

United Nations Assistance Mission for

Rwanda (UNAMIR), 13, 14 unity see national unity urban elites, 60

see also elites

Urugwiro meetings, 57-9, 61-2 urumuri see judges

Uvin, Peter, 3, 283, 295, 300 Uwilingiyimana, Agathe, Prime Minister, 14

Vandeginste, Stef, 228 victimhood, 41 victims

recovery of remains, 266 uncertainty over fate, 197-8, 264

Waldorf, Lars, 145, 157, 158, 201, 246, 249, 327

West, Frederick, 198 wholeness, 269 witness intimidation/murder, 70, 110

women

empowerment, 143, 153 judges, 76 prison visits by, 182 remembrance, 265

Zaire, 15, 23